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ZU 


THE 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


OF 


PLINY,  m 


TRANSLATED, 

WITH  COPIOUS  NOTES  AND  ILLUSTKATIONS 


BY  THE  LATE 

JOHN  BOSTOCK,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

AND 

H.  T.  EILEY,  Esq.,  B.A., 

LATE    SCHOLAR    OF    CLARE    HALL,    CAMBRIDGE, 


VOL.  III. 


LONDON: 
HENRY  G.  BOHN,  YORK  STREET,  COVENT  GARDEN. 

V/'MDCCCLY. 


LI    RARY 

CONTENTS.^     V^  ^ 

Silk 

OP   THE    THIRD   YOLFa|§fc 


**—*<£ 


& 


BOOK  XI. 

THE   VARIOUS   KINDS    OF   INSECTS. 
Chap. 

1.  The  extreme  smalluess  of  insects ag^ 

2.  Whether  insects  respire,  and  whether  they  have  blood       ..  ..'        3 

3.  The  bodies  of  insects      

4.  Bees s 

o.  The  order  displayed  in  the  works  of  bees     ..     ..      '.'.     ..  [\     fa. 

6.  The  meaning  of  the  terms  commosis,  pissoceros,  and  propolis  ! "       6 

7.  The  meaning  of  erithace,  sandaraca,  or  cerinthos 7 

8.  What  flowers  are  used  by  the  bees  in  their  work         .".'     ..  # 

9.  Persons  who  have  made  bees  their  study      ....  g 

10.  The  mode  in  which  bees  work       ," ."  'it 

11.  Drones      l~ 

12.  The  qualities  of  honey \\      \[     \\  "      ■.-. 

13.  Where  the  best  honey  is  produced        ....                     []  "      10 
]  -4.  The  kinds  of  honey  peculiar  to  various  places      . .      ,3 

15.  How  honey  is  tested.     Ericamm.     Tetralix,  or  sisirum      "  "      14 

16.  The  reproduction  of  bees        lfi 

17.  The  mode  of  government  of  the  bees     ..      ..      *'      \\  lg 

18.  Happy  omens  sometimes  afforded  by  a  swarm  of 'bees'  19 

19.  The  various  kinds  of  bees       20 

20.  The  diseases  of  bees        ""  "      21 

21.  Things  that  are  noxious  to  bees .'      ""              *"  "      29 

22.  How  to  keep  bees  to  the  hive         .....','  23 

23.  Methods  of  renewing  the  swarm [  "lb 

2-i.  Wasps  and  hornets:  animals  which  appropriate*  what 'belongs 'to 

others ~a 

25.  The  bombyx  of  Assyria \\  95 

f7    l}e  l™  of  the  silk-worm— whofirst'invented  silk  cloths '  " '      ib. 

27.   1  he  silk- worm  of  Cos-how  the  Coan  vestments  are  made  . .      26 
M.  bpiders;  the  kinds  that  make  webs;  the  materials  used  by  them 
in  so  domor                - 


a-6l±"1 


27 


IV  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  Page 

29.  The  generation  of  spiders       . .  29 

30.  Scorpions *• 

31.  Thestellio        31 

32.  The  grasshopper :  that  it  has  neither  mouth  nor  outlet  for  food  ib. 

33.  The  wings  of  insects       ••      ••  33 

34.  The  beetle.     The  glow-worm.     Other  kinds  of  beetles     . .     . .  33 

35.  Locusts 35 

36.  Ants          37 

37.  The  chrysalis 39 

38.  Animals  which  breed  in  wood        . .      .. 40 

39.  Insects   that   are   parasites  of  man.     Which   is  the  smallest  of 

animals  ?     Animals  found  in  wax  even    . .      _. w. 

40.  An  animal  which  has  no  passage  for  the  evacuations ib. 

41.  Moths,  cantharides,  gnats— an  insect  which  breeds  in  the  snow. .  41 

42.  An  animal  found  in  fire— the  pyrallis,  or  pyrausta      42 

43.  The  animal  called  hemerobion       •  •  ib- 

44.  The  nature  and  characteristics  of  all  animals  considered  limb  by 

limb.     Those  which  have  tufts  and  crests        43 

45.  The  various  kinds  of  horns.     Animals  in  which  they  are  moveable  44 

46.  The  heads  of  animals.     Those  which  have  none 46 

47.  The  hair •*• 

48.  The  bones  of  the  head 4< 

49.  The  brain         %b- 

50.  The  ears.     Animals  which  hear  without  ears  or  apertures  . .      . .  48 

51.  The  face,  the  forehead,  and  the  eye-brows 49 

52.  The  eyes— animals  which  have  no  eyes,  or  have  only  one  eye    . .  ib. 

53.  The  diversity  of  the  colour  of  the  eyes          . .  _ 50 

54.  The  theory  of  sight —persons  who  can  see  by  night ib. 

55.  The  nature  of  the  pupil— eyes  which  do  not  shut         52 

56.  The   hair  of   the   eye-lids ;    what    animals   are   without   them. 

Animals  which  can  see  on  one  side  only 54 

57.  Animals  which  have  no  eye-lids 55 

58.  The  cheeks       ih- 

59.  The  nostrils «*■ 

60.  The  mouth;  the  lips;  the  chin;  and  the  jaw-bone 56 

61.  The  teeth ;  the  various  kinds  of  teeth  ;  in  what  animals  they  are 

not  on  both  sides  of  the  mouth :  animals  which  have  hollow  teeth  ib. 

62.  The  teeth  of  serpents  ;  their  poison.    A  bird  which  has  teeth  . .  57 

63.  Wonderful  circumstances  connected  with  the  teeth      59 

64.  How  an  estimate  is  formed  of  the  age  of  animals  from  their  teeth  60 

65.  The  tongue ;  animals  which  have  no  tongue.     The  noise  made 

by  frogs.     The  palate        61 

66.  The  tonsils;  the  uvula;  theepiglossis;  the  tracheal  artery;  the  gullet  62 

67.  The  neck  ;  the  throat;  the  dorsal  spine        63 

68.  The  throat ;  the  gullet ;  the  stomach    . .      64 

69.  The  heart ;  the  blood ;  the  vital  spirit . .  ib. 

70.  Those  animals  which  have  the  largest  heart,  and  those  which 

have  the  smallest.    What  animals  have  two  hearts         . .     . .  65 

71.  When  the  custom  was  first  adopted  of  examining  the  heart  in 

the  inspection  of  the  entrails      66 


CONTENTS.  V 

Chap.  Page 

72.  The  lungs  :  in  what  animals  they  are  the  largest,  and  in  what 

the  smallest.  Animals  which  have  nothing  hut  lungs  in  the 
interior  of  the  hody.  Causes  which  produce  extraordinary 
swiftness  in  animals , .     . .      67 

73.  The   liver ;  in  what  animals,  and  in  what  part  there  are  two 

livers  found ib. 

74.  The  gall ;  where  situate,  and  in  what  animals  it  is  double.     Ani- 

mals which  have  no  gall,  and  others  in  which  it  is  not  situate 

in  the  liver 68 

75.  The  properties  of  the  gall        69 

76.  In  what  animals  the  liver  increases  and  decreases  with  the  moon. 

Observations  on  the  aruspices  relative  thereto,  and  remarkable 
prodigies       70 

77.  The  diaphragm.     The  nature  of  laughter      ib. 

78.  The  belly  :  animals  wbich  have  no  belly.     Which  are  the  only 

animals  that  vomit 71 

79.  The  small  guts,  the  front  intestines,  the  anus,  the  colon.     The 

causes  of  the  insatiate  voracity  of  certain  animals ib. 

80.  The  omentum  :  the  spleen  ;  animals  which  are  without  it  73 

81.  The  kidneys  :  animals  which  have  four  kidneys.     Animals  which 

have  none ib. 

82.  The  breast :  the  ribs      74 

83.  The  bladder :  animals  which  have  no  bladder        ib. 

84.  The  womb  :  the  womb  of  the  sow :  the  teats          75 

85.  Animals  which  have  suet :    animals  which  do  not  grow  fat        , .  ib. 

86.  The  marrow  :  animals  which  have  no  marrow        76 

87.  Bones  and  fish-bones  :  animals  which  have  neither.     Cartilages  77 

88.  The  nerves  :  animals  which  have  none     ib. 

89.  The  arteries ;  the  veins  :  animals  without  arteries  or  veins.     The 

blood  and  the  sweat         78 

90.  Animals,  the  blood  of  which  coagulates  Math  the  greatest  rapidity : 

other  animals,  the  blood  of  which  does  not  coagulate.  Animals 
which  have  the  thickest  blood :  those  the  blood  of  which  is  the 
thinnest :  animals  which  have  no  blood      ib. 

91.  Animals  Avhich  are  without  blood  at  certain  periods  of  the  year . .     79 

92.  Whether  the  blood  is  the  principle  of  life      80 

93.  The  hide  of  animals        ib. 

94.  The  hair  and  the  covering  of  the  skin 81 

95.  The  paps  :  birds  which  have  paps.     Remarkable  facts  connected 

with  the  dugs  of  animals 82 

98.  The   milk:  the  biestings.     Cheese:  of  what  milk  cheese  cannot 

be  made.     Rennet ;  the  various  kinds  of  aliment  in  milk      . .  83 

97.  Various  kinds  of  cheese 85 

98.  Differences  of  the  members  of  man  from  those  of  other  animals . .  86 

99.  The  fingers,  the  arms ..  ib. 

100.  Resemblance  of  the  ape  to  man tb. 

101.  The  nails        87 

102.  The  knees  and  the  hams       ib. 

103.  Parts  of  the  human  body  to  which  certain  religious  ideas  are 

attached      88 


VI  CONTENTS. 

4 

Chap.  Papre 

104.  Varicose  veins 88 

1 05.  The  gait,  the  feet,  the  legs 89 

106.  Hoofs      ib. 

107.  The  feet  of  birds _ ..  90 

108.  The  feet  of  animals,  from  those  having  two  feet  to  those  with  a 

hundred. — Dwarfs      91 

109.  The  sexual  parts. — Hermaphrodites ib. 

110.  The  testes. — The  three  classes  of  eunuchs 92 

111.  The  tails  of  animals      ib. 

112.  The  different  voices  of  animals 93 

113.  Superfluous  limbs 95 

114.  Signs  of  vitality  and  of  the  moral  disposition  of  man,  from  the 

limbs 96 

115.  Eespiration  and  nutriment 97 

116.  Animals  which  when  fed  upon  poison  do  not  die,  and  the  flesh 

of  which  is  poisonous 98 

117.  Reasons  for  indigestion.     Remedies  for  crudity ib. 

118.  From  what  causes  corpulence  arises;   how  it  may  be  reduced  ..  ib. 

119.  What  things,  by  merely  tasting  of  them,  allay  hunger  and  thirst  99 

BOOK   XII. 

THE   NATURAL    HISTORY    OF   TBEES. 

1.  The  honourable  place  occupied  by  trees  in  the  system  of  nature     101 

2.  The  early  history  of  trees       102 

3.  Exotic  trees.     When  the  plane-tree  first  appeared  in  Italy,  and 

whence  it  came ."      103 

4.  The  nature  of  the  plane-tree       104 

5.  Remarkable  facts  connected  with  the  plane-tree         ib. 

6.  The  chamseplatanus.     Who  was  the  first  to  clip  green  shrubs    . .  106 

7.  How  the  citron  is  planted ib. 

8.  The  trees  of  India         107 

9.  When  ebony  was  first  seen  at  Rome.    The  various  kinds  of  ebony  1 09 

10.  The  Indian  thorn ib. 

11.  The  Indian  fig       ..        ib. 

12.  Thepala:  the  fruit  called  ariena 110 

13.  Indian  trees,  the  names  of  which  are  unknown.      Indian  trees 

which  bear  flax Ill 

14.  The  pepper-tree. — The  various  kinds  of  pepper — bregma — zin- 

giber^ or  zimpirebi ib. 

15.  Caryophyllon,  lycion,  and  the  Chironian  pyxacanthus    .,     ..  113 

16.  Macir      114 

17.  Sugar      ., ib. 

18.  Trees  of  Ariana,  Gedrosia,  and  Hyrcania 115 

19.  Trees  of  Bactriana,  bdellium,  or  brochon,  otherwise  malacha,  or 

maldacon,  scordastum.     Adulterations  used  in  all  spices  and 

aromatics ;  the  various  tests  of  them  and  their  respective  values  ib. 

20.  Trees  of  Persis      117 

21.  Trees  of  the  islands  of  the  Persian  Sea.    The  cotton  tree. .     . .  ib. 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

Chap.  Page 

22.  The  tree  called    cyna.     Trees    from  which  fabrics  for  clothing 

are  made  in  the  east 118 

23.  A-country  where  the  trees  never  lose  their  leaves        ib. 

24.  The  various  useful  products  of  trees      119 

25.  Costus •  ...  ib. 

26.  Nard.     The  twelve  varieties  of  the  plant ib. 

27.  Asarum,  or  foal- foot        121 

28.  Amomum. — Amomis       122 

29.  Cardamomum                  123 

30.  The  country  of  frankincense.          ib. 

31.  Thetrees  which  bear  frankincense 125 

32.  Various  kinds  of  frankincense        126 

33.  Myrrh      '..      ..129 

34.  The  trees  which  produce  myrrh 130 

35.  The  nature  and  various  kinds  of  myrrh        . .      . .      ib. 

36.  Mastich 132 

37-  Ladanum  and  stobolon           ib. 

38.  Enhamion        134 

39.  The  tree  called  bratus • 135 

40.  The  tree  called  stobrum           ib. 

41.  Why  Arabia  was  called  "Happy"           ..      ..      136 

42.  Cinnamomum.     Xylocinnamum     ..      . .    „ 137 

43.  Cassia       , 140 

44.  Cancamum  and  tarum 141 

45.  Serichatum  and  gabalium       142 

46.  Myrobalanum ib. 

47.  Phcenicobalanus       143 

48.  The  sweet-scented  calamus ;  the  sweet-scented  rush 144 

49.  Hammoniacum        ib. 

50.  Sphagnos          145 

51.  Cypros      ..      ..      146 

52.  Aspalathos,  or  erysisceptrum ib. 

53.  Maron      147 

54.  Balsamum ;  opobalsamum ;  and  xylobalsamum ib. 

55.  Storax ..  151 

56.  Galbanum        152 

57.  Panax ib. 

58.  Spondylium ..      .*     ..153 

59.  Malobathrum ib. 

60.  Omphacium ib. 

61.  Bryon,  cenanthe,  and  massaris       154 

62.  Elate  or  spathe        155 

63.  Cinnamon  or  comacum ib. 

.    BOOK  XIII. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY   OF  EXOTIC  TREES,  AND  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  UNGUENTS. 

1.  Unguents — at  what  period  they  were  first  introduced          ..      ..  159 

2.  The  various  kinds  of  unguents — twelve  principal  compositions  . .  160 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  Fa#e 

3.  Diapasma,  magma ;  the  mode  of  testing  unguents       166 

4.  The  excesses  to  which  luxury  has  run  in  unguents      lo7 

5.  When  unguents  were  first  used  by  the  Romans     ..      ..-     ..     ..    168 

6.  The  palm-tree     . ..169 

7.  The  nature  of  the  palm-tree  170 

8.  How  the  palm-tree  is  planted        172 

9.  The  different  varieties  of  palm-trees,  and  their  characteristics    . .    173 

10.  The  trees  of  Syria :  the  pistacia,  the  cottana,  the  damascena,  and 

the  myxa <      ..      ..178 

11.  The  cedar.     Trees  which  have  on  them  the  fruit  of  three  years  at 

once ib. 

12.  The  terebinth  179 

13.  The  sumach-tree ib. 

14.  The  trees  of  Egypt.     The  fig-tree  of  Alexandria . .      . .      . .      . .  180 

15.  The  fig-tree  of  Cyprus 181 

16.  The  carob-tree        ib. 

17.  The  Persian  tree.     In  what  trees  the  fruits  germinate  the  one 

below  the  other  182 

18.  The  cucus       183 

19.  The  Egyptian  thorn        . .      . .  ib. 

20.  Nine  kinds  of  gum.     The  sarcocolla 184 

21.  The  papyrus :  the  use  of  paper  :  when  it  was  first  invented       . .  185 

22.  The  mode  of  making  paper 186 

23.  The  nine  different  kinds  of  paper 187 

24.  The  mode  of  testing  the  goodness  of  paper 189 

25.  The  peculiar  defects  in  paper         190 

26.  The  paste  used  in  the  preparation  of  paper  191 

27.  The  books  of  Numa        ib. 

28.  The  trees  of  Ethiopia 193 

29.  The  trees  of  Mount  Atlas.     The  citrus,  and  the  tables  made  of 

the  wood  thereof        ..      ..  194 

30.  The  points  that  are  desirable  or  otherwise  in  these  tables   . .     . .  195 

31.  The  citron-tree        198, 

32.  The  lotus  ib. 

33.  The  trees  of  Cyrenaica.     The  paliurus  200 

34.  Nine  varieties  of  the  Punic  apple.     Balaustium  ib. 

35.  The   trees   of  Asia  and   Greece ;  the   epipactis,  the   erica,   the 

Cnidian  grain  or  thymelsea,  pyrosachne,  cnestron,  orcneoron. .  201 

36.  Thetragion:  tragacanthe      ib. 

37.  The  tragos  or  scorpio  ;  the  myrica  or  brya;  the  ostrys       . .      . .  202 

38.  The  euonymos         . .      ....." 203 

39.  The  tree  called  eon  ib. 

40.  The  andrachle 204 

41.  Thecoccygia;  the  apharce ib. 

42.  The  ferula        ib. 

43.  The  thapsia      205 

44.  The  capparis  or  cynosbaton,  otherwise  ophiostaphyle  . .      ...      . .  206 

45.  The  saripha      207 

46.  The  royal  thorn       ib. 

47.  The  cytisus      208 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Chap.  page 

48.  The  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  Mediterranean.     The  phycos,  prason, 

or  zoster       209 

49.  The  sea  hryon  210 

50.  Plants  of  the  Red  Sea 211 

51.  Plants  of  the  Indian  Sea         ib. 

52.  The  plants  of  the  Troglodytic  Sea  ;  the  hair  of  Isis  :  the  Charito- 

blepharon        .,      ..   212 

BOOK  XIV. 

THE   NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRUIT-TREES. 

1  and  2.  The  nature  of  the  vine.     Its  mode  of  fructification    ..      ..  215 

3.  The  nature  of  the  grape,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  vine   . .       . .  218 

4.  Ninety-one  varieties  of  the  vine 222 

5.  Remarkable  facts  connected  with  the  culture  of  the  vine     ..     ..  233 

6.  The  most  ancient  wines  ..  236 

7.  The  nature  of  wines        238 

S.  Fifty  kinds  of  generous  wines        . .      . .      239 

9.  Thirty-eight  varieties  of  foreign  wine . .      . .  245 

10.  Seven  kinds  of  salted  wines 247 

11.  Eighteen  varieties  of  sweet  wine.     Raisin- wine  and  hepsema     ..  248 

12.  Three  varieties  of  second-rate  wine       251 

13.  At  what  period  generous   wines  were    first  commonly  made  in 

Italy ..251 

14.  The  inspection  of  wine  ordered  by  King  Romulus 252 

15.  "Wines  drunk  by  the  ancient  Romans 253 

16.  Some  remarkable  facts  connected  with  wine-lofts.     The  Opimian 

wine 254 

17.  At  what  period  four  kinds  of  wine  were  first  served  at  table       . .     ib. 

18.  The  uses  of  the  wild  vine.     What  juices  are  naturally  the  coldest 

of  all 255 

19.  Sixty-six  varieties  of  artificial  wine 256 

20.  Hydromeli,  or  melicraton       261 

2 1 .  Oxymeli ib. 

22.  Twelve  kinds  of  wine  with  miraculous  properties       262 

23.  "What  wines  it  is  not  lawful  to  use  in  the  sacred  rites 263 

24.  How  must  is  usually  prepared ib. 

25.  Pitch  and  resin        -      264 

26.  Vinegar — lees  of  wine 268 

27.  Wine-vessels — wine-cellars ib. 

28.  Drunkenness 270 

29.  Liquors  with  the  strength  of  wine  made  from  water  and  corn     . .  274 

BOOK  XV. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRUIT-TREES. 

1.  The  olive. — How  long  it  existed  in  Greece  only.— At  what  period  it 

was  first  introduced  into  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa 277 

2.  The  nature  of  the  olive,  and  of  new  olive  oil       278 


x  CONTENTS. 

Chap.                                                               .l  .            ,       ,        ,  ..          .  Pa^e 

3.  Olive  oil :  the  countries  in  which  it  is  produced,  and  its  various 

qualities      ^79 

4.  Fifteen  varieties  of  the  olive *°* 

5.  The  nature  of  olive  oil ••      ••        '      "; 

6.  The  culture  of  the  olive :  its  mode  of  preservation.     Ine  method 

of  making  olive  oil . .  285 

7.  Forty-eight  varieties  of  artificial  oils.    The  cicus-tree  or  croton, 

or  sili,  or  sesamum 286 

8.  Amurca ••      ••_■■      ■•...'" 

9.  The  various  kinds  of  fruit-trees  and  their  natures.    Four  varieties 

of  pine-nuts         .    ;•      ••      •■  -92 

10.  The  quince.     Four  kinds  of  cydonia,  and  four  varieties  ot  tne 

struthea       **• 

11.  Six  varieties  of  the  peach       j™ 

12.  Twelve  kinds  of  plums            ^* 

13.  The  peach        ;  •  2" 

U.  Thirty  different  kinds  of  pomes.     At  what  period  foreign  fruits 

were  first  introduced  into  Italy,  and  whence 297 

15.  The  fruits  that  have  heen  most  recently  introduced to. 

16.  Forty-one  varieties  of  the  pear       .••     ••  300 

17.  Various  methods  of  grafting  trees.     Expiations  for  lightning     . .  oOZ 

18.  The  mode  of  keeping  various  fruits  and  grapes 303 

19.  Twenty-nine  varieties  of  the  fig *      307 

20.  Historical  anecdotes  connected  with  the  fig 309 

21.  Caprification 311 

22.  Three  varieties  of  the  medlar 314 

23.  Four  varieties  of  the  sorb *% 

24.  Nine  varieties  of  the  nut        31  o 

25.  Eighteen  varieties  of  the  chesnut 318 

26.  The  carob       319 

27.  The  fleshy  fruits.      The  mulberry «*• 

28.  The  fruit  of  the  arbutus          320 

29.  The  relative  natures  of  berry  fruits        321 

30.  Nine  varieties  of  the  cherry 322 

31.  The  cornel.     The  lentisk        323 

32.  Thirteen  different  flavours  of  juices               xo- 

33.  The  colour  and  smell  of  juices       ■*      ••  325 

34.  The  various  natures  of  fruit           326 

35.  The  myrtle      328 

36.  Historical  anecdotes  relative  to  the  myrtle 328 

37.  Eleven  varieties  of  the  myrtle      330 

38.  The  myrtle  used  at  Rome  in  ovations    ...      331 

39.  The  laurel ;  thirteen  varieties  of  it        ..      .:      332 

40.  Historical  anecdotes  connected  with  the  laurel      334 

BOOK  XVI. 

THE  NATURAX  HISTOUY  OF  THE  FOREST  TREES. 

1.  Countries  that  have  no  trees.          339 

2.  Wonders  connected  with  trees  in  the  nothern  regions         . .      . .  340 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Chap.  Page 

3.  The  acorn  oak.     The  civic  crown 34  L 

4.  The  origin  of  the  presentation  of  crowns      342 

5.  Persons  presented  with  a  crown  of  leaves  ' 343 

6.  Thirteen  varieties  of  the  acorn      345 

7.  The  beech        346 

8.  The  other  acorns — wood  for  fuel ib* 

9.  The  gall-nut 350 

10.  Other  productions  on  these  trees  besides  the  acorn      ..      ..      ..  ib. 

11.  Cachrys 351 

12.  The  kermes  berry 353 

13.  Agaric      *'*• 

14.  Trees  of  which  the  bark  is  used 354 

15.  Shingles 355 

16.  The  pine  ..      .. •*• 

17.  The  pinaster 356 

18.  The  pitch-tree  :  the  fir *'*• 

19.  The  larch  :  the  torch-tree       357 

20.  The  yew   ..     .. 360 

21.  Methods  of  making  tar— how  cedrium  is  made 361 

22.  Methods  by  which  thick  pitch  is  prepared ib. 

23.  How  the  resin  called  zopissa  is  prepared       363 

24.  Trees  the  wood  of  which  is  highly  valued.     Four  varieties  of 

the  ash         36a 

25.  Two  varieties  of  the  linden-tree 366 

26.  Ten  varieties  of  the  maple      367 

27.  Bruscum :  molluscum ;  the  staphylodendron        -.368 

28.  Three  varieties  of  the  box-tree      ib. 

29.  Four  varieties  of  the  elm        370 

30.  The  natures  of  the  various  trees  according  to  their  localities  :  the 

mountain  trees,  and  the  trees  of  the  plain       ib. 

31.  Trees  which  grow  on  a  dry  soil :  those  which  are  found  in  wet 

localities  :  those  which  are  found  in  both  indifferently  . .      . .    372 

32.  Division  of  trees  into  various  species 373 

33.  Trees  which  do  not  lose  their  foliage.    The  rhododendron.     Trees 

which  do  not  lose  the  whole  of  their  foliage.    Places  in  which 
there  are  no  trees        *b. 

34.  The  nature  of  the  leaves  which  wither  and  fall    . .      . .      . .      . .    374 

35.  Trees  which  have  leaves  of  various  colours  ;  trees  with  leaves  of 

various  shapes.     Three  varieties  of  the  poplar "      375 

36.  Leaves  which  turn  round  every  year 376 

37.  The  care  bestowed  on  the  leaves  of  the  palm,  and  the  uses  to 

which  they  are  applied      » 377 

38.  Remarkable  facts  connected  with  leaves        ib. 

39.  The  natural  order  of  the  production  of  plants      379 

40.  Trees  which  never  blossom.     The  juniper 380 

41.  The  fecundation  of  trees.    Germination :  the  appearance  of  the  fruit  381 

42.  In  what  order  the  trees  blossom     . .      ,. 383 

43.  At  what  period  each  tree  bears  fruit.     The  cornel       384 

44.  Trees  which  bear  the  whole  year.     Trees  which  have  on  them 

the  fruit  of  three  fears       385 


xJi  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  •  Pa°9 

45.  Trees  which  bear  no  fruit :  trees  looked  upon  as  ill-omened       . .  385 

46.  Trees  which  lose  their  fruit  or  flowers  most  readily 38& 

47.  Trees  which  are  unproductive  in  certain  places 387 

48.  The  mode  in  which  trees  bear        . .      . .      .  •  ib. 

49.  Trees  in  which  the  fruit  appears  before  the  leaves       ib. 

50 '  Trees  which  bear  two  crops  in  a  vear.     Trees  which  bear  three 

OOQ 

crops •  •     .•  •  o0° 

51.  Which  trees  become  old  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  ami  which 

most  slowly         389 

52.  Trees  which  bear  various  products.     Cratsegum 390 

53.  Differences  in  trees  in  respect  of  the  trunks  and  branches  . .      . .  391 

54.  The  branches  of  trees      392 

55.  The  bark  of  trees            393 

56.  The  roots  of  trees           ib. 

51.  Trees  which  have  grown  spontaneously  from  the  ground     . .      . .  394 

58.  How  trees  grow  spontaneously— diversities  in  their  nature,  the 

same  trees  not  growing  everywhere 395 

59.  Plants  that  will  not  grow  in  certain  places  . .  ^ 396 

60.  The  cypress      * 397 

61.  That  the  earth  often  bears  productions  which  it  has  never  borne 

before           399 

62.  The  ivy — twenty  varieties  of  it      ib. 

63.  Thesmilax 402 

64.  Water  plants :  the  rush  :  twenty-eight  varieties  of  the  reed       . .  403 

65.  Reeds  used  for  arrows,  and  for  the  purpose  of  writing        . .      . .  404 

66.  Flute  reeds  :  the  reed  of  Orchomenus ;  reeds  used  for  fowling 

and  fishing 405 

67.  The  vine-dresser's  reed " 408 

68.  The  willow :  eight  varieties  of  it 409 

69.  Trees,  in  addition  to  the  willow,  which  are  of  use  in  making 

withes          _ 410 

70.  Rushes:  candle-rushes:  rushes  for  thatching      411 

71.  The  elder:  the  bramble          ib. 

72.  The  juices  of  trees 412 

73.  The  veins  and  fibres  of  trees 413 

74.  The  felling  of  trees 415 

75.  The  opinion  of  Cato  on  the  felling  of  timber        416 

76.  The  size  of  trees  :  the  nature  of  wood :  the  sappinus 417 

77.  Methods  of  obtaining  fire  from  wood ..  421 

78.  Trees  which  are  proof  against  decay  :  trees  which  never  split    . .  422 

79.  Historical  facts  connected  with  the  durability  of  wood       ..      ..  423 

80.  Varieties  of  the  teredo    . .      . .      . ,      425 

81.  The  woods  used  in  building 426 

82.  Carpenters'  woods            427 

83.  Woods  united  with  glue          ib. 

84.  Veneering . .  428 

85.  The  age  of  trees.     A  tree  that  was  planted  by  the  first  Scipio 

Africanus.     A  tree  at  Rome  five  hundred  years  old       . .      . .  429 

86.  Trees  as  old  as  the  City 430 

87.  Trues  in  the  suburban  districts  older  than  the  City ib. 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

Chap.  .  Page 

88.  Trees  planted  by  Agamemnon  the  first  year  of  the  Trojan  war  : 

other  trees  which  date  from  the  time  that  the  place  was  called 
Ilium,  anterior  to  the  Trojan  war 431 

89.  Trees  planted  at  Argos  by  Hercules  :  others  planted  by  Apollo. 

A  tree  more  ancient  than  Athens  itself ib. 

90.  Trees  which  are  the  most  short-lived 432 

91.  Trees  which  have  been  rendered  famous  by  remarkable  events  . .     ib. 

92.  Plants  which  have  no  peculiar  spot  for  their  growth  :   others  that 

grow  upon  trees,  and  will  not  grow  in  the  ground.     Nine  va- 
rieties of  them :  cadytas,  polypodion,  phaulias,  hippophseston  433 

93.  Three  varieties  of  mistletoe.     The  nature  of  mistletoe  and  similar 

plants 434 

94.  The  method  of  making  birdlime 435 

95.  Historical  facts  connected  with  the  mistletoe        435 


BOOK  XVII. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  CULTIVATED  TREES. 

1.  Trees  which  have  been  sold  at  enormous  prices . .  438 

2.  The  influence  of  weather  upon  trees  :  what  is  the  proper  situation 

for  tbe  vine 441 

3.  What  soils  are  to  be  considered  the  best       446 

4.  The  eight  kinds  of  earth  boasted  of  by  the  Gauls  and  Greeks     . .  452 

5.  The  employment  of  ashes       455 

6.  Manure ..456 

7.  Crops  which  tend  to  improve  the  land :  crops  which  exhaust  it . .  459 

8.  The  proper  mode  of  using  manure         ib. 

9.  The  modes  in  which  trees  bear      460 

10.  Plants  which  are  propagated  by  seed ib. 

11.  Trees  which  never  degenerate        461 

12.  Propagation  by  suckers 463 

13.  Propagation  by  slips  and  cuttings         464 

14.  Seed-plots         #■ 

15.  The  mode  of  propagating  the  elm 467 

16.  The  holes  for  transplanting  ..      468 

17.  The  intervals  to  be  left  between  trees    .. 472 

18.  The  nature  of  the  shadow  thrown  by  trees    ..     ._.      473 

19.  The  droppings  of  water  from  the  leaves -:      ..  474 

20.  Trees  which  grow  but  slowly  :  those  which  grow  with  rapidity  ..  475 

21.  Trees  propagated  from  layers         }b. 

22.  Grafting  :  the  first  discovery  of  it  477 

23.  Inoculation  or  budding  -      *»■ 

24.  The  various  kinds  of  grafting         %b. 

25.  Grafting  the  vine 482 

26.  Grafting  by  scutcheons 483 

27.  Plants  which  grow  from  a  branch 485 

28.  Trees  which  grow  from  cuttings  :  the  mode  of  planting  them     . .  486 

29.  The  cultivation  of  the  olive ib- 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  ,  .         PaSe 

30.  Transplanting  operations  as  distributed  throughout  the  various 

seasons  of  the  year      487 

SI.  The  cleaning  and  baring  of  the  roots,  and  moulding  them  . .      . .  491 

32.  Willow-beds 492 

33.  Reed-beds j93 

34.  Other  plants  that  are  cut  for  poles  and  stakes       T .  494 

35.  The  culture  of  the  vine  and  the  various  shrubs  which  support  it . .  495 

36.  How  grapes  are  protected  from  the  ravages  of  insects         . .     ..517 

37.  The  diseases  of  trees        '^ 

38.  Prodigies  connected  with  trees       526 

39.  Treatment  of  the  diseases  of  trees 528 

40.  Methods  of  irrigation      ;      ^29 

41.  Remarkable  facts  connected  with  irrigation #• 

42.  Incisions  made  in  trees 530 

43.  Other  remedies  for  the  diseases  of  trees *&- 

44.  Caprification, ,  and  particulars  connected  with  the  fig 531 

45.  Errors  that  may  be  committed  in  pruning #• 

46.  The  proper  mocle  of  manuring  trees      p32 

47.  Medicaments  for  trees w- 


GREEK  AND  EOMAN  MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES 
MENTIONED  BY  PLINY. 


Acetabulum.  E        

Actus.  R 

Amphora.  E     

As,  E        

As.  E  [weight]        

Concha,  Smaller,  G  and  E 
Concha,  Larger,  G  and  E 

Congius.  E       

Cubitus.  G       

Cubitus.  E       

Culeus.  E         

Cyathus.  G  and  E 

Denarius.  E     

Denarius.  E.  [weight]     . . . 
Digitus,  or  Finger.  E.    ... 

Drachma.  G     

Hemina.  E       

Jugerum.  E     

Libra,  or  Pound,  E. 

Mina  *  G  

Modius.  E.  [dry  measure] 

Obolus,  G        

Obolus.  G,  [weight] 
Palmus,  or  Handbreadth.  E 
Passus,  or  Pace.f  E 


...■§■  of  a  Sextarius,  .1238  pint. 

...120  Pedes  or  Eoman  feet. 

...48  Sextarii,  5  gall.  7,577  pints. 

...2£  farthings.     Copper. 

...See  "Libra." 

...•041 2  pint. 

... -1238  pint. 

...5.9471  pints. 

,..1  foot  6.2016  inches. 

...1  foot  5.4744  inches. 

...20  Amphorae,  118 gall.  7.546 pints. 

...tV  of  a  Sextarius,  .0825  pint. 

,..16  Asses,  8|  pence.     Silver. 

...52.5  to  60  grains. 

,..Yt  of  a  Pes,  .7281  inch. 

...'63  grains. 

..See  "  Semisextarius." 

..240  Pedes  or  Eoman  feet  by  120. 

...llf  ounces  60.45  grains,  avoird. 

...15  ounces  83.75  grains,  avoird. 

..1  of  an  Amphora,  1  gall.  7.8576 

..1^.5  pence.     Silver.  [pints. 

..10.5  grains. 

..2.9214  inches. 

...5  Eoman  feet,  4  ft.  10.248  inches. 


*  In  B.  xn.  c.  32— it  is  supposed  by  some  that  it  is  the  Eoman  Libra 
that  is  meant,  under  the  name  of  "  Mina,"  as  containing  eighty-four 
Denarii.  If  so,  it  must  be  the  old  Eoman  Libra,  as  it  is  more  generally 
thought  tbat  the  Libra  of  Pliny's  time  contained  ninety-six  Denarii,  of 
sixty  grains,  within  a  fraction. 

t  One  thousand  Paces  made  a  Eoman  "  Mille  Passuum,"  or  Mile, 
1618  yards  English. 


GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MONET,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 


Pes,  or  Foot.  R        ...     .. 
Pollex,  or  Thumb.  E       .. 

Quadrans.  E    

Quadrans.  R  [weight]    ., 

Quadrantal.  E         

Quartarius,  E 

Quinarius.  B    ■ 

Scripulum,  or  Scruple.  B 

Semisextarius.  B     

Sestertius.  R    

Sestertium.  E 

Sextarius.  E 

Spithama,  or  Span.  G     . 

Stadium.  G  and  E  . . .     . 

Teruncius.  E 

Ulna,  or  Ell.  E  ...  . 
Uncia,  or  Inch.  R  ...  . 
Uncia,  or  Ounce.  E...     . 

Urna.  E 

Victoriatus.  E 


...12  Uncia?,  11.6496  inches. 

...See  "Uncia"  [lineal  measure]. 

. . .  -53, 1 25  farthing.     Copper. 

...3  Uncise,  2f  ounces  97.21  grs. 

...See  "Amphora." 

...!  of  a  Sextarius,  .2477  pint. 

...\  of  a  Denarius. 

...-2V  of  an  Uncia,  18.06  grains. 

...\  of  a  Sextarius. 

. .  ,\  of  a  Denarius.     Brass  or  Silver. 

...1000  Sestertii,  £7  16s  3d. 

..  i  of  a  Congius,  .9911  pint. 

...9.1008  inches. 

..  i  of  a  Eoman  mile,  606  feet  9  in. 

...  See  "Quadrans"  [weight  &  money]. 

...6  feet,  81  inch. 

...TVof  a  Pes,  .9708  inch. 

...-^  of  a  Libra.  433.666  grs. 


\  of  an  Amphora. 

See  "  Quinarius." 

The  Schcenus,  an  Egyptian  and  Persian  lineal  measure,  varied 
considerably  ;  being  sometimes  thirty,  and  sometimes  forty  Stadia. 
See  B.  v.  c.  11,  B.  vi.  c.  30,  and  B.  xii.  c.  30. 

The  Attic  Talent,  as  a  weight,  was  equal  to  56fb.  15ioz. 
100.32  grains.  The  Commercial  Talent  was  85ft».  2|oz.  70.7  grs. 
The  Silver  Attic,  or  Great  Talent,  was  in  value  £343  15s.  or, 
according  to  Pollux,  £406  5s.  The  Gold,  or  Sicilian  Talent,  was 
equal  in  weight  to  six  Attic  Drachma^  or  about  f  oz.  and  71  grs. 
The  Egyptian  Talent,  as  a  measure  of  weight,  was  equal  to 
about  twice  the  Attic  Talent. 


NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   PLINY. 


EOOK  XI. 

THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  INSECTS. 

CHAP.   1.    (1.) THE   EXTREME    SMALLXESS   OF    INSECTS. 

\V  E  shall  now  proceed  to  a  description  of  the  insects,  a 
subject  replete  with  endless  difficulties  j1  for,  in  fact,  there 
are  some  authors  who  have  maintained  that  they  do  not  respire, 
and  that  they  are  destitute  of  blood.  The  insects  are  numerous, 
and  form  many  species,  and  their  mode  of  life  is  like  that  of 
the  terrestrial  animals  and  the  birds.  Some  of  them  are  fur- 
nished with  wings,  bees  for  instance ;  others  are  divided  into 
those  kinds  which  have  wings,  and  those  which  are  without 
them,  such  as  ants  ;  while  others,  again,  are  destitute  of  both 
wings  and  feet.  All  these  animals  have  been  very  properly 
called  "  insects,"2  from  the  incisures  or  divisions  which  sepa- 
rate the  body,  sometimes  at  the  neck,  and  sometimes  at  the 
corselet,  and  so  divide  it  into  members  or  segments,  only 
united  to  each  other  by  a  slender  tube.  In  some  insects,  how- 
ever, this  division  is  not  complete,  as  it  is  surrounded  by 
wrinkled  folds  ;  and  thus  the  flexible  vertebra)  of  the  creature, 
whether  situate  at  the  abdomen,  or  whether  only  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  are  protected  by  layers,  overlapping  each 
other ;  indeed,  in  no  one  of  her  works  has  Nature  more  fully 
displayed  her  exhaustless  ingenuity. 

(2.)  In  large  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  or,  at  all  events, 

1  "  Immensae  subtilitatis."  As  Cuvier  remarks,  the  ancients  have  com- 
mitted more  errors  in  reference  to  the  insects,  than  to  any  other  portion  of 
the  animal  world.  The  discovery  of  the  microscope  has  served  more  than 
anything  to  correct  these  erroneous  notions. 

2  "  Insecta,"  "articulated." 

VOL.  III.  B 


2  pliny's  natueal  histoey.  [Book  XI. 

in  the  very  largest  among  them,  she  found  her  task  easy  and 
her  materials  ready  and  pliable  ;  but  in  these  minute  creatures, 
so  nearly  akin  as  they  are  to  non-entity,  how  surpassing  the 
intelligence,  how  vast  the  resources,  and  how  ineffable  the 
perfection  which  she  has  displayed.  Where  is  it  that  she  has 
united  so  many  senses  as  in  the  gnat  ? — not  to  speak  of  creatures 
that  might  be  mentioned  of  still  smaller  size — "Where,  I  say, 
has  she  found  room  to  place  in  it  the  organs  of  sight  ?  Where 
has  she  centred  the  sense  of  taste  ?  Where  has  she  inserted 
the  power  of  smell  ?  And  where,  too,  has  she  implanted  that 
sharp  shrill  voice  of  the  creature,  so  utterly  disproportioned  to 
the  smallness  of  its  body  ?  With  what  astonishing  subtlety 
has  she  united  the  wings  to  the  trunk,  elongated  the  joints 
of  the  legs,  framed  that  long,  craving  concavity  for  a  belly,  and 
then  inflamed  the  animal  with  an  insatiate  thirst  for  blood, 
that  of  m  an  more  especially !  What  ingenuity  has  she  displayed 
in  providing  it  with  a  sting,3  so  well  adapted  for  piercing  the 
skin !  And  then  too,  just  as  though  she  had  had  the  most 
extensive  field  for  the  exercise  of  her  skill,  although  the 
weapon  is  so  minute  that  it  can  hardly  be  seen,  she  has  formed 
it  with  a  twofold  mechanism,  providing  it  with  a  point  for  the 
purpose  of  piercing,  and  at  the  same  moment  making  it  hollow, 
to  adapt  it  for  suction. 

What  teeth,  too,  has  she  inserted  in  the  teredo,  *  to  adapt  it 
for  piercing  oak  even  with  a  sound  which  fully  attests  their 
destructive  power !  while  at  the  same  time  she  has  made  wood 
its  principal  nutriment.  We  give  all  our  admiration  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  elephant  as  it  supports  the  turret,  to  the 
stalwart  neck  of  the  bull,  and  the  might  with  which  it  hurls 
aloft  whatever  comes  in  its  way,  to  the  onslaught  of  the  tiger, 
or  to  the  mane  of  the  lion  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  Nature  is 
nowhere  to  be  seen  to  greater  perfection  than  in  the  very 
smallest  of  her  works.  For  this  reason  then,  I  must  beg  of 
my  readers,  notwithstanding  the  contempt  they  feel  for  many 
of  these  objects,  not  to  feel  a  similar  disdain  for  the  informa- 
tion I  am  about  to  give  relative  thereto,  seeing  that,  in  the 

3  The  trunk  of  the  gnat,  Cuvier  says,  contains  five  silken  and  pointed 
threads,  which  together  have  the  effect  of  a  sting. 

4  The  Teredo  navalis  of  Linnaeus,  not  an  insect,  hut  one  of  the  mollusks. 
This  is  the  same  creature  that  is  mentioned  in  B.  xvi.  c.  80  ;  but  that  spoken 
of  in  B.  viii.  c.  74,  must  have  been  a  land  insect. 


Chap.  2.J  INSECTS.  3 

study  of  Nature,  there  are  none  of  her  works  that  are  unworthy 
of  our  consideration. 

CHAP.  2.    (3.) WHETHER   INSECTS    RESPIRE,  AND    WHETHER 

THEY    HAVE    BLOOD. 

Many  authors  deny  that  insects  respire,5  and  make  the 
assertion  upon  the  ground,  that  in  their  viscera  there  is  no 
respiratory  organ  to  be  found.  On  this  ground,  they  assert 
that  insects  have  the  same  kind  of  life  as  plants  and  trees, 
there  being  a  very  great  difference  between  respiring  and  merely 
having  life.  On  similar  grounds  also,  they  assert  that  insects 
have  no  blood,  a  thing  which  cannot  exist,  they  say,  in  any 
animal  that  is  destitute  of  heart  and  liver ;  just  as,  according 
to  them,  those  creatures  cannot  breathe  which  have  no  lungs. 
Upon  these  points,  however,  a  vast  number  of  questions  will 
naturally  arise  ;  for  the  same  writers  do  not  hesitate  to  deny 
that  these  creatures  are  destitute  also  of  voice,6  and  this, 
notwithstanding  the  humming  of  bees,  the  chirping  of  grass- 
hoppers, and  the  sounds  emitted  by  numerous  other  insects 
which  will  be  considered  in  their  respective  places.  For  my 
part,  whenever  I  have  considered  the  subject,  I  have  ever  felt 
persuaded  that  there  is  nothing  impossible  to  Nature,  nor.  do  I 
see  why  creatures  should  be  less  able  to  live  and  yet  not 
inhale,  than  to  respire  without  being  possessed  of  viscera,  a 
doctrine  which  I  have  already  maintained,  when  speaking7  of 
the  marine  animals;  and  that,  notwithstanding  the  density 
and  the  vast  depth  of  the  water  which  would  appear  to  impede 
all  breathing.  But  what  person  could  very  easily  believe  that 
there  can  be  any  creatures  that  fly  to  and  fro,  and  live  in  the 
very  midst  of  the  element  of  respiration,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
they  themselves  are  devoid  of  that  respiration  ;  that  they  can 
be  possessed  of  the  requisite  instincts  for  nourishment,  gene- 
ration, working,  and  making  provision  even  for  time  to  come, 
in  the  enjoyment  too  (although,  certainly,  they  are  not  pos- 
sessed of  the  organs  which  act,  as  it  were,  as  the  receptacles 

5  They  respire  by  orifices  in  the  sides  of  the  hody,  known  to  naturalists 
as  stigmata.  The  whole  body,  Cuvier  says,  forms,  in  a  measure,  a  system  of 
lungs. 

6  Cuvier  remarks  that  the  various  noises  made  by  insects  are  in  reality 
not  the  voice,  as  they  are  not  produced  by  air  passing  through  a  larynx. 

?  13.  Lx.  c.  G. 

E   2 


4  PLINY- S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

of  those  senses)  of  the  powers  of  hearing,  smelling,  and  tast- 
ing, as  well  as  those  other  precious  gilts  of  Nature,  address, 
courage,  and  skilfulness  ?  That  these  creatures  have  no  blood8 
I  am  ready  to  admit,  just  as  all  the  terrestrial  animals  are  not 
possessed  of  it ;  but  then,  they  have  something  similar,  by  way 
of  equivalent.  Just  as  in  the  sea,  the  saepia9  has  a  black 
liquid  in  place  of  blood,  and  the  various  kinds  of  purples,  those 
juices  which  we  use  for  the  purposes  of  dyeing  ;  so,  too,  is  every 
insect  possessed  of  its  own  vital  humour,  which,  whatever  it 
is,  is  blood  to  it.  While  I  leave  it  to  others  to  form  what 
opinion  they  please  on  this  subject,  it  is  my  purpose  to  set 
forth  the  operations  of  Nature  in  the  clearest  possible  light, 
and  not  to  enter  upon  the  discussion  of  points  that  are  replete 
with  doubt. 

CHAP.  3.    (4.) THE   BODIES    OF   INSECTS. 

Insects,  so  far  as  I  find  myself  able  to  ascertain,  seem  to 
have  neither  sinews,10  bones,  spines,  cartilages,  fat,  nor  flesh; 
nor  yet  so  much  as  a  frail  shell,  like  some  of  the  marine  ani- 
mals, nor  even  anything  that  can  with  any  propriety  be 
termed  skin  ;  but  they  have  a  body  which  is  of  a  kind  of  inter- 
mediate nature  between  all  these,  of  an  arid  substance,  softer 
than  muscle,  and  in  other  respects  of  a  nature  that  may,  in 
strictness,  be  rather  pronounced  yielding,11  than  hard.  Such, 
then,  is  all  that  they  are,  and  nothing  more : 12  in  the  inside 
of  their  bodies  there  is  nothing,  except  in  some  few,  which 
have  an  intestine  arranged  in  folds.  Hence  it  is,  that  even 
when  cut  asunder,  they  are  remarkable  for  their  tenacity  of 
life,  and  the  palpitations  which  are  to  be  seen  in  each  of  their 
parts.  For  every  portion  of  them  is  possessed  of  its  own 
vital  principle,  which  is  centred  in  no  limb  in  particular,  but 

8  Cuvier  remarks,  that  they  have  a  nourishing  fluid,  which  is  of  a  white 
colour,  and  acts  in  place  of  blood. 

9  The  dye  of  stepia,  Cuvier  remarks,  is  not  blood,  nor  does  it  act  as  such, 
being  an  excrementitious  liquid.  It  lias  in  addition  a  bluish,  transparent, 
blood.     The  same  also  with  the  juices  of  the  purple. 

10  <<  Nervos."  Cuvier  says  that  all  insects  haAre  a  brain,  a  sort  of  spinal 
marrow,  and  nerves. 

11  "Tutius." 

12  Insects  have  no  fat,  Cuvier  says,  except  when  in  the  chrysalis  state  ; 
but  they  have  a  fibrous  uesh  of  a  whitish  colour.  They  have  also  viscera, 
trachea,  nerves,  and  a  most  complicated  organization. 


Chap.  5.]  BEES.  5 

in  every  part  of  the  body ;  least  of  all,  however,  in  the  head, 
which  alone  is  subject  to  no  movements  unless  torn  off  together 
with  the  corselet.  No  kind  of  animal  has  more  feet  than  the 
insects  have,  and  those  among  them  which  have  the  most,  live 
the  longest  when  cut  asunder,  as  we  see  in  the  case  of  the  scolo- 
pendra.  They  have  eyes,  and  the  senses  as  well  of  touch  and 
taste  ;  some  of  them  have  also  the  sense  of  smelling,  and  some 
few  that  of  hearing. 

chap.  4.   (5.) — BEES. 

But  among  them  all,  the  first  rank,  and  our  especial  admi- 
ration, ought,  in  justice,  to  be  accorded  to  bees,  which  alone, 
of  all  the  insects,  have  been  created  for  the  benefit  of  man. 
They  extract  honey  and  collect  it,  a  juicy  substance  remarkable 
for  its  extreme  sweetness,  lightness,  and  wholesomeness.  They 
form  their  combs  and  collect  wax,  an  article  that  is  useful  for 
a  thousand  purposes  of  life  ;  they  are  patient  of  fatigue,  toil  at 
their  labours,  form  themselves  into  political  communities,  hold 
councils  together  in  private,  elect  chiefs  in  common,  and,  a  thing 
that  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all,  have  their  own  code  of  morals. 
In  addition  to  this,  being  as  they  are,  neither  tame  nor  wild, 
so  all-powerful  is  Nature,  that,  from  a  creature  so  minute  as  to 
be  nothing  more  hardly  than  the  shadow  of  an  animal,  she  has 
created  a  marvel  beyond  all  comparison.  What  muscular 
power,  what  exertion  of  strength  are  we  to  put  in  comparison 
with  such  vast  energy  and  such  industry  as  theirs  ?  What  dis- 
play of  human  genius,  in  a  word,  shall  we  compare  with  the 
reasoning  powers  manifested  by  them  ?  In  this  they  have,  at 
all  events,  the  advantage  of  us — they  know  of  nothing  but  what 
is  for  the  common  benefit  of  all.  Away,  then,  with  all  questions 
whether  they  respire  or  no,  and  let  us  be  ready  to  agree  on 
the  question  of  their  blood  ;  and  yet,  how  little  of  it  can  pos- 
sibly exist  in  bodies  so  minute  as  theirs. — And  now  let  us 
form  some  idea  of  the  instinct  they  display. 

CHAP.  5.  (6.) THE  ORDER  DISPLAYED  IX  THE  WORKS  OF  BEES. 

Bees  keep  within  the  hive  during  the  winter— for  whence 
are  they  to  derive  the  strength  requisite  to  withstand  frosts 
and  snows,  and  the  northern  blasts  ?  The  same,  in  fact,  is 
done  by  all  insects,  but  not  to  so  late  a  period;    as  those 


f)  PLINY'S   NATUEAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XI. 

which  conceal  themselves  in  the  walls  of  our  houses,  are  much 
sooner  sensible  of  the  returning  warmth.  With  reference  to 
bees,  either  seasons  and  climates  have  considerably  changed,  or 
else  former  writers  have  been  greatly  mistaken.  They  retire 
for  the  winter  at  the  setting  of  the  Vergilise,  and  remain  shut 
up  till  after  the  rising  of  that  constellation,  and  not  till  only 
the  beginning  of  spring,  as  some  authors  have  stated ;  nor,  in- 
deed, does  any  one  in  Italy  ever  think  of  then  opening  the  hives. 
They  do  not  come  forth  to  ply  their  labours  until  the  bean 
blossoms  ;  and  then  not  a  day  do  they  lose  in  inactivity,  while 
the  weather  is  favourable  for  their  pursuits. 

First  of  all,  they  set  about  constructing  their  combs,  and 
forming  the  wax,  or,  in  other  words,  making  their  dwellings 
and  cells ;  after  this  they  produce  their  young,  and  then  make 
honey  and  wax  from  flowers,  and  extract  bee-glue12  from  the 
tears  of  those  trees  which  distil  glutinous  substances,  the 
juices,  gums,  and  resins,  namely,  of  the  willow,  the  elm,  and 
the  reed.  With  these  substances,  as  well  as  others  of  a  more 
bitter  nature,  they  first  line  the  whole  inside  of  the  hive,  as  a 
sort  of  protection  ag«ainst  the  greedy  propensities  of  other  small 
insects,  as  they  are  well  aware  that  they  are  about  to  form 
that  which  will  prove  an  object  of  attraction  to  them.  Having 
done  this,  they  employ  similar  substances  in  narrowing  the 
entrance  to  the  hive,  if  otherwise  too  wide. 

CHAP.   6.  (5.) THE  MEANING  OF  THE  TEEMS  COMMOSIS,  PISSO- 

CEEOS,  AND  PEOPOLIS. 

The  persons  who  understand  this  subject,  call  the  substance 
which  forms  the  first  foundation  of  their  combs,  commosis,u  the 
next,  pissoceros™  and  the  third  propolis;**  which  last  is  placed 
between  the  other  layers  and  the  wax,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  utility  in  medicine.16  The  commosis  forms  the  first  crust 
or  layer,*  and  has  a  bitter  taste ;  and  upon  it  is  laid  the  pisso- 
ceros,  a  kind  of  thin  wax,  which  acts  as  a  sort  of  varnish. 
The  propolis  is  produced  from  the  sweet  gum  of  the  vine  or 

12  "Melligo."  For  further  information  on  this  subject  consult  Bevan 
on  the  Honey  Bee. 

13  Or  "conusis,"  "  gummy  matter." 

14  Pitch-wax. 

15  A  kind  of  bee-glue ;  the  origin  of  the  name  does  not  seem  to  be 
known.     Reaumur  says  that  they  are  all  different  varieties  of  bee-glue. 

16  See  B.  xxii.  c.  50. 


Chap.  8.1  BEES.  7 

the  poplar,  and  is  of  a  denser  consistency,  the  juices  of  flowers 
being  added  to  it.  Still,  however,  it  cannot  be  properly  termed 
wax,  but  rather  the  foundation  of  the  honey-combs  ;  by  means 
of  it  all  inlets  are  stopped  up,  which  might,  otherwise,_  serve 
for  the  admission  of  cold  or  other  injurious  influences ;  it  has 
also  a  strong  odour,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  many  people  use 
it  instead  of  galbanum. 

CHAP.  7. THE  MEANING  OF  ERITHACE,  SANBARACA,  OB.  CEETNTHOS. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  bees  form  collections  of  erithace  or 
bee-bread,  which  some  persons  call  "sandaraca,"17  and  others 
"  cerinthos."  This  is  to  serve  as  the  food  of  the  bees  while 
they  are  at  work,  and  is  often  found  stowed  away  in  the  cavi- 
ties of  the  cells,  being  of  a  bitter  flavour  also.  It  is  produced 
from  the  spring  dews  and  the  gummy  juices  of  trees,  being 
less  abundant  while  the  south-west  wind  is  blowing,  and 
blackened  by  the  prevalence  of  a  south  wind.  On  the  other 
hand,  again,  it  is  of  a  reddish  colour  and  becomes  improved  by 
the  north-east  wind ;  it  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  upon 
the  nut  trees  in  Greece.  Menecrates  says,  that  it  is  a  flower, 
which  gives  indications  of  the  nature  of  the  coming  harvest ; 
but  no  one  says  so,  with  the  exception  of  him. 

CHAP.  8.  (8.) WHAT  ELOWEES  AEE  USED  BY  THE  BEES  IN  THEIR 

WOBE. 

Bees  form  wax18  from  the  blossoms  of  all  trees  and  plants, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  the  rumex19  and  the  echinopodes,*0 
both  being  kinds  of  herbs.  It  is  by  mistake,  however,  that 
spartum  is  excepted  ;21  for  many  varieties  of  honey  that  come 
from  Spain,  and  have  been  made  in  the  plantations  of  it,  have 
a  strong  taste  of  that  plant.  I  am  of  opinion,  also,  that  it  is 
without  any  sufficient  reason  that  the  olive  has  been  excepted, 
seeing  that  it  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  where  olives  are  in 
the  greatest  abundance,  the  swarms  of  bees  are  the  most  nu- 
merous.    Bees  are  not  injurious  to  fruit  of  any  kind  ;  they  will 

17  Different  combinations  of  the  pollen  of  flowers,  on  which  bees  feed. 

18  It  is  formed  from  the  honey  that  the  bee  has  digested. 

is  Sorrel,  or  monk's  rhubarb.  20  A  kind  of  broom. 

2i  Spanish  broom,  the  Stipa  tenacissima  of  Linnoeus.     Kopes  were  made 
of  it.     See  B.  xix.  c.  7. 


8  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

never  settle  on  a  dead  flower,  much  less  a  dead  carcase.  They 
pursue  their  labours  within  three- score  paces  of  their  hives  ; 
and  when  the  flowers  in  their  vicinity  are  exhausted,  they 
send  out  scouts  from  time  to  time,  to  discover  places  for  forage 
at  a  greater  distance.  When  overtaken  by  night  in  their  ex- 
peditions, they  watch  till  the  morning,  lying  on  their  backs, 
in  order  to  protect  their  wings  from  the  action  of  the  dew. 

CHAP.  9.   (9.) PERSONS  WHO  HAVE  MADE  BEES  THEIR  STUDY. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  there  have  been  persons  who  have 
made  bees  their  exclusive  study ;  Aristomachus  of  Soli,  for 
instance,  who  for  a  period  of  fifty-eight  years  did  nothing  else  ; 
Philiseus  of  Thasos,  also,  surnamed  Agrius,22  who  passed  his 
life  in  desert  spots,  tending  swarms  of  bees.  Both  of  these 
have  written  works  on  this  subject. 

CHAP.   10.   (10.) THE  MODE  IN  WHICH  BEES  WORK. 

The  manner  in  which  bees  carry  on  their  work  is  as  follows. 
In  the  _  day  time  a  guard  is  stationed  at  the  entrance  of  the 
hive,  like  the  sentries  in  a  camp.  At  night  they  take  their 
rest  until  the  morning,  when  one  of  them  awakes  the  rest  with 
a  humming  noise,  repeated  twice  or  thrice,  just  as  though  it  were 
sounding  a  trumpet.  They  then  take  their  flight  in  a  body, 
if  the  day  is  likely  to  turn  out  fine  ;  for  they  have  the  gift  of 
foreknowing  wind  and  rain,  and  in  such  case  will  keep  close 
within  their  dwellings.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  weather  is 
fine — and  this,  too,  they  have  the  power  of  foreknowing — the 
swarm  issues  forth,  and  at  once  applies  itself  to  its  work,  some 
loading  their  legs  from  the  flowers,  while  others  fill  their 
mouths  with  water,  and  charge  the  downy  surface  of  their 
bodies  with  drops  of  liquid.  Those  among  them  that  are 
young23  go  forth  to  their  labours,  and  collect  the  materials 
already  mentioned,  while  those  that  are  more  aged  stay  within 
the  hives  and  work.  The  bees  whose  business  it  is  to  carry 
the  flowers,  with  their  fore  feet  load  their  thighs,  which  Nature 
has  made  rough  for  the  purpose,  and  with  their  trunks  load 

22  Or,  the  "  wild  man." 

23  Huber  has  discovered  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  bees  of  neutral  sex, 
or,  as  he  calls  them,  unprolific  females,  the  workers,  which  go  out.  and 
the  nurses,  which  are  smaller,  and  stay  in  the  hive  to  tend  the  larva}.' 


Chap.  10.]  BEES.  9 

their  fore  feet :  bending  beneath  their  load,  they  then  return 
to  the  hive,  where  there  are  three  or  four  bees  ready  to  receive 
them  and  aid  in  discharging  their  burdens.  For,  within  the 
hive  as  well,  they  have  their  allotted  duties  to  perform  :  some 
are  engaged  in  building,  others  in.  smoothing,  the  combs,  while 
others  again  are  occupied  in  passing  on  the  materials,  and 
others  in  preparing  food24  from  the  provision  which  has  been 
brought ;  that  there  may  be  no  unequal  division,  either  in  their 
labour,  their  food,  or  the  distribution  of  their  time,  they  do  not 
even  feed  separately. 

Commencing  at  the  vaulted  roof  of  the  hive,  they  begin 
the  construction  of  their  cells,  and,  just  as  we  do  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  web,  they  construct  their  cells  from  top  to  bottom, 
taking  care  to  leave  two  passages  around  each  compartment, 
for  the  entrance  of  some  and  the  exit  of  others.  The  combs, 
which  are  fastened  to  the  hive  in  the  upper  part,  and  in  a 
slight  degree  also  at  the  sides,  adhere  to  each  other,  and  are 
thus  suspended  altogether.  They  do  not  touch  the  floor  of  the 
hive,  and  are  either  angular  or  round,  according  to  its  shape  ; 
sometimes,  in  fact,  they  are  both  angular  and  round  at  once, 
when  two  swarms  are  living  in  unison,  but  have  dissimilar 
modes  of  operation.  They  prop  up  the  combs  that  are  likely 
to  fall,  by  means  of  arched  pillars,  at  intervals  springing  from 
the  floor,  so  as  to  leave  them  a  passage  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  repairs.  The  first  three  ranks  of  their  cells  are  gene- 
rally left  empty  when  constructed,  that  there  may  be  nothing 
exposed  to  view  which  may  invite  theft ;  and  it  is  the  last 
ones,  more  especially,  that  are  filled  with  honey :  hence 
it  is  that  the  combs  are  always  taken  out  at  the  back  of  the 
hive. 

The  bees  that  are  employed  in  carrying  look  out  for  a  favour- 
able breeze,  and  if  a  gale  should  happen  to  spring  up,  they 
poise  themselves  in  the  air  with  little  stones,  by  way  of  bal- 
last ;  some  writers,  indeed,  say  that  they  place  them  upon  their 
shoulders.  When  the  wind  is  contrary,  they  fly  close  to  the 
ground,  taking  care,  however,  to  keep  clear  of  the  brambles. 
It  is  wonderful  what  strict  watch  is  kept  upon  their  work :  all 
instances  of  idleness  are  carefully  remarked,  the  offenders  are 

24  From  the  honey  found  in  the  corolla?  of  flowers.  This,  after  heing 
prepared  in  the  first  stomach  of  the  hee,  is  deposited  in  the  cell  which  is 
formed  for  its  reception. 


10  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

chastised,  and  on  a  repetition  of  the  fault,  punished  with  death. 
Their  sense  of  cleanliness,  too,  is  quite  extraordinary  ;  every- 
thing is  removed  that  might  be  in  the  way,  and  no  filth  is 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  midst  of  their  work.  The  ordure 
even  of  those  that  are  at  work  within,  that  they  may  not  have 
to  retire  to  any  distance,  is  all  collected  in  one  spot,  and  on 
stormy  days,  when  they  are  obliged  to  cease  their  ordinary 
labours,  they  employ  themselves  in  carrying  it  out.  When 
it  grows  towards  evening,  the  buzzing  in  the  hive  becomes 
gradually  less  and  less,  until  at  last  one  of  their  number  is  to 
be  seen  flying  about  the  hive  with  the  same  loud  humming 
noise  with  which  they  were  aroused  in  the  morning,  there- 
by giving  the  signal,  as  it  were,  to  retire  to  rest :  in  this,  too, 
they  imitate  the  usage  of  the  camp.  The  moment  the  signal 
is  heard,  all  is  silent. 

(11.)  They  first  construct  the  dwellings  of  the  commonalty, 
and  then  those  of  the  king-bee.  If  they  have  reason  to  expect 
an  abundant25  season,  they  add  abodes  also  for  the  drones: 
these  are  cells  of  a  smaller  size,  though  the  drones  themselves 
are  larger  than  the  bees. 

CHAP.    11. — DRONES. 

The  drones  have  no  sting,26  and  would  seem  to  be  a  kind  of 
imperfect  bee,  formed  the  very  last  of  all ;  the  expiring  effort, 
as  it  were,  of  worn-out  and  exhausted  old  age,  a  late  and  tardy 
offspring, "and  doomed,  in  a  measure,  to  be  the  slaves  of  the 
genuine  bees.  Hence  it  is  that  the  bees  exercise  over  thein  a 
rigorous  authority,  compel  them  to  take  the  foremost  rank  in 
their  labours,  and  if  they  show  any  sluggishness,  punish  them27 
without  mercy.  And  not  only  in  their  labours  do  the  drones 
give  them  their  assistance,  but  in  the  propagation  of  their  spe- 
cies as  well,  the  very  multitude  of  them  contributing  greatly 
to  the  warmth  of  the  hive.  At  all  events,  it  is  a  well-known 
fact,  that  the  greater28  the  multitude  of  the  drones,  the  more 

25  Cuvier  says  that  the  three  kinds  of  cells  are  absolutely  necessary,  and 
that  they  do  not  depend  on  the  greater  or  less  abundance.  The  king  ot 
the  ancients  is  what  we  know  as  thegueenhee,  which  is  impregnated  by  the 
drones  or  males. 

26  This  is  the  fact,  but  not  so  their  imperfect  state. 

w  They  do  not  work,  but  merely  impregnate  the  queen;,  after  which 
they  are  driven  from  the  hive,  and  perish  of  cold  and  starvation. 

=8  It  appears,  as  Cuvier  says,  that  the  ancients  had  some  notion  that  the 
swarm  was  multiplied  by  the  aid  of  the  drones. 


Chap.  12.]  QUALITIES    OF   HONEY.  11 

numerous  is  sure  to  be  the  progeny  of  the  swarm.  When  the 
honey  is  beginning  to  come  to  maturity,  the  bees  drive  away 
the  drones,  and  setting  upon  each  in  great  numbers,  put  them 
all  to  death.  It  is  only^in  the  spring  that  the  drones  are 
ever  to  be  seen.  If  you  deprive  a  drone  of  its  wings,  and  then 
replace  it  in  the  hive,  it  will  pull  off  the  wings  of  the  other 
drones. 

CHAP.    12. THE    QUALITIES   OF   HONEY. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  hive  they  construct  for  their  future 
sovereign  a  palatial  abode,29  spacious  and  grand,  separated  from 
the  rest,  and  surmounted  by  a  sort  of  dome :  if  this  promi- 
nence should  happen  to  be  flattened,  all  hopes  of  progeny  are 
lost.  All  the  cells  are  hexagonal,  each  foot30  having  formed 
its  own  side.  No  part  of  this  work,  however,  is  done  at  any 
stated  time,  as  the  bees  seize  every  opportunity  for  the  perform- 
ance of  their  task  when  the  days  are  fine ;  in  one  or  two 
days,  at  most,  they  fill  their  cells  with  honey. 

(12.)  This  substance  is  engendered  from  the  air,31  mostly  at 
the  rising  of  the  constellations,  and  more  especially  when 
Sirius  is  shining ;  never,  however,  before  the  rising  of  the 
Vergiliae,  and  then  just  before  day-break.  Hence  it  is,  that  at 
early  dawn  the  leaves  of  the  trees  are  found  covered  with  a 
kind  of  honey-like  dew,  and  those  who  go  into  the  open  air  at 
an  early  hour  in  the  morning,  find  their  clothes  covered,  and 
their  hair  matted,  with  a  sort  of  unctuous  liquid.  Whether 
it  is  that  this  liquid  is  the  sweat  of  the  heavens,  or  whether 
a  saliva  emanating  from  the  stars,  or  a  juice  exuding  from  the 
air  while  purifying  itself,  would  that  it  had  been,  when  it 
comes  to  us,  pure,  limpid,  and  genuine,  as  it  was,  when  first 
it  took  its  downward  descent.  But  as  it  is,  falling  from  so 
vast  a  height,  attracting  corruption  in  its  passage,  and  tainted 
by  the  exhalations  of  the  earth  as  it  meets  them,  sucked,  too, 
as  it  is  from  off  the  trees  and  the  herbage  of  the  fields,  and 
accumulated  in  the  stomachs  of  the  bees — for  they  cast  it  up 

29  Cuvier  says  that  the  cell  for  the  future  queen  is  different  from  the 
others,  and  much  larger.  -  The  bees  also  supply  the  queen  larva  much  more 
abundantly  with  food,  and  of  more  delicate  quality. 

50  Cuvier  says  that  this  coincidence  with  the  number  of  the  legs  is  quite 
accidental,  as  it  is  with  the  mouth  that  the  animal  constructs  the  cell. 

51  The  basis  of  it  is  really  derived  from  the  calix  or  corolla  of  flowers. 


12  plant's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

again  through  the  mouth — deteriorated  besides  by  the  juices 
of  flowers,  and  then  steeped  within  the  hives  and  subjected  to 
such  repeated  changes — still,  in  spite  of  all  this,  it  affords  us 
by  its  flavour  a  most  exquisite  pleasure,  the  result,  no  doubt, 
of  its  aethereal  nature  and  origin. 

CHAP.    13.    (13.) WHERE    THE    BEST    HONEY    IS    PRODUCED. 

The  honey  is  always  best  in  those  countries  where  it  is  to 
be  found  deposited  in  the  calix  of  the  most  exquisite  flowers, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  districts  of  Hymettus  and  Hybla, 
in  Attica  and  Sicily  respectively,  and  after  them  the  island  of 
Calydna.33  At  first,  honey  is  thin,  like  water,  after  which  it 
effervesces  for  some  days,  and  purifies  itself  like  must.  On 
the  twentieth  day  it  begins  to  thicken,  and  soon  after  becomes 
covered  with  a  thin  membrane,  which  gradually  increases 
through  the  scum  which  is  thrown  up  by  the  heat.  The 
honey  of  the  very  finest  flavour,  and  the  least  tainted  by  the 
leaves  of  trees,  is  that  gathered  from  the  foliage  of  the  oak 
and  the  linden,  and  from  reeds. 

CHAP.  14.  (14.) THE  KINDS  OP  HONEY  PECULIAR  TO  VARIOUS 

PLACES. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  honey  depends,  as  already  stated,33 
on  the  country  in  which  it  is  produced ;  the  modes,  too,  of 
estimating  its  quality  are  numerous.  In  some  countries  we  find 
the  honey-comb  remarkable  for  the  goodness  of  the  wax,  as  in 
Sicily,  for  instance,  and  the  country  of  the  Peligni ;  in  other 
places  the  honey  itself  is  found  in  greater  abundance,  as  in 
Crete,  Cyprus,  and  Africa ;  and  in  others,  again,  the  comb  is 
remarkable  for  its  size  ;  the  northern  climates,  for  instance, 
for  in  Germany  a  comb  has  been  known  to  be  as  much  as  eight 
feet  in  length,  and  quite  black  on  the  concave  surface. 

But  whatever  the  country  in  which  it  may  happen  to  have  been 
produced,  there  are  three  different  kinds  of  honey. — Spring 
honey34  is  that  made  in  a  comb  which  has  been  constructed  of 
flowers,  from  wThich  circumstance  it  has  received  the  name  of  an- 
thinum.  There  are  some  persons  who  say  that  this  should  not 
be  touched,  because  the  more  abundant  the  nutriment,  the 

v  See  B.  iv.  c.  24.  33  In  the  last  Chapter. 

34  or  a  Flower-honey." 


Chap.  14]  VARI0T7S    KINDS   OF   HONEY.  13 

stronger  will  be  the  coming  swarm  ;  while  others,  again,  leave 
less  of  this  honey  than  of  any  other  for  the  bees,  on  the  ground 
that  there  is  sure  to  be  a  vast  abundance  at  the  rising  of  the 
greater  constellations,  as  well  as  at  the  summer  solstice,  when 
the  thyme  and  the  vine  begin  to  blossom,  for  then  they  are 
sure  to  find  abundant  materials  for  their  cells. 

In  taking  the  combs  the  greatest  care  is  always  requisite,  for 
when  they  are  stinted  for  food  the  bees  become  desperate,  and 
either  pine  to  death,  or  else  wing  their  flight  to  other  places  : 
but  on  the  other  hand,  over- abundance  will  entail  idleness, 
and  then  they  will  feed  upon  the  honey,  and  not  the  bee-bread. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  most  careful  breeders  take  care  to  leave 
the  bees  a  fifteenth  part  of  this  gathering.  There  is  a  certain 
day  for  beginning  the  honey- gathering,  fixed,  as  it  were,  by  a 
law  of  Nature,  if  men  would  only  understand  or  observe  it, 
being  the  thirtieth  day  after  the  bees  have  swarmed  and  come 
forth.  This  gathering  mostly  takes  place  before  the  end  of 
May. 

The  second  kind  of  honey  is  "summer  honey,"  which,  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  being  produced  at  the  most  favourable 
season,  has  received  the  Greek  name  of  horaion  ;35  it  is  gene- 
rally made  during  the  next  thirty  days  after  the  solstice,  while 
Sirius  is  shining  in  all  its  brilliancy.  Nature  has  revealed  in 
this  substance  most  remarkable  properties  to  mortals,  were  it 
not  that  the  fraudulent  propensities  of  man  are  apt  to  falsify 
and  corrupt  everything.  For,  after  the  rising  of  each  constel- 
lation, and  those  of  the  highest  rank  more  particularly,  ot  after 
the  appearance  of  the  rainbow,  if  a  shower  does  not  ensue, 
but  the  dew  becomes  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays,  a  medicament, 
and  not  real  honey,  is  produced  ;  a  gift  sent  from  heaven  for 
the  cure  of  diseases  of  the  eyes,  ulcers,  and  maladies  of  the 
internal  viscera.  If  this  is  taken  at  the  rising  of  Sirius,  and 
the  rising  of  Yenus,  Jupiter,  or  Mercury  should  happen  to  fall 
on  the  same  day,  as  often  is  the  case,  the  sweetness  of  this 
substance,  and  the  virtue  which  it  possesses  of  restoring  men 
to  life,  are  not  inferior  to  those  attributed  to  the  nectar  of  the 
gods. 

35  Season-honey. 


14  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

CHAP.     15.    (15.) HOW    HONEY    IS    TESTED.       ERICUETJM.       TETRA- 

LIX,    OR   SISIRTTM. 

The  crop  of  honey  is  most  abundant  if  gathered  at  full 
moon,  and  it  is  richest  when  the  weather  is  fine.  In  all 
honey,  that  which  flows  of  itself,  like  must  or  oil,  has  received 
from'us  the  name  of  acetum.™  The  summer  honey  is  the  most 
esteemed  of  all,  from  the  fact  of  its  being  made  when  the 
weather  is  driest :  it  is  looked  upon  as  the  most  serviceable 
when  made  from  thyme  f  it  is  then  of  a  golden  colour,  and 
of  a  most  delicious  flavour.  The  honey  that  we  see  formed 
in  the  calix  of  flowers  is  of  a  rich  and  unctuous  nature  ;  that 
which  is  made  from  rosemary  is  thick,  while  that  which  is 
candied  is  little  esteemed.  Thyme  honey  does  not  coagulate, 
and  on  being  touched  will  draw  out  into  thin  viscous  threads, 
a  thing  which  is  the  principal  proof  of  its  heaviness.  When 
honey  shows  no  tenacity,  and  the  drops  immediately  part 
from  one  another,  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  its  worthless- 
ness.  The  other  proofs  of  its  goodness  are  the  fine  aroma  of 
its  smell,  its  being  of  a  sweetness  that  closely  borders  on  the 
sour,38  and  being  glutinous  and  pellucid.  _ 

Cassius  Dionysius  is  of  opinion  that  in  the  summer  gathering 
the  tenth  part  of  the  honey  ought  to  be  left  for  the  bees  if  the 
hives  should  happen  to  be  well  filled,  and  even  if  not,  still  in 
the  same  proportion  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  but 
little  in  them,  he  recommends  that  it  should  not  be  touched 
at  all.  The  people  of  Attica  have  fixed  the  period  for  com- 
mencing this  gathering  at  the  first  ripening  of  the  wild  fig ; 
others39  have  made  it  the  day  that  is  sacred  to  Yulcan.40 

(16.)  The  third  kind  of  honey,  which  is  the  least  esteemed 
of  all,  is  the  wild  honey,  known  by  the  name  of  ericaum*  It 
is  collected  by  the  bees  after  the  first  showers  of  autumn 
when  the  heather42  alone  is  blooming  in  the  woods,  from  which 
circumstance  it  derives  its  sandy  appearance.  It  is  mostly  pro- 
se "  Vinegar  "  is  the  ordinary  meaning. 
3'  Sillig  remarks  that  the  whole  of  this  passage  is  corrupt. 

38  Hence,  perhaps,  its  name  of  "acetum." 

39  The  people  of  Italy. 

40  The  10th  of  the  calends  of  September,  or  23rd  August. 

4i  Or  "  heath-honey."  In  the  north  of  England  the  hives  are  purposely 
taken  to  the  moors.  .     „ 

*»  "Erice,"  "heather,"  seems  to  be  a  preferable  reading  to      myrice, 
"  tamarisk,"  which  is  adopted  by  Sillig. 


Chap.  15.]  BEES.  15 

duced  at  the  rising  of  Arcturus,  beginning  at  the  day43  before 
the  ides  of  September.  Some  persons  delay  the  gathering  of 
the  summer  honey  until  the  rising  of  Arcturus,  because  from 
then  till  the  autumnal  equinox  there  are  fourteen  days  left, 
and  it  is  from  the  equinox  till  the  setting  of  the  Vergilise,  a  pe- 
riod of  forty-eight  days,  that  the  heather  is  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance. The  Athenians  call  this  plant  by  the  name  of  tetralix,u 
and  the  Eubceans  sisirum,  and  they  look  upon  it  as  affording 
great  pleasure  to  the  bees  to  browse  upon,  probably  because 
there  are  no  other  flowers  for  them  to  resort  to.  This  gather- 
ing terminates  at  the  end  of  the  vintage  and  the  setting  of 
the  Vergiliae,  mostly  about  the  ides  of  November.45  Expe- 
rience teaches  us  that  we  ought  to  leave  for  the  bees  two- 
thirds  of  this  crop,  and  always  that  part  of  the  combs  as  well, 
which  contains  the  bee-bread. 

From  the  winter  solstice  to  the  rising  of  Arcturus  the  bees 
are  buried  in  sleep  for  sixty  days,  and  live  without  any  nourish- 
ment. Between  the  rising  of  Arcturus  and  the  vernal  equinox, 
they  awake  in  the  warmer  climates,  but  even  then  they  still 
keep  ^within  the  hives,  and  have  recourse  to  the  provisions 
kept  in  reserve  for  this  period.  In  Italy,  however,  they  do 
this  immediately  after  the  rising  of  the  Yergilia?,  up  to  which 
period  they  are  asleep.  Some  persons,  when  they  take  the 
honey,  weigh  the  hive  and  all,  and  remove  just  as  much  as 
they  leave :  a  due  sense  of  equity  should  always  be  stringently 
observed  in  dealing  with  them,  and  it  is  generally  stated  that 
if  imposed  upon  in  this  division,  the  swarm  will  die  of  grief. 
It  is  particularly  recommended  also  that  the  person  who  takes 
the  honey  should  be  well  washed  and  clean  :  bees  have  a  par- 
ticular aversion,  too,  to  a  thief  and  a  menstruous  woman.  When 
the  honey  is  taken,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  drive  away  the  bees 
by  means  of  smoke,  lest  they  should  become  irritated,  or  else 
devour  the  honey  themselves.  By  often  applying  smoke,  too, 
they  are  aroused  from  their  idleness  to  work  ;  but  if  they  have 
not  duly  incubated  in  the  comb,  it  is  apt  to  become  of  a 
livid  colour.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they  are  smoked  too  often, 
they  will  become  tainted ;  the  honey,  too,  a  substance  which 
turns  sour  at  the  very  slightest  contact  with  dew,  will  very 

43  12th  September. 

u  "Tetralicem"  seems  preferable  to  "  tamaricem." 

*5  13th  November. 


16  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

quickly  receive  injury  from  the  taint  thus  contracted  :  hence 
it  is  that  among  the  various  kinds  of  honey  which  are  pre- 
served, there  is  one  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  acapnonJ* 

CHAP.    16. THE    REPRODUCTION    OF    PEES. 

How  bees  generate  their  young  has  been  a  subject  of  great 
arid  subtle  research  among  the  learned  ;  seeing  that  no  one  has 
ever  witnessed47  any  sexual  intercourse  among  these  insects. 
Many  persons  have  expressed  an  opinion  that  they  must  be 
produced  from  flowers,  aptly  and  artistically  arranged  by 
Nature ;  while  others,  again,  suppose  that  they  are  produced 
from  an  intercourse  with  the  one  which  is  to  be  found  in  every 
swarm,  and  is.  usually  called  the  king.  This  one,  they  say,  is 
the  only  male48  in  the  hive,  and  is  endowed  with  such  ex- 
traordinary proportions,  that  it  may  not  become  exhausted 
in  the  performance  of  its  duties.  Hence  it  is,  that  no  off- 
spring can  be  produced  without  it,  all  the  other  bees  being 
females,49  and.  attending  it  in  its  capacity  of  a  male,  and  not 
as  their  leader.  This  opinion,  however,  which  is  otherwise 
not  improbable,  is  sufficiently  refuted  by  the  generation  of  the 
drones.  For  on  what  grounds  could  it  possibly  happen  that 
the  same  intercourse  should  produce  an  offspring  part  of  which 
is  perfect,  and  part  in  an  imperfect  state?  The  first  surmise 
which  I  have  mentioned  would  appear,  indeed,  to  be  much 
nearer  the  truth,  were  it  not  the  case  that  here  another  diffi- 
culty meets  us — the  circumstance  that  sometimes,  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  combs,  there  are  produced  bees  of  a  larger  size, 
which  put  the  others  to  flight.  This  noxious  bee  bears  the 
name  of  cestrus,50  and  how  is  it  possible  that  it  should  ever  be 
produced,  if  it  is  the  fact  that  the  bees  themselves  form  their 
progeny  ?51 

A  fact,  however,  that  is  well  ascertained,  is,  that  bees  sit,53 
like  the  domestic  fowl,   that  which  is  hatched  by  them  at 

46  "  Unsmoked  "  honey. 

47  It  takes  place  while  they  are  on  the  wing. 

48  The  only  prolific  female,  in  reality. 

49  Some  unprolific  females  and  some  males,  in  reality. 

bo  Cuvier  thinks  that  either  hornets,  or  else  the  drones,  must  be  alluded 
to.  Virgil,  Georg.  B.  iv.  1.  197,  et  seq.,  is  one  of  those  who  think  that 
bees  are  produced  from  flowers. 

51  I.  e.  from  flowers. 

53  They  arrange  the  eggs  in  the  cells,  but  they  cannot  be  said  to  sit. 


Chap.  .16.]  bees.  \y 

first  having  the  appearance  of  a  white  maggot,  and  lying  across 
and  adhering  so  tenaciously  to  the  wax  as  to  seem  to  be  part  of  it. 
The  king,  however,  from  the  earliest  moment,  is  of  the  colour 
of  honey,  just  as  though  he  were  made  of  the  choicest  flowers, 
nor  has  he  at  any  time  the  form  of  a  grub,  but  from  the  very 
first  is  provided  with  wings.53  The  rest  of  the  bees,  as  soon 
as  they  begin  to  assume  a  shape,  have  the  name  of  nympha^ 
while  the  drones  are  called  sirenes,  or  cephenes.  If  a  per- 
son  takes  off  the  head  of  either  kind  before  the  wings  are 
formed,  the  rest  of  the  body  is  considered  a  most  choice  morsel 
by  the  parents.  In  process  of  time  the  parent  bees  instil 
nutriment  into  them,  and  sit  upon  them,  making  on  this  occa- 
sion a  loud  humming  noise,  for  the  purpose,  it  is  generally 
supposed,  of  generating  that  warmth  which  is  so  requisite  for 
hatching  the  young.  At  length  the  membrane  in  which  each 
of  them  is  enveloped,  as  though  it  lay  in  an  egg,  bursts  asunder, 
and  the  whole  swarm  comes  to  light. 

This  circumstance  was  witnessed  at  the  suburban  retreat  of 
a  man  of  consular  dignity  near  Rome,  whose  hives  were  made 
of  transparent  lantern  horn  :  the  young  were  found  to  be  deve- 
loped in  the  space  of  forty-five  days.  In  some  combs,  there  is 
found  what  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  nail"  wax  ;55  it  is  bitter 
and  hard,  and  is  only  met  with  when  the  bees  have  failed  to 
hatch  their  young,  either  from  disease  or  a  natural  sterility, 
it  is  the  abortion,  in  fact,  of  the  bees.  The  young  ones,  the 
moment  they  are  hatched,  commence  working  with  their 
parents,  as  though  in  a  course  of  training,  and  the  newly-born 
king  is  accompanied  by  a  multitude  of  his  own  age. 

That  the  supply  may  not  run  short,  each  swarm  rears  seve- 
ral kings ;  but  afterwards,  when  this  progeny  begins  to  arrive 
at  a  mature  age,  with  one  accord56  they  put  to  death  the  in- 
ferior ones,  lest  they  should  create  discord  in  the  swarm.57 
There  are  two  sorts  of  king  bees  ;  those  of  a  reddish  colour  are 
better  than  the  black  and  mottled  ones.      The  kings  have 

53  This  is  not  the  fact.  The  queen  bee  commences  as  a  larva,  and  that 
the  larva  of  a  working  bee,  Cuvier  says,  which,  placed  in  a  larger  cell, 
and  nurtured  in  a  different  manner,  developes  its  sex  and  becomes  the  queen 
of  the  new  swarm. 

54  They  are  then  in  the  chrysalis  state. 

55  "Clavus." 

56  It  is  the  first  hatched  queen  that  puts  the  others  to  death. 

57  In  consequence,  really,  of  their  pregnancy. 

VOL.    III.  C 


19  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

always  a  peculiar  form  of  their  own,  and  are  double  the  size 
of  any  of  the  rest ;  their  wings  are  shorter53  than  those  ot  the 
others,  their  legs  are  straight,  their  walk  more  upright,  and 
they  have  a  white  spot  on  the  forehead,  which  bears  some  re- 
semblance to  a  diadem  :  they  differ,  too,  very  much  from  the 
rest  of  the  community,  in  their  bright  and  shining  appearance. 

CHAP.   17.  (17.) THE  MODE  OF  GOVERNMENT  OE  THE  BEES. 

Let  a  man  employ  himself,  forsooth,  in  the  enquiry  whether 
there  has  been  only  one  Hercules,  how  many  fathers  Liber 
there  have  been,  and  all  the  other  questions  which  are  buried 
deep  in  the  mould  of  antiquity!     Here  behold  a  tiny  object, 
one  to  be  met. with  at  most  of  our  country  retreats,  and  num- 
bers of  which  are  always  at  hand,  and  yet,  after  all,  it  is  not 
agreed  among  authors  whether  or  not  the  king59  is  the  only  one 
among  them  that  is  provided  with  no  sting,  and  is  possessed 
of  no  other  arms  than  those  afforded  him  by  his  majestic  office, 
or  whether  Nature  has  granted  him  a  sting,  and  has  only  denied 
him  the  power  of  making  use  of  it ;  it  being  a  well-known 
fact,  that  the  ruling  bee  never  does  use  a  sting.   _  The_  obedi- 
ence which  his  subjects  manifest  in  his  presence  is  quite  sur- 
prising.    When  he  goes  forth,  the  whole  swarm  attends  him, 
throngs  about  him,  surrounds  him,  protects  him,  and  will  not 
allow  him  to  be  seen.     At  other  times,  when  the  swarm  is  at 
work  within,  the  king  is  seen  to  visit  the  works,  and  appears 
to  be  giving  his  encouragement,   being  himself  the  only  one 
that  is  exempt  from  work  :  around  him  are  certain  other  bees 
which  act  as  body-guards  and  lictors,  the  careful  guardians  of 
his  authority.     The  king  never  quits  the  hive  except  when  the 
swarm  is  about  to  depart ;  a  thing  which  may  be  known  a  long 
time  beforehand,  as  for  some  days  a  peculiar  buzzing  noise 
is  to  be  heard  within,  which  denotes  that  the  bees  are  waiting 
for  a  favourable  day,  and  making  all  due  preparations  for  their 
departure.     On  such  an  occasion,  if  care  is  taken  to  deprive  the 
king  of  one  of  his  wings,  the  swarm  will  not  fly  away.  _  When 
they  are  on  the  wing,  every  one  is  anxious  to  be  near  him,  and 
takes  a  pleasure  in  being  seen  in  the  performance  of  its  duty. 
When  he  is  weary,  they  support  him  on  their  shoulders  ;  and 

58  The  greater  size  of  the  abdomen  makes  the  wings  look  shorter. 
w  The  queen  has  a  sting,  like  the  working  bees,  but  uses  it  less  fre- 
quently. 


Chap.  18.]  OMENS  AFFORDED  BY  A  SWARM  OF  BEES.  19 

when  he  is  quite  tired,  they  cany  him  outright.  If  one  of  them 
falls  in  the  rear  from  weariness,  or  happens  to  go  astray,  it  is 
able  to  follow  the  others  by  the  aid  of  its  acuteness  of  smell. 
Wherever  the  king  bee  happens  to  settle,  that  becomes  the 
encampment  of  all. 

CHAP.    18. HAPPY     OMENS     SOMETIMES    AFFORDED     BY    A    SWARM 

OE    BEES. 

And  then,  too,  it  is  that  they  afford  presages  both  of  private 
and  public  interest,  clustering,  as  they  do,  like  a  bunch  of 
grapes,  upon  houses  or  temples ;  presages,  in  fact,  that  are  often 
accounted  for  by  great  events.  Bees  settled  upon  the  lips  of 
Plato  when  still  an  infant  even,  announcing  thereby  the  sweet- 
ness of  that  persuasive  eloquence  for  which  he  was  so  noted. 
Bees  settled,  too,  in  the  camp  of  the  chieftain  Drusus  when 
he  gained  the  brilliant  -victory  at  Arbalo  ;60  a  proof,  indeed, 
that  the  conjectures  of  soothsayers  are  not  by  any  means  in- 
fallible, seeing  that  they  are  of  opinion  that  this  is  always  of 
evil  augury.  When  their  leader  is  withheld  from  them,  the 
swarm  can  always  be  detained  ;  and  when  lost,  it  will  disperse 
and  take  its  departure  to  find  other  kings.  Without  a  king, 
in  fact,  they  cannot  exist,  and  it  is  with  the  greatest  reluct- 
ance that  they  put  them  to  death  when  there  are  several ;  they 
prefer,  too,  to  destroy  the  cells  of  the  young  ones,  if  they  find 
reason  to  despair  of  providing  food ;  in  such  case  they  then 
expel  the  drones.  And  yet,  with  regard  to  the  last,  I  find  that 
some  doubts  are  entertained  ;  and  that  there  are  some  authors 
who  are  of  opinion  that  they  form  a  peculiar  species,  like  that 
bee,  the  very  largest  among  them  all,  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  "  thief,"61  because  it  furtively  devours  the  honey ; 
it  is  distinguished  by  its  black  colour  and  the  largeness  of  its 
body.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  however,  that"  the  bees  are  in 
the  habit  of  killing  the  drones.  These  last  have  no  king  of 
their  own ;  but  how  it  is  that  they  are  produced  without  a 
sting,  is  a  matter  still  undetermined. 

In  a  wet  spring  the  young  swarms  are  more  numerous  ;  in 
a  dry  one  the  honey  is  most  abundant.     If  food  happens  to 

60  A  place  in  Germany,  where  Drusus,  the  brother  of  Tiberius,  gained 
a  victory  over  the  Germans  :  the  locality  is  unknown. 
G1  "  Fur."     A  variety,  probablv,  of  the  drone. 

c2 


20  PLINY'S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XL 

fail  the  inhabitants  of  any  particular  hive,  the  swarm  makes 
a  concerted  attack  upon  a  neighbouring  one,  with  the  view  of 
plundering  it.  The  swarm  that  is  thus  attacked,  at  once 
ranges  itself  in  battle  array,  and  if  the  bee-keeper  should 
happen  to  be  present,  that  side  which  perceives  itself  favoured 
by  him  will  refrain  from  attacking  him.  They  often  fight, 
too,  for  other  reasons  as  well,  and  the  two  generals  are  t;o  be 
seen  drawing  up  their  ranks  in  battle  array  against  their  op- 
ponents. The  dispute  generally  arises  in  culling  from  the 
flowers,  when  each,  the  moment  "that  it  is  in  danger,  summons 
its  companions  to  its  aid.  The  battle,  however,  is  immediately 
put  an  end  to  by  throwing  dust62  among  them,  or  raising  a 
smoke ;  and  if  milk  or  honey  mixed  with  water  is  placed  be- 
fore them,  they  speedily  become  reconciled. 

CHAT.   19.    (18.) THE    VARIOUS    KINDS    OF   BEES. 

There  are  field  bees  also,  and  wild  bees,  ungainly  in  appear- 
ance, and  much  more  irascible  than  the  others,  but  remarkable 
for  their  laboriousness  and  the  excellence  of  their  work.  Of 
domestic  bees  there  are  two  sorts ;  the  best  are  those  with 
short  bodies,  speckled  all  over,  and  of  a  compact  round  shape. 
Those  that  are  long,  and  resemt}le  the  wasp  in  appearance, 
are  an  inferior  kind ;  and  of  these  last,  the  very  worst  of  all 
are  those  which  have  the  body  covered  with  hair.  In  Pontus 
there  is  a  kind  of  white  bee,  which  makes  honey  twice  a 
month.  On  the  banks  of  the  river  Thermodon  there  are 
two  kinds  found,  one  of  which  makes  honey  in  the  trees,  the 
other  under  ground :  they  form  a  triple  row  of  combs,  and 
produce  honey  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

Nature  has  provided  bees  with  a  sting,  which  is  inserted  in 
the  abdomen  of  the  insect.  There  are  some  who  think  that 
at  the  first  blow  which  they  inflict  with  this  weapon  they  will 
instantly  die,63  while  others,  again,  are  of  opinion  that  such  is 
not  the  case,  unless  the  animal  drives  it  so  deep  as  to  cause 
a  portion  of  the  intestines  to  follow ;  and  they  assert,  also, 
that  after  they  have  thus  lost  their  sting  they  become  drones,64 

62  So  Virgil  says — 

"  Haec  certamina  tanta 

Pulveris  exigui  jactu  compressa  quiescent." — Georg.  iv.  87. 

63  If  it  is  left  in  tbe  wound,  the  insect  dies,  being  torn  asunder. 

64  Of  course  this  is  fabulous,  as  the  drones  are  males. 


Chap.  20.]  THE   DISEASES    OF   BEES.  21 

and  make  no  honey,  being  thus  castrated,  so  to  say,  and 
equally  incapable  of  inflicting  injury,  and  of  making  themselves 
useful  by  their  labours.  "We  have  instances  stated  of  horses 
being  killed  by  bees. 

They  have  a  great  aversion  to  had  smells,  and  fly  away 
from  them ;  a  dislike  which  extends  to  artificial  perfumes 
even.  Hence  it  is  that  they  will  attack  persons  who  smell 
of  unguents.  They  themselves,  also,  are  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  wasps  and  hornets,  which  belong  to  the  same  class, 
but  are  of  a  degenerate65  nature ;  these  wage  continual  warfare 
against  them,  as  also  does  a  species  of  gnat,  which  is  known 
by  the  name  of  "  mulio;"66  swallows,  too,  and  various  other 
birds  prey  upon  them.  Frogs  lie  in  wait  for  them  when  in 
quest  of  water,  which,  in  fact,  is  their  principal  occupation 
at  the  time  they  are  rearing  their  young.  And  it  is  not  only 
the  frog  that  frequents  ponds  and  streams  that  is  thus  injuri- 
ous to  them,  but  the  bramble-frog  as  well,  which  will  come 
to  the  hives  even  in  search  of  them,  and,  crawling  up  to  the 
entrance,  breathe  through  the  apertures ;  upon  hearing  which,  a 
bee  flies  to  the  spot,  and  is  snapped  up  in  an  instant.  It  is 
generally  stated  that  frogs  are  proof  against  the  sting  of  the 
bee.  Sheep,  too,  are  peculiarly  dangerous  to  them,  as  they 
have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  extricating  themselves  from 
the  fleece.  The  smell  of  crabs,67  if  they  happen  to  be  cooked  in 
their  vicinity,  is  fatal  to  them. 

CHAP.    20. — THE   DISEASES   OF   BEES. 

Bees  are  also  by  nature  liable  to  certain  diseases  of  their 
own.  The  sign  that  they  are  diseased,  is  a  kind  of  torpid, 
moping  sadness  :  on  such  occasions,  they  are  to  be  seen  bring- 
ing out  those  that  are  sick  before  the  hives,  and  placing  them 
in  the  warm  sun,  while  others,  again,  are  providing  them  with 
food.  Those  that  are  dead  they  carry  away  from  the  hive, 
and  attend  the  bodies,  paying  their  last  duties,  as  it  were,  in 
funeral  procession.  If  the  king  should  happen  to  be  carried 
off  by  the  pestilence,  the  swarm  remains  plunged  in  grief  and 
listless  inactivity  ;  it  collects  no  more  food,  and  ceases  to  issue 

65  Though  helonging  to  the  same  class,  they  are  not  of  degenerate  kinds. 

66  The  "  mule-gnat." 

67  See  Virgil,  Georg.  B.  iv.  1.  27. 


22  pliny's  natukal  HISTOET.  [Book  XI. 

forth  from  its  abode ;  the  only  thing  that  it  does  is  to  gather 
around  the  body,  and  to  emit  a  melancholy  humming  noise. 
Upon  such  occasions,  the  usual  plan  is  to  disperse  the  swarm 
and  take  away  the  body ;  for  otherwise  they  would  continue 
listlessly  gazing  upon  it,  and  so  prolong  their  grief.  Indeed, 
if  due  care  is  not  taken  to  come  to  their  aid,  they  will  die  of 
hunger.  It  is  from  their  cheerfulness,  in  fact,  and  their 
bright  and  sleek  appearance  that  we  usually  form  an  estimate 
as  to  their  health. 

(19)  There  are  certain  maladies,  also,  which  affect  their 
productions  ;  when  they  do  not  fill  their  combs,  the  disease 
under  which  they  are  labouring  is  known  by  the  name  of 
c!aros,&s  and  if  they  fail  to  rear  their  young,  they  are  suffering 
from  the  effects  of  that  known  as  Mapsigonia.™ 

CHAP.  21. THINGS  THAT  ARE  NOXIOUS  TO  BEES. 

Echo,  or  the  noise  made  by  the  reverberation  of  the  air, 
is  also  injurious  to  bees,  as  it  dismays  them  by  its  redoubled 
sounds ;  fogs,  also,  are  noxious  to  them.  Spiders,  too,  are  espe- 
cially hostile  to  bees;  when  they  have  gone  so  far  as  to  build  their 
webs  within  the  hive,  the  death  of  the  whole  swarm  is  the  result. 
The  common  and  ignoble  moth,70  too,  that  is  to  be  seen  fluttering 
about  a  burning  candle,  is  deadly  to  them,  and  that  in  more 
ways  than  one.  It  devours  the  wax,  and  leaves  its  ordure 
behind  it,  from  which  the  maggot  known  to  us  as  the  "  teredo  " 
is  produced ;  besides  which,  wherever  it  goes,  it  drops  the 
down  from  off  its  wings,  and  thereby  thickens  the  threads  of 
the  cobwebs.  The  teredo  is  also  engendered  in  the  wood  of 
the  hive,  and  then  it  proves  especially  destructive  to  the  wax. 
Bees  are  the  victims,  also,  of  their  own  greediness,  for  when 
they  glut  themselves  overmuch  with  the  juices  of  the  flowers,  in 
the  spring  season  more  particularly,  they  are  troubled  with 
flux  and  looseness.  Olive  oil  is  fatal71  to  not  only  bees,  but 
all  other  insects  as  well,  and  more  especially  if  they  are  placed 

68  The  reading  seems  doubtful,  and  the  meaning  is  probably  unknown. 

69  "  Injury  of  the  young." 

7"  There  are  two  kinds  of  hive-moth — the  Phalsena  tinea  mellanella  of 
Linnsus,  and  the  Phaloena  tortrix  cereana.  It  deposits  its  larva  in  holes 
which  it  makes  in  the  wax. 

71  In  consequence  of  closing  the  stigmata,  and  so  impeding  their  respi- 
ration. The  same  result,  no  doubt,  is  produced  by  the  honey  when  smeared 
over  their  bodies. 


Chap.  23]  METHODS  OE  RENEWING  THE  BWABM.  23 

in  the  sun,  after  the  head  has  been  immersed  in  it.  Some- 
times, too,  they  themselves  are  the  cause  of  their  own  de- 
struction ;  as,  for  instance,  when  they  see  preparations  being 
made  for  taking  their  honey,  and  immediately  fall  to  de- 
vouring it  with  the  greatest  avidity.  In  other  respects  they  are 
remarkable  for  their  abstemiousness,  and  they  will  expel 
those  that  are  inclined  to  be  prodigal  and  voracious,  no  less  than 
those  that  are  sluggish  and  idle.  Their  own  honey  even  may 
be  productive  of  injury  to  them  ;  for  if  they  are  smeared  with 
it  on  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  it  is  fatal  to  them.  Such  are 
the  enemies,  so  numerous  are  the  accidents — and  how  small  a 
portion  of  them  have  I  here  enumerated  ! — to  which  a  crea- 
ture that  proves  so  bountiful  to  us  is  exposed.  In  the  appro- 
priate place72  we  will  treat  of  the  proper  remedies ;  for  the 
present  the  nature  of  them  is  our  subject. 

chap.  22.  (20.) — how  to  keep  bees  to  the  hive. 
The  clapping  of  the  hands  and  the  tinkling  of  brass  afford 
bees  great  delight,  and  it  is  by  these  means  that  they  are 
brought  together ;  a  strong  proof,  in  fact,  that  they  are  pos- 
sessed of  the  sense  of  healing.  When  their  work  is  com- 
pleted, their  offspring  brought  forth,  and  all  their  duties,  ful- 
filled, they  still  have  certain  formal  exercises  to  perform,  ranging 
abroad  throughout  the  country,  and  soaring  aloft  in  the  air, 
wheeling  round  and  round  as  they  fly,  and  then,  when  the 
hour  for  taking  their  food  has  come,  returning  home.  The 
extreme  period  of  their  life,  supposing  that  they  escape  acci- 
dent and  the  attacks  of  their  enemies,  is  only  seven  years  ; 
a  hive,  it  is  said,  never  lasts  more  than  ten.73  There  are  some 
persons,  who  think  that,  when  dead,  if  they  are  preserved 
in  the  house  throughout  the  winter,  and  then  exposed  to  the 
warmth  of  the  spring  sun,  and  kept  hot  all  day  in  the  ashes 
of  fig-tree  wood,  they  will  come  to  life  again. 

chap.  23. — methods  op  renewing  the  swarm. 
These  persons  say  also,  that  if  the  swarm  is  entirely  lost,  it 
may  be  replaced  by  the  aid  of  the  belly74  of  an  ox  newly  killed, 

72  B.  xxi.  c.  42. 

73  Cuvier  says  that  a  hive  has  heen  known  to  last  more  than  thirty  years : 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  bees  ever  live  so  long  as  ten,  or,  except  the  queen, 
little  more  than  one. 

™  Though  Virgil  tells  the  same  story,  in  B.  iv.  of  the  Georgics,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  shepherd  Aristieus,  all  this  is  entirely  fabulous. 


24  PLLNY  S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

covered  over  with  dung.  Yirgil  also  says75  that  this  may  be  done 
with  the  body  of  a  young  bull,  in  the  same  way  that  the  car- 
case of  the  horse  produces  wasps  and  hornets,  and  that  of  the 
ass  beetles,  Nature  herself  effecting  these  changes  of  one  sub- 
stance into  another.  But  in  all  these  last,  sexual  intercourse 
is  to  be  perceived  as  well,  though  the  characteristics  of  the 
offspring  are  pretty  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  bee. 

CHAP.  24.  (21.) WASPS  AND  HORNETS  :    ANIMALS  WHICH  APPRO- 
PRIATE WHAT  BELONGS  TO  OTHERS. 

"Wasps  build  their  nests  of  mud  in  lofty  places,76  and  make 
wax  therein :  hornets,  on  the  other  hand,  build  in  holes  or 
under  ground.  "With  these  two  kinds  the  cells  are  also  hex- 
agonal, but,  in  other  respects,  though  made  of  the  bark  of  trees, 
they  strongly  resemble  the  substance  of  a  spider's  web.  Their 
young  also  are  found  at  irregular  intervals,  and  are  of  un- 
sbapely  appearance ;  while  one  is  able  to  fly,  another  is  still  a 
mere  pupa,  and  a  third  only  in  the  maggot  state.  It  is  in 
the  autumn,  too,  and  not  in  the  spring,  that  all  their  young  are 
produced;  and  they  grow  during  the  full  moon  more  par- 
ticularly. The  wasp  which  is  known  as  the  ichneumon,77  a 
smaller  kind  than  the  others,  kills  one  kind  of  spider  in  parti- 
cular, known  as  the  phalangium ;  after  which  it  carries  the 
body  to  its  nest,  covers  it  over  with  a  sort  of  gluey  substance, 
and  then  sits  and  hatches  from  it  its  young.78  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  they  are  all  of  them  carnivorous,  while  on  the 
other  hand  bees  will  touch  no  animal  substance  whatever. 
Wasps  more  particularly  pursue  the  larger  flies,  and  after 
catching  them  cut  off  the  head  and  carry  away  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  body. 

Wild  hornets  live  in  the  holes  of  trees,  and  in  winter,  like 
other  insects,  keep  themselves  concealed ;  their  life  does  not 
exceed  two  years  in  length.  It  is  not  unfrequently  that  their 
sting  is  productive  of  an  attack  of  fever,  and  there  are  authors 
who  say  that  thrice  nine  stings  will  suffice  to  kill  a  man.     Of 

">'"  Georg.  B.  iv.  1.  284,  et  seq. 

76  Under  roofs,  and  sometimes  in  the  ground :  hornets  build  in  the  hollows 
of  trees. 

77  Called  "  Sphaex  "  by  Linnaeus. 

78  The  true  version  is,  that  after  killing  the  insect  they  bury  it  Trith  their 
eggs  as  food  for  their  future  young. 


Chap.  26.]  THE    SILK-WORM.  25 

the  other  hornets,  which  seem  not  to  be  so  noxious,  there  are  two 
kinds ;  the  working  ones,  which  are  smaller  in  size  and  die  in 
the  winter ;  and  the  parent  hornets,  which  live  two  years ; 
these  last,  indeed,  are  quite  harmless.79  In  spring  they  build 
their  nests,  which  have  generally  four  entrances,  and  here  it  is 
that  the  working  hornets  are  produced :  after  these  have  been 
hatched  they  form  other  nests  of  larger  size,  in  which  to  bring 
forth  the  parents  of  the  future  generation.  From  this  time 
the  working  hornets  begin  to  follow  their  vocation,  and  apply 
themselves  to  supplying  the  others  with  food.  The  parent 
hornets  are  of  larger  size  than  the  others,  and  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful whether  they  have  a  sting,  as  it  is  never  to  be  seen 
protruded.  These  races,  too,  have  their  drones.  Some  persons 
are  of  opinion  that  all  these  insects  lose  their  stings  in  the 
winter.  Neither  hornets  nor  wasps  have  a  king,  nor  do  they 
ever  congregate  in  swarms ;  but  their  numbers  are  recruited  by 
fresh  offspring  from  time  to  time. 

CHAP.  25.   (22.) THE  BOMBYX  OF  ASSYRIA. 

A  fourth  class  of  this  kind80  of  insect  is  the  bombyx,81  which 
is  a  native  of  Assyria,  and  is  of  larger  size  than  any  of  those 
which  have  been  previously  mentioned.  They  construct  their 
nests  of  a  kind  of  mud  which  has  the  appearance  of  salt,  and 
then  fasten  them  to  a  stone,  where  they  become  so  hard,  that 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  penetrate  them  with  a  dart  even. 
In  these  nests  they  make  wax,  in  larger  quantities  than  bees, 
and  the  grub  which  they  then  produce  is  larger. 

CHAP.  26. — THE  LAEViE  OE  THE  SILK-WOBM — WHO  FIBST  INVENTED 

SILK    CLOTHS. 

There  is  another  class  also  of  these  insects  produced  in  quite 
a  different  manner.  These  last  spring  from  a  grub  of  larger 
size,  with  two  horns  of  very  peculiar  appearance.  The 
larva  then  becomes  a  caterpillar,  after  which  it  assumes  the 
state  in  which  it  is  known  as  hombylis,  then  that  called  necy- 
dalus,  and  after  that,  in  six  months,  it  becomes  a  silk-worm.82 

79  Cuvier  says  that  it  is  the  males,  and  not  the  females,  that  have  no  sting. 

80  What  modern  naturalists  call  the  "  Hymenoptera." 

81  Some  kind  of  wasp,  or,  as  Cuvier  says,  probably  the  mason  bee. 

82  Called  "  bombyx  "  also ;  though,  as  Cuvier  remarks,  of  a  kind  al- 
together different  from  the  preceding  one. 


26  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

These  insects  weave  webs  similar  to  those  of  the  spider,  the 
material  of  which  is  used  for  making  the  more  costly  and 
luxurious  garments  of  females,  known  as  "  bombycina."  Pam- 
phile,  a  woman  of  Cos,83  the  daughter  of  Platea,  was  the  first84 
person  who  discovered  the  art  of  unravelling  these  webs  and 
spinning  a  tissue  therefrom  ;  indeed,  she  ought  not  to  be  de- 
prived of  the  glory  of  having  discovered  the  art  of  making 
vestments  which,  while  they  cover  a  woman,  at  the  same  mo- 
ment reveal  her  naked  charms. 

CHAP.    27.    (23.) THE    SILK-WORM    OF   COS — HOW   THE   COAN 

VESTMENTS    ARE    MADE. 

The  silk-worm,  too,  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  isle  of  Cos, 
where  the  vapours  of  the  earth  give  new  life  to  the  flowers 
of  the  cypress,  the  terebinth,  the  ash,  and  the  oak  which  have 
been  beaten  down  by  the  showers.  At  first  they  assume  the 
appearance  of  small  butterflies  with  naked  bodies,  but  soon 
after,  being  unable  to  endure  the  cold,  they  throw  out  bristly 
hairs,  and  assume  quite  a  thick  coat  against  the  winter,  by 
rubbing  off  the  down  that  covers  the  leaves,  by  the  aid  of 
the  roughness  of  their  feet.  This  they  compress  into  balls 
by  carding  it  with  their  claws,  and  then  draw  it  out  and 
hang  it  between  the  branches  of  the  trees,  making  it  fine 
by  combing  it  out  as  it  were  :  last  of  all,  they  take  and  roll  it 
round  their  body,  thus  forming  a  nest  in  which  they  are  enve- 
loped. It  is  in  this  state  that  they  are  taken ;  after  which 
they  are  placed  in  earthen  vessels  in  a  warm  place,  and  fed 
upon  bran.  A  peculiar  sort  of  down  soon  shoots  forth  upon 
the  body,  on  being  clothed  with  which  they  are  sent  to  work 
upon  another  task.  The  cocoons85  which  they  have  begun  to 
form  are  rendered  soft  and  pliable  by  the  aid  of  water,  and 
are  then  drawn  out  into  threads  by  means  of  a  spindle  made  of 
a  reed.  Nor,  in  fact,  have  the  men  even  felt  ashamed  to  make 
use86  of  garments  formed  of  this  material,  in  consequence  of 

83  The  first  kinds  of  silk  dresses  worn  by  the  Roman  ladies  were  from 
this  island,  and,  as  Pliny  says,  were  known  by  the  name  of  Cm  vestes. 
These  dresses  were  so  fine  as  to  be  transparent,  and  were  sometimes  dyed 
purple,  and  enriched  with  stripes  of  gold.  They  probably  had  their  name 
from  the  early  reputation  which  Cos  acquired  by  its  manufactures  of  silk. 

*  This  account  is  derived  from  Aristotle,  Hist.  Anim.  B.  v.  c.  19. 

85  "Lanificia." 

86  Early  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  as  we  learn  from  Tacitus,  the  senate 


Chap.  28.]  SPIDERS.  27 

their  extreme  lightness  in  summer :  for,  so  greatly  have  man- 
ners degenerated  in  our  day,  that,  so  far  from  wearing  a  cuirass, 
a  garment  even  is  found  to  be  too  heavy.  The  produce  of  the 
Assyrian  silk- worm,  however,  we  have  till  now  left  to  the 
women  only. 

chap.  28.  (24.) — spiders  ;  the  kinds  that  make  webs  ;  the 
materials  used  by  them  in  so  doing. 

It  is  by  no  means  an  absurdity  to  append  to  the  silk- worm 
an  account  of  the  spider,  a  creature  which  is  worthy  of  our 
especial  admiration.  There  are  numerous  kinds  of  spiders,  how- 
ever, which  it  will  not  be  necessary  here  to  mention,  from  the 
fact  of  their  being  so  well  known.  Those  that  bear  the  name 
of  phalangium  are  of  small  size,  with  bodies  spotted  and  run- 
ning to  a  point ;  their  bite  is  venomous,  and  they  leap  as  they 
move  from  place  to  place.  Another  kind,  again,  is  black,  and 
the  fore-legs  are  remarkable  for  their  length.  They  have  all  of 
them  three  joints  in  the  legs.  The  smaller  kind  of  wolf-spider87 
does  not  make  a  web,  but  the  larger  ones  make  their  holes  in 
the  earth,  and  spread  their  nets  at  the  narrow  entrance  thereof. 
A  third  kind,  again,  is  remarkable  for  the  skill  which  it  dis- 
plays in  its  operations.  These  spin  a  large  web,  and  the  ab- 
domen suffices  to  supply  the  material  for  so  extensive  a  work, 
whether  it  is  that,  at  stated  periods  the  excrements  are  largely 
secreted  in  the  abdomen,  as  Democritus  thinks,  or  that  the 
creature  has  in  itself  a  certain  faculty  of  secreting88  a  peculiar 
sort  of  woolly  substance.  How  steadily  does  it  work  with  its 
claws,  how  beautifully  rounded  and  how  equal  are  the  threads 
as  it  forms  its  web,  while  it  employs  the  weight  of  its  body  as 
an  equipoise !  It  begins  at  the  middle  to  weave  its  web,  and 
then  extends  it  by  adding  the  threads  in  rings  around,  like  a 
warp  upon  the  woof:  forming  the  meshes  at  equal  intervals, 
but  continually  enlarging  them  as  the  web  increases  in  breadth, 
it  finally  unites  them  all  by  an  indissoluble  knot.  With  what 
wondrous  art  does  it  conceal  the  snares  that  lie  in  wait 
for  its  prey  in  its  checkered  nettings  !  How  little,  too,  would 
it  seem  that  there  is  any  such  trap  laid  in  the  compactness  of 

enacted  "ne  vestis  Serica  viros  faedaret" —  "That  men  should  not  defile 
themselves  by  wearing  garments  of  silk,"  Ann.  B.  ii.  c.  33. 

87  The  Aranea  lupus  of  Linnseus. 

83  As  Cuvier  observes,  he  has  here  guessed  at  the  truth. 


28  pllnt's  natural  histoex.  Book  XI. 

its  web  and  the  tenacious  texture  of  the  woof,  which  would 
appear  of  itself  to  be  finished  and  arranged  by  the  exercise  of 
the  very  highest  art !  How  loose,  too,  is  the  body  of  the  web 
as  it  yields  to  the  blasts,  and  how  readily  does  it  catch  all  objects 
which  come  in  its  way  !  You  would  fancy  that  it  had  left, 
quite  exhausted,  the  thrums  of  the  upper  portion  of  its  net 
unfinished  where  they  are  spread  across ;  it  is  with  the  great- 
est difiiculty  that  they  are  to  be  perceived,  and  yet  the  moment 
that  an  object  touches  them,  like  the  lines  of  the  hunter's  net, 
they  throw  it  into  the  body  of  the  web.  "With  what  archi- 
tectural skill,  too,  is  its  hole  arched  over,  and  how  well  de- 
fended by  a  nap  of  extra  thickness  against  the  cold  !  How 
carefully,  too,  it  retires  into  a  corner,  and  appears  intent  upon 
anything  but  what  it  really  is,  all  the  while  that  it  is  so  care- 
fully shut  up  from  view,  that  it  is  impossible  to  perceive  whe- 
ther there  is  anything  within  or  not !  And  then  too,  how  ex- 
traordinary the  strength  of  the  web !  When  is  the  wind  ever 
known  to  break  it,  or  what  accumulation  of  dust  is  able  to 
weigh  it  down  ? 

The  spider  often  spreads  its  web  right  across  between  two 
trees,  when  plying  its  art  and  learning  how  to  spin  ;  and  then, 
as  to  its  length,  the  thread  extends  from  the  very  top  of  the 
tree  to  the  ground,  while  the  insect  springs  up  again  in  an 
instant  from  the  earth,  and  travels  aloft  by  the  very  self-same 
thread,  thus  mounting  at  the  same  moment  and  spinning 
its  threads.  When  its  prey  falls  into  its  net,  how  on  the  "alert 
it  is,  and  with  what  readiness  it  runs  to  seize  it !  Even 
though  it  should  be  adhering  to  the  very  edge  of  its  web,  the 
insect  always  runs  instantly  to  the  middle,  as  it  is  by  these 
means  that  it  can  most  effectually  shake  the  web,  and  so  suc- 
cessfully entangle  its  prey.  When  the  web  is  torn,  the 
spider  immediately  sets  about  repairing  it,  and  that  so  neatly, 
that  nothing  like  patching  can  ever  be  seen.  The  spider  lies 
in  wait  even  for  the  young  of  the  lizard,  and  after  enveloping 
the  head  of  the  animal,  bites  its  lips ;  a  sight  by  no  means 
unworthy  of  the  amphitheatre  itself,  when  it  is  one's  good  for- 
tune to  witness  it.  Presages  also  are  drawn  from  the  spider ; 
for  when  a  river  is  about  to  swell,  it  will  suspend  its  web 
higher  than  usual.  In  calm  weather  these  insects  do  not  spin, 
but  when  it  is  cloudy  they  do,  and  hence  it  is,  that  a  great 
number  of  cobwebs  is  a  sure  sign  of  showery  weather.     It  is 


Chap.  30.]  SCORPIONS.  29 

generally  supposed  that  it  is  the  female  spider  that  spins, 
and  the  male  that  lies  in  wait  for  prey,  thus  making  an  equal 
division  of  their  duties. 

CHAP.  29. THE    GENERATION    OF   SPIDERS. 

Spiders  couple89  backwards,  and  produce  maggots  like  eggs ; 
for  I  ought  not  to  defer  making  some  mention  of  this  subject, 
seeing,  in  fact,  that  of  most  insects  there  is  hardly  anything 
else  to  be  said.  All  these  eggs  they  lay  in  their  webs,  but 
scattered  about,  as  they  leap  from  place  to  place  while  laying 
them.  The  pbalangium  is  the  only  spider  that  lays  a  con- 
siderable number  of  them,  in  a  hole  ;  and  as  soon  as  ever 
the  progeny  is  hatched  it  devours  its  mother,  and  very  often 
the  male  parent  as  well,  for  that,  too,  aids  in  the  process  of 
incubation.  These  last  produce  as  many  as  three  hundred 
eggs,  the  others  a  smaller  number.  Spiders  take  three  days 
to  hatch  their  eggs.  They  come  to  their  full  growth  in 
twenty-eight  days. 

chap.   30.   (25.) — SCORPIONS. 

In  a  similar  manner  to  the  spider,  the  land  scorpion  also  pro- 
duces maggots90  similar  to  eggs,  and  dies  in  a  similar  manner. 
This  animal  is  a  dangerous  scourge,  and  has  a  venom  like  that 
of  the  serpent ;  with  the  exception  that  its  effects  are  far 
more91  painful,  as  the  person  who  is  stung  will  linger  for 
three  days  before  death  ensues.  The  sting  is  invariably 
fatal  to  virgins,  and  nearly  always  so  to  matrons.  It  is  so 
to  men  also,  in  the  morning,  when  the  animal  has  issued  from 
its  hole  in  a  fasting  state,  and  has  not  yet  happened  to  dis- 
charge its  poison  by  any  accidental  stroke.  The  tail  is  always 
ready  to  strike,  and  ceases  not  for  an  instant  to  menace,  so 
that  no  opportunity  may  possibly  be  missed.  The  animal 
strikes  too  with  a  sidelong  blow,  or  else  by  turning  the  tail 

89  They  copulate  in  a  manner  dissimilar  to  that  of  any  other  insects — 
the  male  fecundates  the  female  by  the  aid  of  feelers,  which  he  introduces 
into  the  vulva  of  the  female  situate  beneath  the  anterior  part  of  the 
abdomen. 

90  Cuvier  remarks,  that  the  scorpion  is  viviparous ;  but  the  young  are 
white  when  born,  and  wrapped  up  in  an  oval  mass,  for  which  reason  they 
may  easily  be  taken  for  maggots  or  grubs. 

91  This  must  be  understood  of  the  scorpion  of  Egypt,  Libya,  and  Syria. 
The  sting  of  that  of  the  south  of  Europe  is  not  generally  dangerous. 


30  PLINY'S    NATUEAL   HISTOET.  [Book  XI. 

upwards.  Apollodorus  informs  us,  that  the  poison  which 
they  secrete  is  of  a  white  colour,  and  he  has  divided  them  into 
nine  classes,  distinguished  mostly  by  their  colours — to  very 
little  purpose,  however,  for  it  is  impossible  to  understand 
which  among  these  it  is  that  he  has  pronounced  to  be  the 
least  dangerous.  He  says,  also,  that  some  of  them  have  a 
double  sting,  and  that  the  males — for  he  asserts  that  they  are 
engendered  by  the  union  of  the  sexes — are  the  most  dangerous. 
These  may  easily  be  known,  he  says,  by  their  slender  form 
and  greater  length.  He  states,  also,  that  they  all  of  them  have 
venom  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  when  they  have  been  warmed 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  as,  also,  when  they  are  thirsty — their 
thirst,  indeed,  can  never  be  quenched.  It  is  an  ascertained 
fact,  that  those  which  have  seven  joints  in  the  tail  are  the 
most92  deadly ;  the  greater  part,  however,  have  but  six. 

For  this  pest  of  Africa,  the  southern  winds  have  provided 
means  of  flight  as  well,  for  as  the  breeze  bears  them  along, 
they  extend  their  arms  and  ply  them  like  so  many  oars  in 
their  flight ;  the  same  Apollodorus,  however,  asserts  that  there 
are  some  which  really  have  wings.93  The  Psylli,  who  for  their 
own  profit  have  been  in  the  habit  of  importing  the  poisons  of 
other  lands  among  us,  and  have  thus  filled  Italy  with  the  pests 
which  belong  to  other  regions,  have  made  attempts  to  import 
the  flying  scorpion  as  well,  but  it  has  been  found  that  it 
cannot  live  further  north  than  the  latitude  of  Sicily.  How- 
ever, they94  are  sometimes  to  be  seen  in  Italy,  but  are  quite 
harmless  there  ;  they  are  found,  also,  in  many  other  places,  the 
vicinity  of  Pharos,  in  Egypt,  for  instance.  In  Scythia,  the 
scorpion  is  able  to  kill  the  swine  even  with  its  sting,  an  animal 
which,  in  general,  is  proof  against  poisons  of  this  kind  in  a 
remarkable  degree.  When  stung,  those  swine  which  are  black 
die  more  speedily  than  others,  and  more  particularly  if  they 
happen  to  throw  themselves  into  the  water.  When  a  person 
has  been  stung,  it  is  generally  supposed  that  he  may  be  cured 
by  drinking  the  ashes  of  the  scorpion95  mixed  with  wine.     It 

92  Cuvier  seems  to  regard  this  as  fanciful :  he  says  that  the  instances  of 
seven  joints  are  but  rarely  to  be  met  with. 

93  There  are  no  winged  scorpions.  Cuvier  thinks  that  he  may  possibly 
allude  to  the  panorpis,  or  scorpion-fly,  the  abdomen  of  which  terminates 
in  a  forceps,  wbicb  resembles  the  tail  of  the  scorpion. 

94  Probably  the  panorpis. 

95  See  B.  xxix.  c.  29. 


Chop.  32.]  THE    GRASSHOPPER.  31 

is  the  belief  also  that  there  is  nothing  more  baneful  to  the 
scorpion  and  the  stellio,96  than  to  dip  them  in  oil.  This  last 
animal  is  also  dangerous  to  all  other  creatures,  except  those 
which,  like  itself,  are  destitute  of  blood  :  in  figure  it  strongly 
resembles  the  common  lizard.  For  the  most  part,  also, 
the  scorpion  does  no  injury  to  any  animal  which  is  bloodless. 
Some  writers,  too,  are  of  opinion  that  the  scorpion  devours  its 
offspring,  and  that  the  one  among  the  young  which  is  the  most 
adroit  avails  itself  of  its  sole  mode  of  escape,  by  placing  itself 
on  the  back  of  the  mother,  and  thus  finding  a  place  where  it 
is  in  safety  from  the  tail  and  the  sting.  The  one  that  thus 
escapes,  they  say,  becomes  the  avenger  of  the  rest,  and  at  last, 
taking  advantage  of  its  elevated  position,  puts  its  parents  to 
death.     The  scorpion  produces  eleven  at  a  birth. 

CHAP,    31.   (26.) — THE    STELLIO. 

The  stellio97  has  in  some  measure  the  same  nature  as  the 
chameleon,  as  it  lives  upon  nothing  but  dew,  and  such  spiders98 
as  it  may  happen  to  find. 

CHAP.    32. THE    GRASSHOPPER  :    THAT    IT    HAS    NEITHER    MOUTH 

NOR    OUTLET    FOR    FOOD. 

The  cicada99  also  lives  in  a  similar  manner,  and  is  divided 
into  two  kinds.  The  smaller  kind  are  born  the  first  arid  die 
the  last,  and  are  without  a  voice.  The  others  are  of  the  flying 
kind,  and  have  a  note ;  there  are  two  sorts,  those  known  as 
achetcE,  and  the  smaller  ones  called  tettigonia  :  these  last  have 
the  loudest  voice.  In  both  of  these  last-mentioned  kinds,  it  is 
the  male  that  sings,  while  the  female  is  silent.  There  are  na- 
tions in  the  east  that  feed  upon  these  insects,  the  Parthians 

96  The  starred  or  spotted  lizard. 

97  The  stellio  of  the  Romans  is  the  "ascalabos"  or  "  ascalabotes  "  of 
the  Greeks,  the  lizard  into  which  Ascalahus  was  changed  by  Ceres  :  see 
Ovid,  Met.  B.  v.  1.  450,  et  seq.  Pliny  also  mentions  this  in  B.  xxix.  c.  4, 
though  he  speaks  of  some  difference  in  their  appearance.  It  is  a  species 
of  gecko,  the  tarentola  of  Italy,  the  tarente  of  Provence,  and  the  geckotta, 
probably,  of  Lacepede.  The  gecko,  Cuvier  says,  is  not  venomous  ;  but  it 
causes  small  blisters  to  rise  on  the  skin  when  it  walks  over  it,  the  result, 
probably,  of  the  extreme  sharpness  of  its  nails. 

98  See  c.  28  of  this  Book,  and  B.  viii.  c.  95 ;  B.  xxx.  c.  27. 

99  A  general  name  for  the  grasshopper.  Cuvier  remarks,  that  Tliny  is 
less  clear  on  this  subject  than  Aristotle_,  the  author  from  whom  he  has 
borrowed. 


32  plint's  NATURAL  HISTOET.  [Book  XI. 

even,  wealthy  and  affluent  as  they  are.  They  prefer  the 
male  before  it  has  had  sexual  intercourse,  and  the  female 
after  ;  and  they  take1  their  eggs,  which  are  white.  They  en- 
gender with  the  belly  upwards.  Upon  the  back  they  have 
a  sharp-edged  instrument,2  by  means  of  which  they  excavate 
a  hole  to  breed  in,  in  the  ground.  The  young  is,  at  first, 
a  small  maggot  in  appearance,  after  which  the  larva  assumes 
the  form  in  which  it  is  known  as  the  tettigometra?  It  bursts 
its  shell  about  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice,  and  then  takes 
to  flight,  which  always  happens  in  the  night.  The  insect, 
at  first,  is  black  and  hard. 

This  is  the  only  living  creature  that  has  no  mouth ;  though 
it  has  something  instead  which  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  tongues  of  those  insects  which  carry  a  sting  in  the  mouth  : 
this  organ  is  situate  in  the  breast4  of  the  animal,  and  is  em- 
ployed by  it  in  sucking  up  the  dew.  The  corselet  itself  forms  a 
kind  of  pipe ;  and  it  is  by  means  of  this  that  the  achetse  utter 
their  note,  as  already  mentioned.  Beyond  this,  they  have 
no  viscera  in  the  abdomen.  When  surprised,  they  spring 
upwards,  and  eject  a  kind  of  liquid,  which,  indeed,  is  our 
only  proof  that  they  live  upon  dew.  This,  also,  is  the  only 
animal  that  has  no  outlet  for  the  evacuations  of  the  body. 
Their  powers  of  sight  are  so  bad,  that  if  a  person  contracts 
his  finger,  and  then  suddenly  extends  it  close  to  them,  they 
will  come  upon  it  just  as  though  it  were  a  leaf.  Some  authors 
divide  these  animals  into  two  kinds,  the  "  surcularia,"5  which 
is  the  largest,  and  the  "  frumentaria,"6  by  many  known  as  the 
"  avenaria;"7  this  last  makes  its  appearance  just  as  the  corn  is 
turning  dry  in  the  ear. 

(27.)  The  grasshopper  is  not  a  native  of  countries  that  are  bare 
of  trees — hence  it  is  that  there  are  none  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  of  Cyrene — nor,  in  fact,  is  it  produced  in  champaign  coun- 

1  "Correptis"  seems  a  preferable  reading  to  "conrupti,"  that  adopted 
by  Sillig. 

2  The  female  has  this,  and  employs  it  for  piercing  dead  branches  in  which 
to  deposit  its  eggs. 

3  The  "  mother  of  the  grasshopper." 

4  The  trunk  of  the  grasshopper,  Cuvier  says,  is  situate  so  low  down,  that 
it  seems  to  be  attached  to  the  breast.  With  it  the  insect  extracts  the  juices 
of  leaves  and  stalks. 

5  Or  "  twig-grasshopper."  G  Or  "  corn-grasshopper." 
7  Or  "  oat-grasshopper." 


Chap.  34.]  THE  BEETLE.  33 

tries,  or  in  cool  and  shady  thickets.  They  will  take  to  some 
places  much  more  readily  than  others.  In  the  district  of  Miletus 
they  are  only  to  be  found  in  some  few  spots ;  and  in  Cephal- 
lenia,  there  is  a  river  which  runs  through  the  country,  on  one 
side  of  which  they  are  not  to  be  found,  while  on  the  other 
they  exist  in  vast  numbers.  In  the  territory  of  Ilhegium, 
again,  none  of  the  grasshoppers  have  any  note,  while  be- 
yond the  river,  in  the  territory  of  Locri,8  they  sing  aloud. 
Their  wings  are  formed  similarly  to  those  of  bees,  but  are 
larger,  in  proportion  to  the  body. 

CHAP.  33.  (28.) — THE  WINGS    OF   INSECTS.9 

There  are  some  insects  which  have  two  wings,  flies,  for 
instance ;  others,  again,  have  four,  like  the  bee.  The  wings 
of  the  grasshopper  are  membranous.  Those  insects  which  are 
armed  with  a  sting  in  the  abdomen,  have  four  wings.  None 
of  those  which  have  a  sting  in  the  mouth,  have  more  than 
two  wings.  The  former  have  received  the  sting  for  the  pur- 
pose of  defending  themselves,  the  latter  for  the  supplying  of 
their  wants.  If  pulled  from  off  the  body,  the  wings  of  an 
insect  will  not  grow  again ;  no  insect  which  has  a  sting  in- 
serted in  its  body,  has  two  wings  only. 

CHAP.  34. THE    BEETLE.       THE    GLOW-WOKM.       OTHEE    KINDS  OF 

BEETLES. 

Some  insects,  for  the  preservation  of  their  wings,  are  covered 
with  a  crust  ;10  the  beetle,  for  instance,  the  wing  of  which  is 
peculiarly  fine  and  frail.  To  these  insects  a  sting  has  been 
denied  by  Nature  ;  but  in  one  large  kind11  we  find  horns  of  a 
remarkable  length,  two-pronged  at  the  extremities,  and  forming 
pincers,  which  the  animal  closes  when  it  is  its  intention  to 

8  The  river  Csecina.  See  B.  iii.  c.  15.  This  river  is  by  Strabo,  B.  vi. 
c.  260,  called  the  Alex.  JElian  has  the  story  that  the  Locrian  grasshop- 
pers become  silent  in  the  territory  of  Rhegium,  and  those  of  Rhegium  m 
the  territory  of  Locri,  thereby  implying  that  they  each  have  a  note  in  its 
own  respective  country. 

9  Cuvier  says  that  the  observations  in  this  Chapter,  derived  from  Aris- 
totle, are  remarkable  for  their  exactness,  and  show  that  that  philosopher 
had  studied  insects  with  the  greatest  attention. 

10  Or  sheath  ;  the  Coleoptera  of  the  naturalists. 

11  The  flying  stag-beetle,  the  Lucanus  cervus  of  Linnaeus. 

VOL.    III.  I> 


34  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

bite.  These  beetles  are  suspended  from  the  neck  of  infants  by 
way  of  remedy  against  certain  maladies  :  Nigidius  calls  them 
"lucani."  There  is  another  kind13  of  beetle,  again,  which, 
as  it  goes  backwards  with  its  feet,  rolls  the  dung  into  large 
pellets,  and  then  deposits  in  them  the  maggots  which  form  its 
young,  as  in  a  sort  of  nest,  to  protect  them  against  the  rigours 
of  winter.  Some,  again,  fly  with  a  loud  buzzing  or  a  drony 
noise,  while  others13  burrow  numerous  holes  in  the  hearths 
and  out  in  the  fields,  and  their  shrill  chirrup  is  to  be  heard  at 
night. 

The  glow-worm,  by  the  aid  of  the  colour  of  its  sides  u  and 
haunches,  sends  forth  at  night  a  light  which  resembles  that  of 
fire ;  being  resplendent,  at  one  moment,  as  it  expands  its 
wings,15  and  then  thrown  into  the  shade  the  instant  it  has 
shut  them.  These  insects  are  never  to  be  seen  before  the  grass 
of  the  pastures  has  come  to  maturity,  nor  yet  after  the  hay  has 
been  cut.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  nature  of  the  black 
beetle16  to  seek  dark  corners,  and  to  avoid  the  light :  it  is 
mostly  found  in  baths,  being  produced  from  the  humid  vapours 
which  arise  therefrom.  There  are  some  beetles  also,  belonging 
to  the  same  species,  of  a  golden  colour  and  very  large  size,  which 
burrow  n  in  dry  ground,  and  construct  small  combs  of  a  porous 
nature,  and  very  like  sponge ;  these  they  fill  with  a  poisonous 
kind  of  honey.  In  Thrace,  near  Olynthus,  there  is  a  small 
locality,  the  only  one  in  which  this  animal  cannot  exist; 
from  which  circumstance  it  has  received  the  name  of  "  Can- 
tharolethus."  18 

The  wings  of  all  insects  are  formed  without19  any  division  in 

12  The  dung-beetle,  the  Scarabaeus  pilularius  of  Linnaeus. 

13  Various  kinds  of  crickets. 

14  Cuvier  says  that  it  is  on  the  two  sides  of  the  abdomen  that  the  male 
carries  its  light,  while  the  whole  posterior  part  of  the  female  is  shining. 

15  In  the  glow-worm  of  France,  the  Lampyris  noctiluca  of  Linnaeus,  the 
female  is  without  wings,  while  the  male  gives  but  little  light.  In  that 
of  Italy,  the  Lampyris  Italica,  both  sexes  are  winged. 

15  "  Blattae."  See  B.  xxix.  c.  39,  where  three  kinds  are  specified. 

17  This  beetle  appears  to  be  unknown.  Cuvier  suggests  that  the  Scara- 
baeus nasicornis  of  Linnaeus,  which  haunts  dead  bark,  or  the  Scarabaeus 
auratus  may  be  the  insect  referred  to. 

18  "  Fatal  to  the  beetle."  _ 

19  Cuvier  remarks  that  this  assertion,  borrowed  from  Aristotle,  is  incor- 
rect. The  wings  of  many  of  the  Coleoptera  are  articulated  in  the  middle, 
and  so  double,  one  part  on  the  other,  to  enter  the  sheath. 


Chap.  35.]  LOCUSTS.  35 

them,  and  they  none  of  them  have  a  tail,20  with  the  exception 
of  the  scorpion  ;  this,  too,  is  the  only  one  among  them  that  has 
arms, 21  together  with  a  sting  in  the  tail.  As  to  the  rest  of  the 
insects,  some  of  them  have  the  sting  in  the  mouth,  the  gad-fly 
for  instance,  or  the  "  tabanus,"  as  some  persons  choose  to  call 
it:  the  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the  gnat  and  some  kinds  of 
flies.  All  these  insects  have  their  stings  situate  in  the  mouth 
instead22  of  a  tongue  ;  but  in  some  the  sting  is  not  pointed, 
being  formed  not  for  pricking,  but  for  the  purpose  of  suction  : 
this  is  the  case  more  especially  with  flies,  in  which  it  is  clear 
that  the  tongue 23  is  nothing  more  than  a  tube.  These  insects, 
too,  have  no  teeth.  Others,  again,  have  little  horns  pro- 
truding in  front  of  the  eyes,  but  without  any  power  in  them  ; 
the  butterfly,  for  instance.  Some  insects  are  destitute  of  wings, 
such   as  the  scolopendra,  for  instance.24 

CKAP.  35. LOCUSTS. 

Those  insects  which  have  feet,  move  sideways.  Some  of 
them  have  the  hind  feet  longer  than  the  fore  ones,  and  curving 
outwards,  the  locust,  for  example. 

(29.)  These  creatures  lay  their  eggs  in  large  masses,  in  the 
autumn,  thrusting  the  end  of  the  tail  into  holes  which  they 
form  in  the  ground.  These  eggs  remain  underground 
throughout  the  winter,  and  in  the  ensuing  year,  at  the  close 
of  spring,  small  locusts  issue  from  them,  of  a  black  colour,  and 
crawling  along  without  legs25  and  wings.  Hence  it  is  that  a 
wet  spring  destroys  their  eggs,  while,  if  it  is  dry,  they  mul- 
tiply in  great  abundance.  Some  persons  maintain  that  they 
breed  twice  a  year,  and  die  the  same  number  of  times;  that 
they  bring  forth  at  the  rising26  of  the  Vergiliae,  and  die  at 
the  rising  of  the  Dog-star,27  after  which  others  spring  up  in 

<  *°  Cuvier  remarks,  that  the  panorpis  has  a  tail  very  like  that  of  the  scor- 
pion ;  and  that  the  ephemera,  the  ichneumons  and  others,  have  tails  also. 
Aristotle,  in  the  corresponding  place,  only  says  that  the  insects  do  not  use 
the  tail  to  direct  their  flight. 

21  These  are  merely  the  feelers  of  the  jaws. 

22  Not  instead  of,  but  in  addition  to,  the  tongue,  by  the  aid  of  which 
they  suck. 

23  Evidently  meaning  the  trunk. 

24  See  B.  xxix.  c.  39. 

25  It  is  not  true  that  the  young  locusts  are  destitute  of  feet. 
2*  7th  May.  27  18ta  juiy. 

D    2 


35  plest's  NATURAL  HISTOET.  [Book  XI. 

their  places :  according  to  some,  it  is  at  the  setting 28  of 
Areturus  that  the  second  litter  is  produced.  That  the  mothers 
die  the  moment  they  have  brought  forth,  is  a  well-known  fact, 
for  a  little  worm  immediately  grows  about  the  throat,  which 
chokes  them :  at  the  same  time,  too,  the  males  perish  as  well. 
This  insect,  which  thus  dies  through  a  cause  apparently  so 
trifling,  is  able  to  kill  a  serpent  by  itself,  when  it  pleases,  by 
seizing  its  jaws  with  its  teeth.29  Locusts  are  only  produced  in 
champaign  places,  that  are  full  of  chinks  and  crannies.  In 
India,  it  is  said  that  they  attain  the  length  of  three30  feet,  and 
that  the  people  dry  the  legs  and  thighs,  and  use  them  for  saws. 
There  is  another  mode,  also,  in  which  these  creatures  perish  ; 
the  winds  carry  them  off  in  vast  swarms,  upon  which  they  fall 
into  the  sea  or  standing  waters,  and  not,  as  the  ancients  sup- 
posed, because  their  wings  have  been  drenched  by  the  damp- 
ness of  the  night.  The  same  authors  have  also  stated,  that 
they  are  unable  to  fly  during  the  night,  in  consequence  of  the 
cold,  being  ignorant  of  the  fact,  that  they  travel  over  lengthened 
tracts  of  sea  for  many  days  together,  a  thing  the  more  to  be  won- 
dered at,  as  they  have  to  endure  hunger  all  the  time  as  well,  for 
this  it  is  which  causes  them  to  be  thus  seeking  pastures  in  other 
lands.  This  is  looked  upon  as  a  plague31  inflicted  by  the  anger 
of  the  gods  ;  for  as  they  fly  they  appear  to  be  larger  than  they 
really  are,  while  they  make  such  a  loud  noise  with  their  wings, 
that  they  might  be  readily  supposed  to  be  winged  creatures  of 
quite  another  species.  Their  numbers,  too,  are  so  vast,  that  they 
quite  darken  the  sun ;  while  the  people  below  are  anxiously 
following  them  with  the  eye,  to  see  if  they  are  about  to  make 
a  descent,  and  so  cover  their  lands.  After  all,  they  have 
the  requisite  energies  for  their  flight ;  and,  as  though  it  had 
been  but  a  trifling  matter  to  pass  over  the  seas,  they  cross  im- 
mense tracts  of  country,  and  cover  them  in  clouds  which  bode 
destruction  to  the  harvests.  Scorching  numerous  objects  by 
their  very  contact,  they  eat  away  everything  with  their  teeth, 
the  very  doors  of  the  houses  even. 

26  nth  May. 

29  Cuvier  treats  this  story  as  purely  imaginary. 

30  Cuvier  says  that  some  have  been  known  nearly  a  foot  long,  but  not 
more. 

31  He  alludes  to  tbe  ravages  committed  by  the  swarms  of  the  migratory 
locust,  Grillus  migratorius  of  Linnaeus. 


Chap.  36.]  ANTS.  3/ 

Those  from  Africa  are  the  ones  which  chiefly  devastate 
Italy  ;  and  more  than  once  the  Roman  people  have  been  obliged 
to  have  recourse  to  the  Sibylline  Books,  to  learn  what  remedies 
to  employ  under  their  existing  apprehensions  of  impending 
famine.  In  the  territory  of  Cyrenaica 32  there  is  a  law,  which 
even  compels  the  people  to  make  war,  three  times  a  year, 
against  the  locusts,  first,  by  crushing  their  eggs,  next  by  kill- 
ing the  young,  and  last  of  all  by  killing  those  of  full  growth  ; 
and  he  who  fails  to  do  so,  incurs  the  penalty  of  being  treated 
as  a  deserter.  In  the  island  of  Lemnos  also,  there  is  a  certain 
measure  fixed  by  law,  which  each  individual  is  bound  to  fill 
with  locusts  which  he  has  killed,  and  then  bring  it  to  the 
magistrates.  It  is  for  this  reason,  too,  that  they  pay  such  respect 
to  the  jack-daw,  which  flies  to  meet  the  locusts,  and  kills  them 
in  great  numbers.  In  Syria,  also,  the  people  are  placed  under 
martial  law,  and  compelled  to  kill  them  :  in  so  many  countries 
does  this  dreadful  pest  prevail.  The  Parthians  look  upon 
them  as  a  choice  food,33  and  the  grasshopper  as  well.  The  voice 
of  the  locust  appears  to  proceed  from  the  back  part  of  the  head. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  in  this  place,  where  the  shoulders 
join  on  to  the  body,  they  have,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  teeth,  and 
that  it  is  by  grinding  these  against  each  other  that  they  pro- 
duce the  harsh  noise  which  they  make.  It  is  more  especially 
about  the  two  equinoxes  that  they  are  to  be  heard,  in  the 
same  way  that  we  hear  the  chirrup  of  the  grasshopper  about 
the  summer  solstice.  The  coupling  of  locusts  is  similar  to 
that  of  all  other  insects  that  couple,  the  female  supporting 
the  male,  and  turning  back  the  extremity  of  the  tail  towards 
him ;  it  is  only  after  a  considerable  time  that  they  separate. 
In  all  these  kinds  of  insects  the  male  is  of  smaller  size  than 
the  female. 

chap.  36.  (30.) — ants.    - 

The  greater  part  of  the  insects  produce  a  maggot.  Ants  also 
produce  one  in  spring,  which  is  similar  to  an  egg,u  and  they 

33  Julius  Obsequens  speaks  of  a  pestilence  there,  created  hy  the  dead 
bodies  of  the  locusts,  which  caused  the  death  of  8000  persons. 

33  See  also  B.  vi.  c.  35. 

34  "What  are  commonly  called  ants'  eggs,  are  in  reality  their  larvae  and 
nymphse.  Enveloped  in  a  sort  of  tunic,  these  last,  Cuvier  says,  are  like 
grains  of  corn,  and  from  this  probably  has  arisen  the  story  that  they  lay 


38  pliny's  natural  histoey.  [Book  XI. 

work  in  common,  like  bees;  but  whereas  the  last  make  their  food, 
the  former  only  store 35  it  away.  If  a  person  only  compares  the 
burdens  which  the  ants  carry  with  the  size  of  their  bodies,  he 
must  confess  that  there  is  no  animal  which,  in  proportion,  is 
possessed  of  a  greater  degree  of  strength.  These  burdens  they 
carry  with  the  mouth,  but  when  it  is  too  large  to  admit  of 
that,  they  turn  their  backs  to  it,  and  push  it  onwards  with 
their  feet,  while  they  use  their  utmost  energies  with  their  shoul- 
ders. These  insects,  also,  have  a  political  community  among 
themselves,  and  are  possessed  of  both  memory  and  foresight. 
They  gnaw  each  grain  before  they  lay  it  by,  for  fear  lest  it 
should  shoot  while  under  ground ;  those  grains,  again,  which 
are  too  large  for  admission,  they  divide  at  the  entrance  of  their 
holes ;  and  those  which  have  become  soaked  by  the  rain,  they 
bring  out  and  dry.36  They  work,  too,  by  night,  during  the 
full  moon ;  but  when  there  is  no  moon,  they  cease  working. 
And  then,  too,  in  their  labours,  what  ardour  they  display, 
what  wondrous  carefulness !  Because  they  collect  their  stores 
from  different  quarters,  in  ignorance  of  the  proceedings  of  one 
another,  they  have  certain  days  set  apart  for  holding  a  kind  of 
market,  on  which  they  meet  together  and  take  stock.37  What  vast 
throngs  are  then  to  be  seen  hurrying  together,  what  anxious 
enquiries  appear  to  be  made,  and  what  earnest  parleys38  are 
going  on  among  them  as  they  meet !  We  see  even  the  very 
stones  worn  away  by  their  footsteps,  and  roads  beaten  down 
by  being  the  scene  of  their  labours.  Let  no  one  be  in  doubt, 
then,  how  much  assiduity  and  application,  even  in  the  very 
humblest  of  objects,  can  upon  every  occasion  effect !  Ants  are 
the  only  living  beings,  besides  man,  that  bestow  burial  on  the 
dead.     In  Sicily  there  are  no  winged  ants  to  be  found. 

(31.)  The  horns  of  an  Indian  ant,  suspended  in  the  temple 

up  grains  against  the  winter,  a  period  through  which  in  reality  they  do 
not  eat. 

35  They  stow  away  bits  of  meat  and  detached  portions  of  fruit,  to  nourish 
their  larvae  with  their  juices. 

36  It  is  in  reality  their  larvae  that  they  thus  bring  out  to  dry.  The 
working  ants,  or  neutrals,  are  the  ones  on  which  these  labours  devolve  : 
the  males  and  females  are  winged,  the  working  ants  are  without  wings. 

37  "  Ad  recognitionem  mutuam." 

38  Some  modern  writers  express  an  opinion  that  when  they  meet,  they 
converse  and  encourage  one  another  by  the  medium  of  touch  and  smell. 


Chap.  37.]  THE    CHRYSALIS.  39 

of  Hercules,  at  Erythraa,39  have  been  looked  upon  as  quite 
miraculous  for  their  size.  This  ant  excavates  gold  from  holes, 
in  a  country  in  the  north  of  India,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are 
known  as  the  DardaB,  It  has  the  colour  of  a  cat,  and  is  in 
size  as  large  as  an  Egyptian  wolf.40  This  gold,  which  it  ex- 
tracts in  the  winter,  is  taken  by  the  Indians  during  the  heats 
of  summer,  while  the  ants  are  compelled,  by  the  excessive 
warmth,  to  hide  themselves  in  their  holes.  Still,  however, 
on  being  aroused  by  catching  the  seent  of  the  Indians,  they 
sally  forth,  and  frequently  tear  them  to  pieces,  though  pro- 
vided with  the  swiftest  camels  for  the  purpose  of  flight ;  so 
great  is  their  fleetness,  combined  with  their  ferocity  and  their 
passion  for  gold ! 

CHAP.  37.  (32.) — THE    CHRYSALIS. 

Many  insects,  however,  are  engendered  in  a  different  man- 
ner ;  and  some  more  especially  from  dew.  This  dew  settles 
upon  the  radish41  leaf  in  the  early  days  of  spring ;  but  when  it 
has  been  thickened  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  it  becomes  re- 
duced to  the  size  of  a  grain  of  millet.  From  this  a  small  grub 
afterwards  arises,  which,  at  the  end  of  three  days,  becomes 
transformed  into  a  caterpillar.  For  several  successive  days 
it  still  increases  in  size,  but  remains  motionless,  and  covered 
with  a  hard  husk.  It  moves  only  when  touched,  and  is 
covered  with  a'web  like  that  of  the  spider.  In  this  state  it 
is  called  a  chrysalis,  but  after  the  husk  is  broken,  it  flies  forth 
in  the  shape  of  a  butterfly. 

39  See  B.  v.  c.  31. 

40  M.  de  Yeltbeim  thinks  that  by  this  is  really  meant  the  Canis  corsac, 
the  small  fox  of  India,  but  that  by  some  mistake  it  was  represented  by 
travellers  as  an  ant.  It  is  not  improbable,  Cuvier  says,  that  some  quadru- 
ped, in  making  holes  in  the  ground,  may  have  occasionally  thrown  up  some 
grains  of  the  precious  metal.  The  story  is  derived  from  the  narratives 
of  Clearchus  and  Megasthenes.  Another  interpretation  of  this  story  has 
also  been  suggested.  We  find  from  some  remarks  of  Mr.  "Wilson,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  on  the  Mahabharata,  a  Sanscrit  poem, 
that  various  tribes  on  the  mountains  Meru  and  Mandara  (supposed  to  lie 
between  Hindostan  and  Tibet)  used  to  sell  grains  of  gold,  which  they 
called  paippilaka,  or  "ant-gold,"  which,  they  said,  was  thrown  up  by  ants, 
in  Sanscrit  called  pippilaJca.  In  travelling  westward,  this  story,  in  itself, 
no  doubt,  untrue,  may  very  probably  have  been  magnified  to  its  present 
dimensions. 

41  Cuvier  observes,  that  this  is  a  very  correct  account  of  the  cabbage 
or  radish  butterfly,  the  Papilio  brassies  or  Papilio  raphani  of  Linnaeus. 


40  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

CHAP.    38.  (33.) ANIMALS   WHICH   BREED    IN   WOOD. 

In  the  same  manner,  also,  some  animals  are  generated  in 
the  earth  from  rain,  and  some,  again,  in  wood.  And  not  only 
wood- worms42  are  produced  in  wood,  but  gad-flies  also  and 
other  insects  issue  from  it,  whenever  there  is  an  excess  of 
moisture ;  just  as  in  man,  tape-worms43  are  sometimes  found, 
as  much  as  three  hundred  feet  or  more  in  length. 

CHAP.    39. INSECTS    THAT   ARE   PARASITES    OF   MAN.       WHICH    IS 

THE  SMALLEST  OP  ANIMALS  ?       ANIMALS  FOUND  IN  WAX  EVEN. 

Then,  too,  in  dead  carrion  there  are  certain  animals  pro- 
duced, and  in  the  hair,  too,  of  living  men.  It  was  through 
such  vermin  as  this  that  the  Dictator  Sylla,44  and  Alcman, 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  Grecian  poets,  met  their  deaths. 
These  insects  infest  birds  too,  and  are  apt  to  kill  the  pheasant, 
unless  it  takes  care  to  bathe  itself  in  the  dust.  Of  the  animals 
that  are  covered  with  hair,  it  is  supposed  that  the  ass  and  the 
sheep  are  the  only  ones  that  are  exempt  from  these  vermin. 
They  are  produced,  also,  in  certain  kinds  of  cloth,  and  more 
particularly  those  made  of  the  wool  of  sheep  which  have  been 
killed  by  the  wolf.  I  find  it  stated,  also,  by  authors,  that 
some  kinds  of  water45  which  we  use  for  bathing  are  more  pro- 
ductive of  these  parasites  than  others.  Even  wax  is  found  to 
produce  mites,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  very  smallest  of 
all  living  creatures.  Other  insects,  again,  are  engendered 
from  filth,  acted  upon  by  the  rays  of  the  sun — these  fleas  are 
called  _  "  petauristse,"46  from  the  activity  which  they  display 
in  their  hind  legs.  Others,  again,  are  produced  with  wings, 
from  the  moist  dust  that  is  found  lying  in  holes  and  corners. 

CHAP.  40.  (34.) — AN   ANIMAL   WHICH   HAS   NO    PASSAGE  FOR   THE 

EVACUATIONS. 

There  is  an  animal,47  also,  that  is  generated  in  the  summer, 

42  Cossi.     See  B.  xvii.  c.  37.  43  Taenia?. 

44  He  alludes  to  the  Morbus  pediculosus. 

45  Aristotle  says,  in  the  corresponding  passage,  Hist.  Anim.  B.  v.  c.  26, 
that  the  animals  which  are  affected  by  lice,  are  more  particularly  exposed 
to  them  when  they  change  the  water  in  which  they  wash. 

46  Or  "leapers." 

47  He  alludes  to  dog-ticks  and  ox-ticks,  the  Acarus  ricinus  of  Linnaeus, 
and  the  Acarus  reduvius  of  Schrank. 


Chap.  41.]  MOTHS,    ETC.  41 

which  has  its  head  always  buried  deep  in  the  skin  [of  a  beast], 
and  so,  living  on  its  blood,  swells  to  a  large  size.  This  is 
the  only  living  creature  that  has  no  outlet48  for  its  food; 
hence,  when  it  has  overgorged  itself,  it  bursts  asunder,  and  thus 
its  very  aliment  is  made  the  cause  of  its  death.  This  insect 
never  breeds  on  beasts  of  burden,  but  is  very  commonly 
seen  on  oxen,  and  sometimes  on  dogs,  which,  indeed,  are  sub- 
ject to  every  species  of  vermin.  With  sheep  and  goats,  it 
is  the  only  parasite.  The  thirst,  too,  for  blood  displayed  by 
leeches,  which  we  find  in  marshy  waters,  is  no  less  singular ; 
for  these  will  thrust  the  entire  head  into  the  flesh  in  quest  of 
it.  There  is  a  winged  insect49  which  peculiarly  infests  dogs, 
and  more  especially  attacks  them  with  its  sting  about  the 
ears,  where  they  are  unable  to  defend  themselves  with,  their 
teeth. 

CHAP.     41.    (35.) 3I0THS,     CANTHAHIDES,     GNATS AN    INSECT 

THAT    BKEEDS   IN    THE    SNOW. 

Dust,  too,  is  productive  of  worms50  in  wools  and  cloths,  and 
this  more  especially  if  a  spider  should  happen  to  be  enclosed 
in  them  :  for,  being  sensible  of  thirst,  it  sucks  up  all  the  mois- 
ture, and  thereby  increases  the  dryness  of  the  material.  These 
will  breed  in  paper  also.  There  is  one  kind  which  carries 
with  it  its  husk,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  snail,  only  that 
the  feet  are  to  be  seen.  If  deprived  of  it,  it  does  not  survive ; 
and  when  it  is  fully  developed,  the  insect  becomes  a  chrysalis. 
The  wild  fig-tree  produces  gnats,51  known  as  "ficarii;"  and 
the  little  grubs  of  the  fig-tree,  the  pear-tree,  the  pine,  the 
wild  rose,  and  the  common  rose  produce  cantharides,52  when 
fully  developed.  These  insects,  which  are  venomous,  carry 
with  them  their   antidote ;    for  their  wings   are  useful  in 

48  In  c.  32  he  has  said  the  same  of  the  grasshopper",  in  relation  to  its 
drink. 

49  A  variety  of  the  Cynips  of  Linnaeus,  which  in  vast  numbers  will 
sometimes  adhere  to  the  ears  of  dogs. 

50  These  are  really  the  larvae  of  night-moths.  His  account  here  is 
purely  imaginary. 

51  He  speaks  of  the  Cynips  psenes  of  Linnaeus,  which  breeds  on  the 
blossom  of  the  fig-tree,  and  aids  in  its  fecundation.     See  B.  xv.  c.  21. 

53  He  alludes  to  various  coleopterous  insects,  which  are  not  included 
among  the  Cantharides  of  the  modern  naturalists.  They  are  first  an  egg, 
then  a  larva,  then  a  nympha,  and  then  the  insect  fully  developed. 


42  pliny's  natural  histoby.  [Book  XI. 

medicine,53  while  the  rest  of  the  body  is  deadly.  Again, 
liquids  turned  sour  will  produce  other  kinds  of  gnats,  and 
white  grubs  are  to  be  found  in  snow  that  has  lain  long  on  the 
ground,  while  those  that  lie  above  are  of  a  reddish54  colour — 
indeed,  the  snow  itself  becomes  red  after  it  has  lain  some 
time  on  the  ground.  These  grubs  are  covered  with  a  sort  of 
hair,  are  of  a  rather  large  size,  and  in  a  state  of  torpor. 

CHAP.    42.     (36.) — AN   ANIJIAL   FOUND    IN    TIRE — THE    PYBALLIS 

OB.   PYKAUSTA. 

That  element,  also,  which  is  so  destructive  to  matter,  pro- 
duces certain  animals  ;  for  in  the  copper-smelting  furnaces  of 
Cyprus,  in  the  very  midst  of  the  fire,  there  is  to  be  seen  flying 
about  a  four-footed  animal  with  wings,  the  size  of  a  large  fly  : 
this  creature  is  called  the  "  pyrallis,"  and  by  some  the  "  py- 
rausta."  So  long  as  it  remains  in  the  fire  it  will  live,  but  if  it 
comes  out  and  flies  a  little  distance  from  it,  it  will  instantly 
die. 

CHAP.  43. THE   ANIMAL    CALLED    HEMEKOBION. 

The  Hypanis,  a  river  of  Pontus,  brings  down  in  its  waters, 
about  the  time  of  the  summer  solstice,  small  membranous  par- 
ticles, like  a  grape-stone  in  appearance  ;  from  which  there  issues 
an  animal55  with  four  legs  and  with  wings,  similar  to  the  one 
just  mentioned.  It  does  not,  however,  live  more  than  a  single 
day,  from  which  circumstance  it  has  obtained  the  name  of 
'.'  hemerobion."56  The  life  of  other  insects  of  a  similar  nature 
is  regulated  from  its  beginning  to  its  end  by  multiples  of 
seven.  Thrice  seven  days  is  the  duration  of  the  life  of  the 
gnat  and  of  the  maggot,  while  those  that  are  viviparous  live 
four  times  seven  days,  and  their  various  changes  and  transforma- 
tions take  place  in  periods  of  three  or  four  days.  The  other 
insects   of  this  kind  that  are  winged,  generally  die   in  the 

k»  See  B.  xsix.  c.  30. 

64  The  redness  sometimes  observed  on  the  snow  of  the  Alps  and  the 
Pyrenees,  is  supposed  by  De  Lamarck  to  be  produced  by  animalculae  : 
other  naturalists,  however,  suppose  it  to  arise  from  vegetable  or  mineral 
causes. 

55  Cuvier  thinks  that  he  alludes  to  a  variety  of  the  ephemera  or  the  phry- 
ganea  of  Linnaeus,  the  case-wing  flies,  many  of  which  are  particularly 
short-lived.     These  are  by  no  means  peculiar  to  the  river  Bog  or  Hypanis. 

56  "  Living  for  a  day."" 


Chap.  44]      ANIMALS  WHICH   HATE  TUFTS  AND  CEESTS.  43 

autumn,  the  gad-fly  becoming  quite  blind57  even  before  it  dies. 
Flies  which  have  been  drowned  in  water,  if  they  are  covered 
with  ashes,58  will  return  to  life. 

CHAP.     44.     (37.) THE    NATTJEE    AND     CHABACTEEISTTCS    OF    ALL 

ANIMALS     CONSIDERED    LIMB    BY    LIMB.         THOSE   WHICH    HAVE 
TUJFTS    AND    CEESTS. 

In  addition  to  what  is  already  stated,  we  will  add  an  ac- 
count of  every  part  of  the  body  of  an  animal,  taken  limb  by  limb. 

All  those  which  have  blood,  have  a  head  as  well.  A  small 
number  of  animals,  and  those  only  among  the  birds,  have 
tufts  of  various  kinds  upon  the  head.  The  phoenix59  has  a 
long  row  of  feathers  on  it,  from  the  middle  of  which  arises 
another  row  ;  peacocks  have  a  hairy  tuft,  resembling  a  bushy 
shrub ;  the  stymphalis60  has  a  sort  of  pointed  crest,  and  the 
pheasant,  again,  small  horns.  Added  to  these,  there  is  the  lark, 
a  little  bird,  which,  from  the  appearance  of  its  tuft,  was 
formerly  called  "  galerita,"  but  has  since  received  the 
Gallic  name  of  "  alauda,"61  a  name  which  it  has  transferred  to 
one  of  our  legions.62  We  have  already  made  mention,  also, 
of  one  bird63  to  which  Nature  has  given  a  crest,  which  it  can 
fold  or  unfold  at  pleasure :  the  birds  of  the  coot  kind64  have 
also  received  from  her  a  crest,  which  takes  its  rise  at  the 
beak,  and  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  head ;  while  the  pie 
of  Mars,  and  the  Balearic  crane,  are  furnished  with  pointed 
tufts.  But  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  all,  is  the  crest 
which  we  see  attached  to  the  heads  of  our  domestic  fowls, 
substantial  and  indented  like  a  saw ;  we  cannot,  in  fact, 
strictly  call  it  flesh,  nor  can  we  pronounce  it  to  be  cartilage 
or  a  callosity,  but  must  admit  that  it  is  something  of  a  nature 
peculiar  to  itself.  As  to  the  crests  of  dragons,  there  is  no  one 
to  be  found  who  ever  saw  one. 

57  They  only  appear  to  be  so,  from  the  peculiar  streaks  on  the  eyes. 
Linnaeus  has  hence  called  one  variety,  the  Tabanus  caecutiens. 

58  Or  with  pounded  chalk  or  whitening.  JElianadds,  u  if  they  are  placed 
in  the  sun,"  which  appears  necessary  for  the  full  success  of  the  experiment. 
Life  appears  to  be  suspended  in  such  cases  for  a  period  of  surprising  length. 

69  Probably  the  golden  pheasant,  as  already  mentioned. 

60  Some  kind  of  heron  or  crane,  Cuvier  thinks. 

61  The  Alauda  cristata  of  Linnaeus,  so  called  from  "  galera,"  a  pointed 
cap  like  a  helmet. 

62  The  fifth  legion.  63  The  hoopoe,  B.  x.  c.  44. 

64  Savigny  and  Cuvier  take  this  to  be  the  Ardea  virgo  of  Linnaeus,  a 
native  of  Nuniidia. 


44  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

CHAP.    45. THE  VARIOUS    KINDS  OP  HORNS.       ANIMALS   IN  WHICH 

THET   ARE    MOVEABLE. 

Horns,  too,  of  various  forms  have  been  granted  to  many- 
animals  of  the  aquatic,  marine,  and  reptile  kind,  but  those 
which  are  more  properly  understood  under  that  name  belong 
to  the  quadrupeds  only  ;  for  I  look  upon  the  tales  of  Actseon 
and  of  Cippus  even,  in  Latin  story,  as  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
fables.65  And,  indeed,  in  no  department  of  her  works  has 
Mature  displayed  a  greater  capriciousness.  In  providing  ani- 
mals with  these  weapons,  she  has  made  merry  at  their  ex- 
pense ;  for  some  she  has  spread  them  out  in  branches,  the 
stag,  for  instance ;  to  others  she  has  given  them  in  a  more 
simple  form,  as  in  the  "  subulo,"  so  called  from  the  resem- 
blance of  its  horns  to  a  "  subula,"66  or  shoemaker's  awl.  In 
others,  again,  she  has  flattened  them  in  the  shape  of  a  man's 
hand,  with  the  fingers  extended,  from  which  circumstance  the 
animal  has  received  the  name  of  "  platyceros."67  To  the  roe- 
buck she  has  given  branching  horns,  but  small,  and  has  made 
them  so  as  not  to  fall  off  and  be  cast  each  year ;  while  to  the 
ram  she  has  given  them  of  a  contorted  and  spiral  form,  as 
though  she  were  providing  it  with  a  csestus  for  offence.  The 
horns  of  the  bull,  again,  are  upright  and  threatening.  In  this 
last  kind,  the  females,  too,  are  provided  with  them,  while  in 
most  it  is  only  the  males.  The  chamois  has  them,  curving 
backwards ;  while  in  the  fallow  deer68  they  bend  forward. 
The  strepsiceros,69  which  in  Africa  bears  the  name  of  addax,  has 
horns  erect  and  spiral,  grooved  and  tapering  to  a  sharp  point, 
so  much  so,  that  you  would  almost  take  them  to  be  the  sides 
of  a  lyre.69*    In  the  oxen  of  Phrygia,  the  horns  are  moveable,70 

65  The  suddenness  of  their  appearance,  no  doubt,  was  fabulous  ;  but  we 
have  well-authenticated  cases  in  recent  times  of  substances  growing  on  the 
human  head,  to  all  appearance  resembling  horns,  and  arising  from  a  dis- 
ordered secretion  of  the  hair.  Witness  the  case  of  Mary  Davies,  a  so- 
called  horn  from  whose  head  is  preserved  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at 
Oxford.  The  story  of  Genucius  Cippus,  the  Eoman  praetor,  is  told  by 
Ovid,  Met.  B.  xv.  1.  565,  et  seq. 

66  A  spitter,  or  second  year  stag,  according  to  Cuvier. 

67  "  Broad-horned."     The  Cervus  dama  of  Linnaeus. 

63  "  Dama."     The  Antelope  redunca  of  Linnaeus,  Cuvier  thinks. 

69  No  doubt  a  kind  of  antelope. 

69*  u  Lyras"  seems  preferable  to  "liras." 

70  There  are  several  varieties  of  oxen,  in  which  the  horns  adhere  to  the 
skin,  and  not  to  the  cranium. 


Chap.  45.]  YAltlOUS  KINDS  OF  H011XS.  45 

like  the  ears ;  and  among  the  cattle  of  the  Troglodyte,  they 
are  pointed  downwards  to  the  ground,  for  which  reason  it  is 
that  they  are  obliged  to  feed  with  the  head  on  one  side. 
Other  animals,  again,  have  a  single  horn,  and  that  situate  in 
the  middle  of  the  head,  or  else  on  the  nose,  as  already 
stated.71 

Then,  again,  in  some  animals  the  horns  are  adapted  for 
butting,  and  in  others  for  goring ;  with  some  they  are  curved 
inwards,  with  others  outwards,  and  with  others,  again,  they 
are  fitted  for  tossing  :  all  which  objects  are  effected  in  vari- 
ous ways,  the  horns  either  lying  backwards,  turning  from,  or 
else  towards  each  other,  and  in  all  cases  running  to  a  sharp 
point.  In  one  kind,  also,  the  horns  are  used  for  the  purpose 
of  scratching  the  body,  instead  of  hands. 

In  snails  the  horns  are  fleshy,  and  are  thus  adapted  for  the 
purpose  of  feeling  the  way,  which  is  also  the  case  with  the  ce- 
rastes ; 72  some  reptiles,  again,  have  only  one  horn,  though  the 
snail  has  always  two,  suited  for  protruding  and  withdrawing. 
The  barbarous  nations  of  the  north  drink  from  the  horns  of  the 
urus,73  a  pair  of  which  will  hold  a  couple  of  urnaa  :74  other 
tribes,  again,  point  their  spears  with  them.  "With  us  they  are 
cut  into  lamina?,  upon  which  they  become  transparent ;  indeed, 
the  rays  of  a  light  placed  within  them  may  be  seen  to  a  much 
greater  distance  than  without.  They  are  used  also  for  various 
appliances  of  luxury,  either  coloured  or  varnished,  or  else 
for  those  kinds  of  paintings  which  are  known  as  "  cestrota/'75 
or  horn-pictures.  The  horns  of  all  animals  are  hollow  within, 
it  being  only  at  the  tip  that  they  are  solid  :  the  only  excep- 
tion is  the  stag,  the  horn  of  which  is  solid  throughout,  and 
is  cast  every  year.  When  the  hoofs  of  oxen  are  worn  to  the 
quick,  the  husbandmen  have  a  method  of  curing  them,  by 
anointing  the  horns  of  the  animal  with  grease.  -  The  substance 
of  the  horns  is  so  ductile,  that  even  while  upon  the  body  of 
the  living  animal,  they  can  be  bent  by  being  steeped  in  boil- 
ing wax,  and  if  they  are  split  down  when  they  are  first  shoot- 
ing, they  may  be  twisted  different  ways,   and  so  appear  to  be 

71  B.  viii.cc.  29—31. 

72  The  Coluber  cerastes  ef  Linnaeus.     See  B.  via.  c.  35. 

73  The  drinking-horns  of  our  Saxon  ancestors  are  well  known  to  the 
antiquarian. 

74  The  "urna"  was  half  an  "amphora,"  or  nearly  three  gallons. 

75  See  B.  xxsv.  c.  41. 


46  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

four  in  number  upon  one  head.  In  females  the  horns  are  gene- 
rally thinner  than  in  the  males,  as  is  the  case,  also,  with  most 
kinds  of  wool-bearing  animals. 

No  individuals,  however,  among  sheep,  or  hinds,  nor  yet 
any  that  have  the  feet  divided  into  toes,  or  that  have  solid 
hoofs,  are  furnished  with  horns ;  with  the  sole  exception  of 
the  Indian  ass,76  which  is  armed  with  a  single  horn.  To  the 
beasts  that  are  cloven-footed  Nature  has  granted  two  horns, 
but  to  those  that  have  fore-teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  she  has 
given  none.  Those  persons  who  entertain  the  notion  that  the 
substance  of  these  teeth  is  expended  in  the  formation  of  the 
horns,  are  easily  to  be  refuted,  if  we  only  consider  the  case  of 
the  hind,  which  has  no  more  teeth  than  the  male,  and  yet 
is  without  horns  altogether.  In  the  stag  the  horn  is  only 
imbedded  in  the  skin,  but  in  the  other77  animals  it  adheres  to 
the  bone. 

CHAP.  46. THE  HEADS  OF  ANIMALS.  *   THOSE  WHICH  HAVE  NOXF. 

The  head  of  the  fish  is  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  rest 
of  the  body,  probably,  to  facilitate  its  diving  under  water. 
Animals  of  the  oyster  and  the  sponge  kind  have  no  head, 
which  is  the  case,  also,  with  most  of  the  other  kinds,  whose 
only  sense  is  that  of  touch.  Some,  again,  have  the  head 
blended  with  the  body,  the  crab,  for  instance. 

CHAP.    47. THE    HAIR. 

Of  all  animals  man  has  the  longest  hair  upon  the  head ;  which 
is  the  case  more  especially  with  those  nations  where  the  men  and 
women  in  common  leave  the  hair  to  grow,  and  do  not  cut  it. 
Indeed,  it  is  from  this  fact,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps 
have  obtained  from  us  the  name  of  "  Capillati,"78  as  also  those 
of  Gallia,  "  Comata."79  There  is,  however,  a  great  difference 
in  this  respect  according  to  the  various  countries.  In  the 
island,  of  Myconus,80  the  people  are  born  without  hair,  just 
as  at  Caunus  the   inhabitants   are   afflicted  with  the  spleen 

76  The  rhinoceros.     See  B.  viii.  c.  39. 

77  He  surely  must  except  the  Phrygian  oxen  with  the  moveable  horns, 
which  he  has  previously  mentioned. 

™  Or  "long-haired."     See  B.  iii.  c.  7. 

"  See  B.  iv.  c.  31.  80  See  B.  iv.  c.  22. 


Chap.  49.]  THE    BEALN.  4J 

from  their  birth.81  There  are  some  animals,  also,  that  are  natu- 
rally bald,  such  as  the  ostrich,  for  instance,  and  the  aquatic 
raven,  which  last  has  thence  derived  its  Greek82  name.  It  is 
but  rarely  that  the  hair  falls  off  in  women,  and  in  eunuchs 
such  is  never  known  to  be  the  case  ;  nor  yet  does  any  person 
lose  it  before  having  known  sexual  intercourse.83  The  hair 
does  not  fall  off  below  the  brain,  nor  yet  beneath  the  crown  of 
the  head,  or  around  the  ears  and  the  temples.  Man  is  the 
only  animal  that  becomes  bald,  with  the  exception,  of  course, 
of  such  animals  as  are  naturally  so.  Man  and  the  horse  are 
the  only  creatures  whose  hair  turns  grey  ;  but  with  man  this  is 
always  the  case,  first  in  the  fore-part  of  the  head,  and  then  in 
the  hinder  part. 

CHAP.  48. THE  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD. 

Some  few  persons  only  are  double- crowned.  The  bones  of 
the  head  are  flat,  thin,  devoid  of  marrow,  and  united  with  su- 
tures indented  like  a  comb.  "When  broken  asunder  they  can- 
not be  united,  but  the  extraction  of  a  small  portion  is  not  ne- 
cessarily fatal,  as  a  fleshy  cicatrix  forms,  and  so  makes  good 
the  loss.  We  have  already  mentioned,  in  their  respective84 
places,  that  the  skull  of  the  bear  is  the  weakest  of  all,  and 
that  of  the  parrot  the  hardest. 

CHAP.    49. THE   BRAIN. 

The  brain  exists  in  all  animals  which  have  blood,  and  in 
those  sea  animals  as  well,  which  we  have  already  mentioned 
as  mollusks,  although  they  are  destitute  of  blood,  the  poly- 
pus, for  instance.  Man,  however,  has,  in  proportion  to  his 
body,  the  most  voluminous  brain  of  all.  This,  too,  is  the 
most  humid,  and  the  coldest  of  all  the  viscera,  and  is  enve- 
loped above  and  below  with  two  membranous  integuments, 
for  either  of  which  to  be  broken  is  fatal.  In  addition  to  these 
facts,  we  may  remark  that  the  brain  is  larger  in  men  than  in 

81  See  B.  v.  c.  29. 

82  <Pa\aic()OKupaZ.     See  B.  x.  c.  68. 

83  He  borrows  this  from  Aristotle. 

84  B.  viii.  c.  54,  and  B.  x.  c.  58.  The  skull  of  the  bear  is  not  tbinner 
or  weaker  than  that  of  other  animals  of  its  own  size ;  but  tbe  skull  of  the 
parrot,  in  proportion  to  those  of  other  birds,  is  remarkably  hard. 


48  PLINY'S    NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XL 

women.  In  man  the  brain  is  destitute  of  blood  and  veins,  and 
in  other  animals  it  has  no  fat.  Those  who  are  well  informed 
on  the  subject,  tell  us  that  the  brain  is  quite  a  different 
substance  from  the  marrow,  seeing  that  on  being  boiled  it 
only  becomes  harder.  In  the  very  middle  of  the  brain  of 
every  animal  there  are  small  bones  found.  Man  is  the  only  ani- 
mal in  which  it  is  known  to  palpitate85  during  infancy  ;  and 
it  does  not  gain  its  proper  consistency  until  after  the  child  has 
made  its  first  attempt  to  speak.  The  brain  is  the  most  ele- 
vated of  all  the  viscera,  and  the  nearest  to  the  roof  of  the 
head ;  it  is  equally  devoid  of  flesh,  blood,  and  excretions.  The 
senses  hold  this  organ  as  their  citadel;  it  is  in  this  that 
are  centred  all  the  veins  which  spring  from  the  heart ;  it  is 
here  that  they  terminate  ;  this  is  the  very  culminating  point  of 
all,  the  regulator  of  the  understanding.  With  all  animals  it 
is  advanced  to  the  fore-part  of  the  head,  from  the  fact  that 
the  senses  have  a  tendency  to  the  direction  in  which  we  look. 
From  the  brain  proceeds  sleep,  and  its  return  it  is  that  causes 
the  head  to  nod.  Those  creatures,  in  fact,  which  have  no  brain, 
never  sleep.  It  is  said  that  stags86  have  in  the  head  certain 
small  maggots,  twenty  in  number :  they  are  situate  in  the 
empty  space  that  lies  beneath  the  tongue,  and  around  the  joints 
by  which  the  head  is  united  to  the  body. 

CHAP.     50. — THE   EARS.       ANIMALS   WHICH   HEAR   WITHOUT   EARS 

OR    APERIURES. 

Man  is  the  only  animal  the  ears  of  which  are  immoveable. 
It  is  from  the  natural  flaccidity  of  the  ear,  that  the  surname 
of  Flaccus  is  derived.  There  is  no  part  of  the  body  that 
creates  a  more  enormous  expense  for  our  women,  in  the 
pearls  which  are  suspended  from  them.  In  the  East,  too,  it 
is  thought  highly  becoming  for  the  men,  even,  to  wear  gold 
rings  in  their  ears.  Some  animals  have  large,  and  others 
small  ears.  The  stag  alone  has  them  cut  and  divided,  as  it 
were ;  in  the  field-mouse  they  have  a  velvet  surface.  All  the 
animals  that  are  viviparous  have  ears  of  some  kind  or  other, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  the  sea-calf,  the  dolphin,  the  fishes 

85  See  B.  vii.  c.  1. 

66  Cuvier  says  that  those  are  the  larvae  of  the  oestrus,  which  are  deposited 
on  the  lips  of  quadrupeds,  and  so  make  their  way  to  various  cavities. 


Chap.  52.]  THE    EYES.  49 

which  we  have  mentioned87  as  cartilaginous,  and  the  viper. 
These  animals  have  only  cavities  instead  of  ears,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  cartilaginous  fishes  and  the  dolphin,  which  last, 
however,  it  is  quite  clear  possesses  the  sense  of  hearing,  for  it  is 
charmed  by  singing,  and  is  often  taken  while  enraptured  with 
the  melody :  how  it  is  that  it  does  hear,  is  quite  marvellous. 
These  animals,  too,  have  not  the  slightest  trace  of  olfactory 
organs,  and  yet  they  have  a  most  acute  sense  of  smell. 

Among  the  winged  animals,  only  the  horned  owl  and  the  long- 
eared  owl  have  feathers  which  project  like  ears,  the  rest  having 
only  cavities  for  the  purpose  of  hearing ;  the  same  is  the  case, 
also,  with  the  scaly  animals  and  the  serpents.  Among  horses 
and  beasts  of  burden  of  all  kinds,  it  is  the  ears  which  indicate 
the  natural  feelings;  when  the  animal  is  weary,  they  are  droop- 
ing and  flaccid ;  when  it  is  startled,  they  quiver  to  and  fro ; 
when  it  is  enraged,  they  are  pricked  up ;  and  when  it  is  ailing, 
they  are  pendant. 

CHAP.  51. THE  FACE,  THE  FOREHEAD,  AND  THE  EYE-BROWS. 

Man  is  the  only  creature  that  has  a  face,  the  other  animals 
having  only  a  muzzle  or  a  beak.  Other  animals  have  a  fore- 
head as  well,  but  it  is  only  on  the  forehead  of  man  that  is 
depicted  sorrow,  gladness,  compassion,  or  severity.  It  is  the 
forehead  that  is  the  index  of  the  mind.  Man  has  eyebrows, 
also,  which  move  together  or  alternately ;  these,  too,  serve  in 
some  measure  as  indications  of  the  feelings.  Do  we  deny  or 
do  we  assent,  it  is  the  eyebrows,  mostly,  that  indicate  our 
intentions.  Feelings  of  pride  may  be  generated  elsewhere, 
but  it  is  here  that  they  have  their  principal  abode ;  it  is  in  the 
heart  that  they  take  their  rise,  but  it  is  to  the  eyebrows  that 
they  mount,  and  here  they  take  up  their  position.  In  no  part 
of  the  body  could  they  meet  with  a  spot  more  lofty  and  more 
precipitous,  in  which  to  establish  themselves  free  from  all 
control. 

CHAP.  52. THE  EYES — ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE  NO  EYES,  OR  HAVE 

ONLY  ONE  EYE. 

Below  the  forehead  are  the  eyes,  which  form  the  most  pre- 
cious portion  of  the  human  body,  and  which,  by  the  enjoyment 

87  B.  ix.  c.  40. 
VOL.    III.  E 


50  plint's  natueal  HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

of  the  blessings  of.  sight,  distinguish  life  from  death.  Eyes, 
however,  have  not  been  granted  to  all  animals  ;  oysters  have 
none,  but,  with  reference  to  some  of  the  shell-fish,  the  question 
is  still  doubtful ;  for  if  we  move  the  fingers  before  a  scallop 
half  open,  it  will  immediately  close  its  shell,  apparently  from 
seeing  them,  while  the  solen88  will  start  away  from  an  iron 
instrument  when  placed  near  it.  Among  quadrupeds  the 
mole89  has  no  sight,  though  it  has  something  that  bears  a  re- 
semblance to  eyes,  if  we  remove  the  membrane  that  is  ex- 
tended in  front  of  them.  Among  birds  also,  it  is  said  that 
a  species  of  heron,  which  is  known  as  the  "leucus,"9^  is 
wanting  of  one  eye :  a  bird  of  most  excellent  augury,  when 
it  flies  towards  the  south  or  north,  for  it  is  said  that  it 
portends  thereby  that  there  is  about  to  be  an  end  of  perils  and 
alarms.  Nigidius  says  also,  that  neither  locusts  nor  grass- 
hoppers have  eyes.  In  snails,91  the  two  small  horns  with  which 
they  feel  their  way,  perform  the  duties  of  eyes.  Neither  the 
maw  worm93  nor  any  other  kind  of  worm  has  eyes. 

CHAP.  53. — THE  DIVERSITY  OF  THE  COLOUR  OF  THE  EYES. 

The  eyes  vary  in  colour  in  the  human  race  only ;  in  all 
other  animals  they  are  of  one  uniform  colour  peculiar  to  the 
kind,  though  there  are  some  horses  that  have  eyes  of  an  azure 
colour.  But  in  man  the  varieties  and  diversities  are  most 
numerous ;  the  eyes  being  either  large,  of  middling  size,  re- 
markably small,  or  remarkably  prominent.  These  last  are 
g-enerally  supposed  to  be  very  weak,  while  those  which  are 
deep-seated  are  considered  the  best,  as  is  the  case  also  with 
those  which  in  colour  resemble  the  eyes  of  the  goat. 

CHAP.    54.— THE    THEORY    OF    SIGHT— PERSONS    WHO    CAN    SEE    BY 

NIGHT. 

In  addition  to  this,  there  are  some  persons  who  can  see  to  a 

f*  Or  razor-sheath.     See  B.  x.  c  88.                _      .         • 

89  Aristotle  was  of  this  opinion,  hut  Galen  maintained  that  the  mole  can 

see  Its  eye  is  extremely  small,  and  hard  on  the  surface, 

so  Or  "white"  heron.     As  Cuvier  remarks,  this  is   probably  a  mere 

"Tit  is  almost  needless  to  remark,  that  both  snails,  as  well  as  locusts  and 
grasshoppers,  have  eyes. 
02  Lumbricus. 


Chap.  54.]  THE    THEORY   OE    SIOHT.  :,  \ 

very  great  distance,  while  there  are  others,  again,  who  can  only 
distinguish  objects  when  brought  quite  close  to  them.  The 
vision  of  many  stands  in  need  of  the  rays  of  the  sun ;  such 
persons  cannot  see  on  a  cloudy  day,  nor  yet  after  the  sun  has 
set.  Others,  again,  have  bad  sight  in  the  day-time,  but  a 
sight  superior  to  that  of  others  by  night.  Of  persons  having 
double  pupils,  or  the  evil  eye,  we  have  already  spoken93  at 
sufficient  length.  Blue94  eyes  are  the  best  for  seeing  in  the 
dark. 

It  is  said  that  Tiberius  Caesar,  like  no  other  human  being, 
was  so  endowed  by  Nature,  that  on  awaking  in  the  night95  he 
could  for  a  few  moments  distinguish  objects  just  as  well  as 
in  the  clearest  daylight,  but  that  by  degrees  he  would  find 
his  sight  again  enveloped  in  darkness.  The  late  Emperor 
Augustus  had  azure  eyes  like  those  of  some  horses,  the  white 
being  larger  than  with  other  men ;  he  used  to  be  very  angr}- 
if  a  person  stared  intently  at  them  for  this  peculiarity.  Claudius 
Caesar  had  at  the  corners  of  the  eyes  a  white  fleshy  substance, 
covered  with  veins,  which  would  occasionally  become  suffused 
with  blood;  with  the  Emperor  Caius96  they  had  a  fixed,  steady 
gaze,  while  Nero  could  see  nothing  distinctly  without  wink- 
ing, and  having  it  brought  close  to  his  eyes.  The  Emperor 
Caius  had  twenty  pairs  of  gladiators  in  his  training-school, 
and  of  all  these  there  were  only  two  who  did  not  wink  the 
eyes  when  a  menacing  gesture  was  made  close  to  them :  hence 
it  was  that  these  men  were  invincible.  So  difficult  a  matter  is 
it  for  a  man  to  keep  his  eyes  from  winking  :  indeed,  to  wink  is 
so  natural  to  many,  that  they  cannot  desist  from  it ;  such  per- 
sons we  generally  look  upon  as  the  most  timid. 

No  persons  have  the  eye  all  of  one  colour;  that  of  the 
middle  of  the  eye  is  always  different  from  the  white  which 
surrounds  it.  In  all  animals  there  is  no  part  in  the  whole 
body  that  is  a  stronger  exponent  of  the  feelings,  and  in  man 
more  especially,  for  it  is  from  the  expression  of  the  eye  that 
we  detect  clemency,  moderation,  compassion,  hatred,  love, 
sadness,  and  joy.  Erom  the  eyes,  too,  the  various  characters 
of  persons  are  judged  of,  according  as  they  are  ferocious,  me- 

93  B.  vii.  c.  2.  94  «  Caesii." 

95  The  same  has  been  said  also  of  Cardan,  the  elder  Scaliger,  Theodore 
Beza,  the  French  physician  Mairan,  and  the  republican  Camille  Besmoulins. 

96  Caligula. 

E    2 


52  pliny's  KATUEAL  HISTOBT.  [Book  XI. 

nacin"-,  sparkling,  sedate,  leering,  askance,  downcast,  or  lan- 
guishing.    Beyond  a  doubt  it  is  in  the  eyes  that  the  mind  has 
its  abode  :  sometimes  the  look  is  ardent,  sometimes  fixed  and 
steady,  at  other  times  the  eyes  are  humid,  and  at  others,  again, 
half  closed.     From  these  it  is  that  the  tears  of  pity  flow,  and 
when  we  kiss  them  we  seem  to  be  touching  the  very  soul.     It 
is  the  eyes  that  weep,  and  from  them  proceed  those  streams 
that  moisten  our  cheeks  as  they  trickle  down.     And  what  is 
this  liquid  that  is  always  so  ready  and  in  such  abundance  in 
our  moments  of  grief,  and  where  is  it  kept  in  reserve  at  other 
times  ?     It  is  by  the  aid  of  the  mind  that  we  see,  by  the  aid 
of  the  mind  that  we  enjoy  perception;  while  the  eyes,  like  so 
many  vessels,  as  it  were,  receive  its  visual  faculties  and  trans- 
mit them.     Hence  it  is  that  profound  thought  renders  a  man 
blind  for  the  time,  the  powers  of  sight  being  withdrawn  from 
external  objects  and  thrown  inward:  so,  too,  in  epilepsy,  the 
mind  is  covered  with  darkness,  while  the  eyes,  though  open, 
are  able  to  see  nothing.     In  addition  to  this,  it  is  the  fact 
that  hares,  as  well  as  many  human  beings,  can  sleep  with 
the  eyes  open,  a  thing  which  the  Greeks  express  by  the  term 
7t,opvJ3avriav.     Nature  has  composed  the  eye  of  numerous  mem- 
branes of 'remarkable  thinness,  covering  them  with  a  thick  coat 
to  ensure  their  protection  against  heat  and  cold.     This  coat  she 
purifies  from  time  to  time  by  the  lachrymal  humours,  and  she 
has  made  the  surface  lubricous  and  slippery,  to  protect  the  eye 
against  the  effects  of  a  sudden  shock. 

CHAP.    55. THE    NATUKE    OF    THE    PUPIL EYES    WHICH    DO    NOT 

SHUT. 

In  the  midst  of  the  cornea  of  the  eye  Nature  has  formed  a 
window  in  the  pupil,  the  small  dimensions  of  which  do  not 
permit  the  sight  to  wander  at  hazard  and  with  uncertainty, 
but  direct  it  as  straight  as  though  it  were  through  a  tube, 
and  at  the  same  time  ensure  its  avoidance  of  all  shocks  com- 
municated by  foreign  bodies.  The  pupils  are  surrounded  by  a 
black  circle  in  some  persons,  while  it  is  of  a  yellowish  cast  with 
others,  and  azure  again  with  others.  By  this  happy  combina- 
tion the  light  is  received  by  the  eye  upon  the  white  that  lies 
around  the  pupil,  and  its  reflection  being  thus  tempered,  it 
fails  to  impede  or  confuse  the  sight  by  its  harshness.  So 
complete  a  mirror,  too,  does  the  eye  form,  that  the  pupil, 


Chap.  55.]  THE    NATUKE    OF    THE    P^PIL.  .03 

small  as  it  is,  is  able  to  reflect  the  entire  image  of  a  man. 
This97  is  the  reason  why  most  birds,  when  held  in  the  hand 
of  a  person,  will  more  particularly  peck  at  his  eyes ;  for  seeing 
their  own  likeness  reflected  in  the  pupils,  they  are  attracted  to 
it  by  what  seem  to  be  the  objects  of  their  natural  affection. 

It  is  only  some  few  beasts  of  burden  that  are  subject  to 
maladies  of  the  eyes  towards  the  increase  of  the  moon :  but  it 
is  man  alone  that  is  rescued  from  blindness  by  the  discharge 
of  the  humours98  that  have  caused  it.  Many  persons  have 
had  their  sight  restored  after  being  blind  for  twenty  years ; 
while  others,  again,  have  been  denied  this  blessing  from  their 
very  birth,  without  there  being  any  blemish  in  the  eyes.  Many 
persons,  again,  have  suddenly  lost  their  sight  from  no  apparent 
cause,  and  without  any  preceding  injury.  The  most  learned 
authors  say  that  there  are  veins  which  communicate  from  the 
eye  to  the  brain,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  communi- 
cation is  with  the  stomach ;  for  it  is  quite  certain  that  a  person 
never  loses  the  eye  without  feeling  sickness  at  the  stomach.  It 
is  an  important  and  sacred  duty,  of  high  sanction  among  the 
Romans,  to  close99  the  eyes  of  the  dead,  and  then  again  to  open 
them  when  the  body  is  laid  on  the  funeral  pile,  the  usage 
having  taken  its  rise  in  the  notion  of  its  being  improper  that 
the  eyes  of  the  dead  should  be  beheld  by  man,  while  it  is  an 
equally  great  offence  to  hide  them  from  the  view  of  heaven. 
Man  is  the  only  living  creature  the  eyes  of  which  are  subject 
to  deformities,  from  which,  in  fact,  arose  the  family  names  of 
"  Strabo"1  and  "Peetus."  2  The  ancients  used  to  call  a  man 
who  was  born  with  only  one  eye,  "  codes,"  and  "  ocella,"  a 
person  whose  eyes  were  remarkably  small.  "  Luscinus"  was 
the  surname  given  to  one  who  happened  to  have  lost  one  eye 
by  an  accident. 

The  eyes  of  animals  that  see  at  night  in  the  dark,  cats,  for 
instance,  are  shining  and  radiant,  so  much  so,  "that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  look  upon  them ;  those  of  the  she-goat,  too,  and  the 
wolf  are  resplendent,  and  emit  a  light  like  fire.  The  eyes  of 
the  sea-calf  and  the  hyaena  change  successively  to  a  thousand 

97  Hardouin  with  justice  douhts  the  soundness  of  this  alleged  reason. 

98  He  alludes,  probably,  to  some  method  of  curing  cataract;  perhaps 
somewhat  similar  to  that  mentioned  by  him  in  B.  xx.  c.  20. 

99  This  was  done  by  the  nearest  relatives.  This  usage  still  prevails  in 
this  country,  the  eyelids  being  pressed  down  with  pieces  of  gold  or  silver. 

1  Or  "squint-eyed."  2  Or'"  cock-eyed." 


51  plint's  nattjeal  histoey.  [Book  XL 

colours ;  and  the  eyes,  when  dried,  of  most  of  the  fishes  will 
give  out  light  in  the  dark,  just  in  the  same  way  as  the  trunk 
of  the  oak  when  it  has  become  rotten  with  extreme  old  age. 
"We  have  already  mentioned3  the  fact,  that  animals  which  turn, 
not  the  eyes  but  the  head,  for  the  purpose  of  looking  round, 
are  never  known  to  wink.  It  is  said,4  too,  that  the  chame- 
leon is  able  to  roll  the  eye-balls  completely  round.  Crabs  look 
sideways,  and  have  the  eyes  enclosed  beneath  a  thin  crust. 
Those  of  craw-fish  and  shrimps  are  very  hard  and  prominent, 
and  lie  in  a  great  measure  beneath  a  defence  of  a  similar 
nature.  Those  animals,  however,  the  eyes  of  which  are  hard, 
have  worse  sight  than  those  of  which  the  eyes  are  formed  of  a 
humid  substance.  It  is  said  that  if  the  eyes  are  taken  away 
from  the  young  of  serpents  and  of  the  swallow,5  they  will  grow 
again.  In  all  insects  and  in  animals  covered  with  a  shell,  the 
eyes  move  just  in  the  same  way  as  the  ears  of  quadrupeds  do  ; 
those  among  them  which  have  a  brittle6  covering  have  the 
eyes  hard.  All  animals  of  this  nature,  as  well  as  fishes  and 
insects,  are  destitute  of  eye-lids,  and  their  eyes  have  no  cover- 
ing ;  but  in  all  there  is  a  membrane  that  is  transparent  like 
glass,  spread  over  them. 

CHAP.  56. — THE   HAIR   OF   THE   EYE-LIBS  ;    WHAT    ANIMALS  AEE 
WITHOUT   THEM.       ANIMALS  WHICH  CAN  SEE  ON  ONE  SIDE  ONLY. 

Man  has  lashes  on  the  eye-lids  on  either  side ;  and  women 
even  make  it  their  daily  care  to  stain  them  ;7  so  ardent  are  they 
in  the  pursuit  of  beauty,  that  they  must  even  colour  their 
very  eyes.  It  was  with  another  view,  however,  that  Nature 
had  provided  the  hair  of  the  eyelids— they  were  to  have  acted, 
so  to  say,  as  a  kind  of  rampart  for  the  protection  of  the  sight, 
and  as  an  advanced  bulwark  against  the  approach  of  insects 
or  other  objects  which  might  accidentally  come  in  their  way. 
It  is  not  without  some  reason  that  it  is  said  that  the  eye- 
lashes8 fall  off  with  those  persons  who  are  too  much  given  to 
venereal  pleasures.  Of  the  other  animals,  the  only  ones  that 
have  eyelashes  are  those  that  have  hair  on  the  rest  of  the 
body  as  well ;  but  the  quadrupeds  have  them  on  the  upper 

3  B.  viii.  c.  45.  4  B.  viii.  c.  51. 

s  see  b.  xxv.  c.  50.  6  Or  crustaceous  covering. 

"  Kohl  is  stili  used  in  the  east  for  the  same  purpose. 

8  Aristotle  says  so,  Hist.  Anim.  B.  iii.  c.  10. 


Chap.  59.]  THE  NOSTBILS.  55 

eyelid  only,  and  the  birds  on  the  lower  one :  the  same  is  the 
case  also  with  those  which  have  a  soft  skin,  such  as  the  serpent, 
and  those  among  the  quadrupeds  that  are  oviparous,  the  lizard, 
for  instance.  The  ostrich  is  the  only  one  among  the  birds 
that,  like  man,  has  eyelashes  on  either  side. 

CHAP.    57. ANIMALS   WHICH    HAVE   NO   EYELIDS. 

All  birds,  however,  have  not  eyelids:  hence  it  is,  that 
those  which  are  viviparous  have  no  nictation  of  the  eye. 
The  heavier  kinds  of  birds  shut  the  eye  by  means  of  the 
lower  eyelid,  and  they  wink  by  drawing  forward  a  mem- 
brane which  lies  in  the  corner  of  the  eye.  Pigeons,  and  other 
birds  of  a  similar  nature,  shut  the  two  eyelids  ;  but  the  quad- 
rupeds which  are  oviparous,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  tortoise 
and  the  crocodile,  have  only  the  lower  eyelid  moveable,  and 
never  wink,  in  consequence  of  the  hardness  of  the  eye.  The 
edge  of  the  upper  eyelid  was  by  the  ancients  called  "  cilium," 
from  which  comes  our  word  "  supercilia.9"  If  the  eyelid 
happens  to  be  severed  by  a  wound  it  will  not  reunite,10  which 
is  the  case  also  with  some  few  other  parts  of  the  human  body. 

CHAP.  58. THE  CHEEKS. 

Below  the  eyes  are  the  cheeks,  a  feature  which  is  found 
in  man  only.  From  the  ancients  they  received  the  name  of 
"  gense,"  and  by  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  women  were 
forbidden  to  tear  them.11  The  cheeks  are  the  seat  of 
bashfulness ;  it  is  on  them  more  particularly  that  blushes  are 
to  be  seen. 

CHAP.  59. THE   NOSTEILS. 

"Within  the  cheeks  is  the  mouth,  which  gives  such  strong 
indications  of  the  feelings  of  joyousness  and  laughter ;  and 
above  it,  but  in  man  only,  is  the  nose,  which  modern  notions 
have  stamped  as  the  exponent  of  sarcasm  and  ridicule.12  In 
no  other  animal  but  man,  is  the  nose  thus  prominent ;  birds, 
serpents,  and  fishes,  have  no  nostrils,  but  apertures  only  for 
the  purpose  of  smell.     It  is  from  the  peculiarity  of  the  nose 

9  "  The  eyebrows."      ■ 

10  This  is  not  the  fact. 

11  "With  their  nails  when  mourning  for  the  dead. 

12  Hence  the  word  "  nasutus,"  a  sheering,  captions,  or  sarcastic  man. 


56  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XT, 

that  are  derived  the  surnames  of  "  Sinius"  13  and  "  Silo." 
Children  born  in  the  seventh  month  often  have  the  ears  and 
the  nostrils  imperforate. 

CHAP.      60. THE    MOTJTH  ;       THE    LIPS  ;       THE     CHIN  ;       AND     THE 

JAW-BONE. 

It  is  from  the  "labia,''  or  lips,  that  the  Brocchi14  have  re- 
ceived the  surname  of  Labeo.  All  animals  that  are  viviparous 
have  a  mouth  that  is  either  well-formed,  or  harshly  defined, 
as  the  case  may  be.  Instead  of  lips  and  mouth,  the  birds 
have  a  beak  that  is  horny  and  sharp  at  the  end.  With  birds 
that  live  by  rapine,  the  beak  is  hooked  inwards,  but  with  those 
which  gather  and  peck  only,  it  is  straight :  those  animals, 
again,  which  root  up  grass  or  puddle  in  the  mud,  have  the 
muzzle  broad,  like  swine.  The  beasts  of  burden  employ  the 
mouth  in  place  of  hands  in  gathering  their  food,  while  those 
which  live  by  rapine  and  slaughter  have  it  wider  than  the 
rest.  No  animal,  with  the  exception  of  man,  has  either  chin 
or  cheek-bones.  The  crocodile  is  the  only  animal  that  has  the 
upper  jaw-bone15  moveable;  among  the  land  quadrupeds  it  is 
the  same  as  with  other  animals,  except  that  they  can  move  it 
obliquely. 

CHAP.   61. THE  TEETH  |  THE  VARIOUS  EINDS  OE  TEETH  ;    IN  WHAT 

ANIMALS  THEY  ARE  NOT  ON  BOTH  SIDES  OP  THE  MOUTH  :  ANIMALS 
WHICH  HAVE    HOLLOW  TEETH. 

Teeth  are  arranged  in  three  different  ways,  serrated,  in  one 
continuous  row,  or  else  protruding  from  the  mouth.  When 
serrated  they  unite  together,  just  like  those  of  a  comb,  in  order 
that  they  may  not  be  worn  by  rubbing  against  one  another,  as 
in  serpents,  fishes,  and  dogs,16  for  instance.  In  some  creatures 
they  are  set  in  one  continuous  row,  man  and  the  horse, 
for  instance;  while  in  the  wild  boar,  the  elephant,  and  the 
hippopotamus,  they  protrude  from  the  mouth.17  Among  those 
set  in  one  continuous  row,  the  teeth  which  divide  the  food 
are  broad  and  sharp,  while  those  which  grind  it  are  double ; 
the  teeth  which  lie  between  the  incisive  and  the  molar 
teeth,  are   those   known  as   the  canine  or   dog-teeth;   these 

13  "  Flat-nosed,"  and  "  snub-nosed," 

14  A  Roman  family — the  reading  of  this  word  seems  doubtful. 

15  In  reality,  the  under  one  only. 

15  He  is  incorrect  in  speaking  of  dogs  as  having  serrated  teeth. 
17  In  the  dugong  also,  babiroussa,  muntjac,  and  others. 


Chap.  62.]  THE    TEETH    OF    SERPENTS.  5/ 

are  by  far  the  largest  in  those  animals  which  have  serrated 
teeth.  Those  animals  which  have  continuous  rows  of  teeth, 
have  them  either  situate  on  both  sides  of  the  mouth,  as  in 
the  horse,  or  else  have  no  fore-teeth  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
mouth,  as  is  the  case  with  oxen,  sheep,  and  all  the  animals 
that  ruminate.  The  she-goat  has  no  upper  teeth,  except  the 
two  front  ones.  No  animals  which  have  serrated  teeth,  have 
them  protruding ls  from  the  mouth  ;  among  these,  too,  the  fe- 
males rarely  have  them ;  and  to  those  that  do  have  them,  they 
are  of  no19  use:  hence  it  is,  that  while  the  boar  strikes,  the 
sow  bites.  jSo  animal  with  horns  has  projecting  teeth  ;  and 
all  such  teeth  are  hollow,  while  in  other  animals  the  teeth  are 
solid.  All20  fish  have  the  teeth  serrated,  with  the  exception 
of  the  scarus,21  this  being  the  only  one  among  the  aquatic 
animals  that  has  them  level22  at  the  edges.  In  addition  to 
this,  there  are  many  fishes  that  have  teeth  upon  the  tongue 
and  over  the  whole  of  the  mouth,  in  order  that,  by  the  multi- 
tude of  the  bites  which  they  inflict,  they  may  soften  those 
articles  of  food  which  they  could  not  possibly  manage  by 
tearing.  Many  animals,  also,  have  teeth  in  the  palate,  and 
even  in  the  tail ; 23  in  addition  to  which,  some  have  them  in- 
clining to  the  interior  of  the  mouth,  that  the  food  may  not 
fall  out,  the  animal  itself  having  no  other  means  of  retaining 
it  there. 

CHAP.   62. THE  TEETH  OF  SEEPESTS  ;     THEIR    POISON.       A  BIRD 

WHICH    HAS    TEETH. 

The  asp  also,  and  other  serpents,  have  similar  teeth  ;  but  in 
the  upper  jaw,  on  the  right  and  left,  they  have  two  of  extreme 
length,  which  are  perforated  with  a  small  tube  in  the  interior, 

18  The  morse  and  the  dugong  are  instances  to  the  contrary. 

19  The  females  of  the  elephant,  morse-,  dugong,  cheyrotin,  and  muntjac 
have  tbem,  and  they  are  equally  as  useful  as  with  the  male,  only,  perhaps, 
not  so  strong. 

20  This  is  incorrect,  unless  he  merely  means  ranged  in  one  continuous 
line ;  and  even  then  he  is  in  error. 

21  See  B.  ix.  c.  29.  This  is  called  the  parrot-fish,  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  upper  and  lower  jaws  to  the  beak  of  a  parrot. 

22  They  present  this  appearance  from  being  worn  away  at  the  surface. 

23  Rondelet  would  read'"  gula,"  the  throat.  This,  though  repudiated 
by  Hardouin,  is  approved  of  by  Cuvier,  who  justly  looks  upon  the  ordinary 
reading  as  an  absurdity.  Many  fish,  he  says,  and  more  especially  the 
osseous  ones,  have  teeth  in  the  pharynx. 


58  pliny's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XL 

just  like  the  sting  of  the  scorpion,  and  it  is  through  these  that 
they  eject  their  venom.  The  writers  who  have  made  the  most 
diligent  enquiries  on  the  subject,  inform  us  that  this  venom  is 
nothing  but  the  gall  of  the  serpent,  and  that  it  is  conveyed 
to  the  month  by  certain  veins  which  run  beneath  the  spine ; 
indeed,  there  are  some  who  state  that  there  is  only  one  poison- 
fang,  and  that  being  barbed  at  the  end,  it  is  bent  backwards 
when  the  animal  has  inflicted  a  bite.  Other  writers,  however, 
affirm  that  on  such  an  occasion  the  fang  falls  out,  as  it  is  very 
easily  displaced,  but  that  it  soon  grows24  again;  this  tooth, 
they  say,  is  thus  wanting  in  the  serpents  which  we  see 
handled  about  by  persons.25  It  is  also  stated  that  this  fang 
exists  in  the  tail  of  the  scorpion,  and  that  most  of  these  animals 
have  no  less  than  three.  The  teeth  of  the  viper  are  concealed 
in  the  gums  :  the  animal,  being  provided  with  a  similar  venom, 
exercises  the  pressure  of  its  fangs  for  the  purpose  of  instilling 
the  poison  in  its  bite. 

No  winged  creatures  have  teeth,  with  the  sole  exception  of 
the  bat.  The  camel  is  the  only  one  among  the  animals  with- 
out horns,  that  has  no  fore-teeth 26  in  the  upper  jaw.  None  of 
the  horned  animals  have  serrated27  teeth.  Snails,  too,  have 
teeth  ;  a  proof  of  which  are  the  vetches  which  we  find  gnawed 
away  by  snails  of  the  very  smallest  size.  To  assert  that  among 
marine  animals,  those  that  have  shells,  and  those  that  are 
cartilaginous  have  fore-teeth,  and  that  the  sea-urchin  has  five 
teeth,  I  am  very  much  surprised  how  such  a  notion  could  have 
possibly28  arisen.  With  insects  the  sting  supplies  the  place  of 
teeth ;  the  ape  has  teeth  just  like  those  in  man.29    The  elephant 

24  There  is  always  one  fang,  at  least,  ready  to  supply  the  place  of  the  one 
in  front,  if  lost  by  "any  accident.  .    . 

*s  Like  the  jugglers  of  the  East  at  the  present  day.  But  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  the  poison  fang  is  in  all  instances  previously  extracted 
from  the  serpents  which  they  handle.  _ 

26  But  the  camel,  as  well  as  the  lama,  has  an  incisive  hone,  provided 
with  an  incisive  tooth  on  each  side,  and  has  canine  and  molar  teeth  as  well. 

«  If  by  this  term  he  means  teeth  separated  from  each  other,  the  asser- 
tion is  incorrect,  as  in  these  animals  we  find  the.  molars  separated  from  the 
lower  incisives  by  a  very  considerable  space. 

28  Cuvier  says,  as  far  as  the  sea-urchin  is  concerned,  very  simply,  and 
merely  by  looking  at  it,  as  its  five  teeth  are  very  apparent. 

29  The  incisors  are  in  number,  and  very  nearly  in  appearance,  like  those 
of  man.  The  canines  are  different  in  shape,  though  similar  in  number. 
What  he  says  about  the  elephant,  is  peculiar  to  that  of  India. 


Chap.  63.]  THE    TEETH.  59 

has  in  the  interior  of  the  mouth  fourteen  teeth,  adapted  for 
chewing,  in  addition  to  those  which  protrude  ;  in  the  male 
these  are  curved  inwards,  but  in  the  female  they  are  straight, 
and  project  outwards.  The  sea-mouse,30  a  fish  which  goes  be- 
fore the  balaena,  has  no  teeth  at  all,  but  in  place  of  them,  the 
interior  of  the  mouth  is  lined  with  bristles,  as  well  as  the  tongue 
and  palate.  Amocg  the  smaller  land  quadrupeds,  the  two 
fore-teeth  in  each  jaw  are  the  longest. 

CHAP.  63. WOKDEEFXJIi  CIRCUMSTANCES    CONNECTED  WITH    THE 

TEETH. 

The  other  animals  are  born  with31  teeth,  whereas  man  has 
them  only  at  the  seventh32  month  after  his  birth.  While 
other 33  animals  keep  their  teeth  to  the  time  of  their  death, 
man,  the  lion,  the  beasts  of  burden,  the  dog,  and  the  rumi- 
nating animals,  all  change  them ;  the  lion  and  the  dog,  how- 
ever, change  none34  but  the  canine  teeth.  The  canine  tooth  of 
the  wolf,  on  the  right  side,  is  held  in  high  esteem  as  an  amulet.35 
There  is  no  animal  that  changes  the  maxillary  teeth,  which 
stand  beyond  the  canine  teeth.  With  man,  the  last  teeth, 
which  are  known  as  the  "  genuini,"  or  cheek  teeth,36  come 
about  the  twentieth  year,  and  with  many  men,  and  females  as 
well,  so  late  even  as  the  eightieth  ;  but  this  only  in  the  case 
of  those  who  have  not  had  them  in  their  youth.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact,  that  the  teeth  are  sometimes  shed  in  old  age, 
and  replaced  by  others.  Mucianus  has  stated  that  he,  himself, 
saw  one  Zocles,  a  native  of  Samothrace,  who  had  a  new  set  of 
teeth  when  he  was  past  his  one  hundred  and  fourth  year.  In 
addition  to  these  facts,  in  man  males  have  more  teeth  than 
females,37  which  is  the  case  also  in  sheep,  goats,  and  swine. 

30  See  B.  ix.  c.  88. 

31  Very  few  other  animals  are  born  with  teeth,  hv  their  natural  state. 
Apes,  dogs,  and  cats  are  not  horn  with  teeth. 

32  From  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  month  in  reality,  during  which  the 
four  central  incisors  appear. 

33  The  only  ones  that  do  not  change  are  those  which  have  three  molars 
on  each  side  of  the  jaw. 

34  This  is  erroneous :  they  change  the  incisors  and  molars  as  well. 

35  See  B.  xxviii.  c.  78. 

26  By  us  known  as  the  "wisdom"  teeth. 

,7  This  is  not  the  fact :  they  have  usually  the  same  number,  hut  there 
are  exceptions  on  both  sides.  The  same  is  also  the  case  with  sheep,  goats, 
and  swine. 


60  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

Timarchus,  the  son  of  Nicocles  the  Paphian,  had  a  double 38 
row  of  teeth  in  his  jaws  :  the  same  person  had  a  brother  also 
who  never  changed  his  front  teeth,  and,  consequently,  wore 
them  to  the  very  stumps.  There  is  an  instance,  also,  of  a  man 
having  a  tooth  growing  in  the  palate.39  The  canine  teeth,40 
when  lost  by  any  accident,  are  never  known  to  come  again. 
"While  in  all  other  animals  the  teeth  grow  of  a  tawny  colour 
with  old  age,  with  the  horse,  and  him  only,  they  become  whiter 
the  older  he  grows. 

CHAP.    64. HOW   AN    ESTIMATE    IS    EORMED    OF    THE    AGE 

OF    ANIMALS    FROM    THEIR    TEETH. 

The  age,  in  beasts  of  burden,41  is  indicated  by  the  teeth.  In 
the  horse  they  are  forty  in  number.  At  thirty  months  it 
loses  the  two  fore-teeth  in  either  jaw,  and  in  the  following  year 
the  same  number  next  to  them,  at  the  time  that  the  eye-teeth42 
come.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  year  the  animal  loses  two 
teeth,  which  grow  again  in  the  sixth,  and  in  the  seventh  it  has 
all  its  teeth,  those  which  have  replaced  the  others,  and  those 
which  have  never  been  changed.  If  a  horse  is  gelded43  before 
it  changes  its  teeth,  it  never  sheds  them.  In  a  similar  manner, 
also,  the  ass  loses  four  of  its  teeth  in  the  thirtieth  month,  and 
the  others  from  six  months  to  six  months.  If  a  she-ass  hap- 
pens not  to  have  foaled  before  the  last  of  these  teeth  are  shed, 
it  is  sure  to  be  barren.44  Oxen  change  their  teeth  at  two  years 
old:  with  swine  they  are  never  changed.46  "When  these 
several  indications  of  age  have  been  lost  in  horses  and  other 
beasts  of  burden,  the  age  is  ascertained  by  the  projecting  of 
the  teeth,  the  greyness  of  the  hair  in  the  eyebrows,  and  the 
hollow  pits  that  form  around  them  ;  at  this  period  the  animal 
is  supposed  to  be  about  sixteen46  years  old.     In  the  human 

38  This  is  not  very  uncommon. 

39  Not  at  all  an  uncommon  occurrence. 

40  Of  the  second  set. 

41  It  is  only  in  the  horse  and  the  ass  that  these  indications  can  be  re- 
lied upon.  42  Columellares. 

43  This  has  no  such  effect. 

44  The  contrary  is  the  case  :  it  will  he  more  prolific. 
43  Swine  change  them  just  the  same  as  other  animals. 

46  By  certain  appearances  in  the  incisors,  the  age  of  a  horse  up  to  its 
twenty-fourth  year,  or  even  beyond,  may  be  judged  of:  the  other  signs 
cannot  be  so  positively  relied  upon. 


Chap.  65.]  THE   TONGUE.  Gl 

teeth  there  is  a  certain  venom ;  for  if  they  are  placed  uncovered 
before  a  mirror,  the)'  will  tarnish  its  brightness,  and  they  will 
kill  young  pigeons  while  yet  unfledged.  The  other  parti- 
culars relative  to  the  teeth  have  been  already47  mentioned 
under  the  head  of  the  generation  of  man.  When  teething 
first  commences,  the  bodies  of  infants  are  subject  to  certain 
maladies.  Those  animals  which  have  serrated  teeth  inflict  the 
most  dangerous  bites.48 

CHAP.      65. THE     TONGUE  ;     ANIMALS     WHICH     HAVE     NO 

TONGUE.       THE    NOISE    MADE    BY    FHOGS.       THE    PALATE. 

The  tongue  is  not  similarly  formed  in  all  animals.  Ser- 
pents have  a  very  thin  tongue,  and  three-forked,49  which  they 
vibrate  to  and  fro :  it  is  of  a  black  colour,  and  when  drawn 
from  out  of  the  mouth,  of  extraordinary  length.  The  tongue 
of  the  lizard  is  two-forked,  and  covered  with  hair.50  That  of 
the  sea-calf  also  is  twofold,51  but  with  the  serpents  it  is  of  the 
thinness  of  a  hair ;  the  other  animals  employ  it  to  lick  the 
parts  around  the  mouth.  Fishes  have  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
tongue  adhering  to  the  palate,  while  in  the  crocodile  the  whole 
of  it  does  adhere  thereto  :  but  in  the  aquatic  animals  the  palate, 
which  is  fleshy,  performs  the  duty  of  the  tongue  as  the  organ 
of  taste.  In  lions,  pards,  and  all  the  animals  of  that  class, 
and  in  cats  as  well,  the  tongue  is  covered  with  asperities,52 
which  overlap  each  other,  and  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  a 
rasp.  Such  being  its  formation,  if  the  animal  licks  a  man's  skin, 
it  will  wear  it  away  by  making  it  thinner  and  thinner ;  for 
which  reason  it  is  that  the  saliva  of  even  a  perfectly  tame 
animal,  being  thus  introduced  to  the  close  vicinity  of  the  blood, 
is  apt  to  bring  on  madness.  Of  the  tongue  of  the  purple  we 
have  made  mention53  already.  With  the  frog  the  end  of  the 
tongue  adheres  to  the  mouth,  while  the  inner  part  is  disjoined 
from  the  sides  of  the  gullet ;  and  it  is  by  this  means  that  the 
males  give  utterance  to  their  croaking,  at  the  season  at  which 

47  B.  viii.  c.  15. 

48  "  Stevissima  dentibus,"  seems  to  he  a  preferable  reading  to  "  ssevissime 
dentiunt.''  49  Only  two-forked  in  reality. 

50  It  is  not  covered  with  hair. 

51  It  is  not  bifurcate. 

52  These  are  horny,   conical  papilla?,  the  summits  of  which  point  back- 
wards. 53  See  B.  ix.  c.  60. 


62  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

they  are  known  as  ololygones.54  This  happens  at  stated  periods 
of  the  year,  at  which  the  males  invite  the  females  for  the 
purposes  of  propagation :  letting  down  the  lower  lip  to  the 
surface  of  the  water,  they  receive  a  small  portion  of  it  in  the 
mouth,  and  then,  by  quavering  with  the  tongue,  make  a  gur- 
gling noise,  from  which  the  croaking  is  produced  which  we 
hear.  In  making  this  noise,  the  folds  of  the  mouth,  becoming 
distended,  are  quite  transparent,  and  the  eyes  start  from  the 
head  and  burn  again  with  the  effort.  Those  insects  which 
have  a  sting  in  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  have  teeth,  and  a 
tongue  as  well ;  with  bees  it  is  of  considerable  length,  and  in 
the  grasshopper  it  is  very  prominent.  Those  insects  which  have 
a  fistulous  sting  in  the  mouth,  have  neither  tongue  nor  teeth ; 
while  others,  again,  have  a  tongue  in  the  interior  of  the  mouth, 
the  ant,  for  instance.  In  the  elephant  the  tongue  is  remark- 
ably broad ;  and  while  with  all  other  animals,  each  according 
to  its  kind,  it  is  always  perfectly  at  liberty,  with  man,  and 
him  alone,  it  is  often  found  so  strongly  tied  down  by  certain 
veins,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  them.  "We  find  it 
stated  that  the  pontiff  Metellus  had  a  tongue  so  ill  adapted  for 
articulation,  that  he  is  generally  supposed  to  have  voluntarily 
submitted  to  torture  for  many  months,  while  preparing  to 
pronounce  the  speech  which  he  was  about,  to  make  on  the  de- 
dication of  the  temple  of  Opifera.55  In  most  persons  the 
tongue  is  able  to  articulate  with  distinctness  at  about  the 
seventh  year ;  and  many  know  how  to  employ  it  with  such  re- 
markable skill,  as  to  be  able  to  imitate  the  voices  of  various 
birds  and  other  animals  with  the  greatest  exactness.  The  other 
animals  have  the  sense  of  taste  centred  in  the  fore-part  of  the 
tongue  ;  but  in  man  it  is  situate  in  the  palate  as  well. 

CHAP.  66. THE  TONSILS  ;    THE  UVA  ;    THE   EPIGLOSSIS  ;    THE 

ARTERY  ;    THE  GULLET. 

In  man  there  are  tonsils  at  the  root  of  the  tongue  ;  these  in 
swine  are  called  the  glandules.  The  uvula,56  which  is  suspended 
between  them  at  the  extremity  of  the  palate,  is  found  only 
in  man.     Beneath  this  lies  a  smaller  tongue,  known  by  the 

54  "Criers." 

55  One  of  the  titles  of  the  goddess  Fortuna. 

56  "  Uva,"  or  "  grape." 


Chap.  67.]  THE  KECK.  63 

name  of  "  epiglossis," 57  but  it  is  wanting  in  animals  that  are 
oviparous.  Placed  as  it  is  between  two  passages,  the  functions 
of  the  epiglottis  are  of  a  twofold  nature.  The  one  of  these 
passages  that  lies  more  inward  is  called  the  [tracheal]  artery, 
and  Leads  to  the  lungs  and  the  heart :  the  epiglottis  covers  it 
during  the  action  of  eating,  that  the  drink  or  food  may  not  go 
the  wrong  way,  and  so  be  productive  of  suffering,  as  it  is  by 
this  passage  that  the  breath  and  the  voice  are  conveyed.  The 
other  or  exterior  passage  is  called  the  "gula/'56  and  it  is  by 
this  passage  that  the  victuals  and  drink  pass  :  this  leads  to  the 
belly,  while  the  former  one  communicates  with  the  chest.59 
The  epiglottis  covers  the  pharynx,  in  its  turn,  when  only  the 
breath  or  the  voice  is  passing,  in  order  that  the  victuals  may 
not  inopportunely  pass  upwards,  and  so  disturb  the  breathing 
or  articulation.  The  tracheal  artery  is  composed  of  cartilage 
and  flesh,  while  the  gullet  is  formed  of  a  sinewy  substance 
united  with  flesh. 

CHAP.   67. THE  KECK  ;    THE  THROAT  ;    THE  DORSAL  SPIXE. 

The  neck  is  found  to  exist  in  no  animal  but  those  which 
have  both  these  passages.  All  the  others  which  have  the 
gullet  only,  have  nothing  but  a  gorge  or  throat.  In  those 
which  have  a  neck,  it  is  formed  of  several  rounded  vertebrae, 
and  is  flexible,  and  joined  together  by  distinct  articulations,  to 
allow  of  the  animal  turning  round  the  head  to  look.  The 
lion,  the  wolf,  and  the  hyaena  are  the  only  animals  in  which 
it  is  formed  of  a  single60  rigid  bone.  The  neck  is  annexed  to 
the  spine,  and  the  spine  to  the  loins,  The  vertebral  column 
is  of  a  bony  substance,  but  rounded,  and  pierced  within, 
to  afford  a  passage  for  the  marrow  to  descend  from  the  brain. 
It  is  generally  concluded  that  the  marrow  is  of  the  same  nature 
as  the  brain,  from  the  fact  that  if  the  membrane  of  exceeding 
thinness  which  covers  it  is  pierced,  death  immediately  ensues.61 
Those  animals  which  have  long  legs  have  a  long  throat  as  well, 

57  More  generally  "  epiglottis."  It  is  found  in  some  few  reptiles.  This 
passage  is  omitted  by  Sillig. 

58  Gullet,  or  pharynx.  . 

59  Stomachum. 

60  All  these  animals,  on  the  contrary,  have  seven  vertebrae. 

61  This  is  not  the  fact.  The  spinal  marrow,  even,  may  be  wounded, 
without  death  being  the  immediate  result. 


64  pltny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

which  is  the  case  also  with  aquatic  birds,  although  they  have 
short  legs,  as  well  as  with  those  which  have  hooked  talons. 

chap.  68. — the  throat;  the  gullet;  the  stomach. 
Man  only,  and  the  swine,  are  subject  to  swellings  in  the 
throat,  which  are  mostly  caused  by  the  noxious  quality  of  the 
water62  which  they  drink.  The  upper  part  of  the  gullet  is  called 
the  fauces,  the  lower  the  stomach.63  By  this  name  is  understood 
a  fleshy  concavity,  situate  behind  the  tracheal  artery,  and  join- 
ing the  vertebral  column ;  it  extends  in  length  and  breadth 
like  a  sort  of  chasm.64  Those  animals  which  have  no  gullet 
have  no  stomach  either,  nor  yet  any  neck  or  throat,  fishes,  for 
example  ;  and  in  all  these  the  mouth  communicates  immedi- 
ately with  the  belly.  The  sea- tortoise65  has  neither  tongue 
nor  teeth  ;  it  can  break  anything,  however,  with  the  sharp 
edge  of  its  muzzle.  After  the  tracheal  artery  there  is  the 
oesophagus,  which  is  indented  with  hard  asperities  resembling 
bramble- thorns,  for  the  purpose  of  levigatiug  the  food,  the  in- 
cisions66 gradually  becoming  smaller  as  they  approach  the  belly. 
The  roughness  at  the  very  extremity  of  this  organ  strongly  re- 
sembles that  of  a  blacksmith's  file 

chap.  69. — the  heart;  the  blood  ;  the  vital  spirit. 

In  all  other  animals  but  man  the  heart  is  situate  in  the 
middle  of  the  breast ;  in  man  alone  it  is  placed  just  below 
the  pap  on  the  left-hand  side,  the  smaller  end  terminating  in 
a  point,  and  bearing  outward.  It  is  among  the  fish  only  that 
this  point  is  turned  towards  the  mouth.  It  is  asserted  that 
the  heart  is  the  first  among  the  viscera  that  is  formed  in  the 
foetus,  then  the  brain,  and  last  of  all,  the  eyes :  it  is  said,  too, 
that  the  eyes  are  the  first  organs  that  die,  and  the  heart  the 
very  last  of  all.  The  heart  also  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  heat 
of  the  body ;  it  is  constantly  palpitating,  and  moves  as  though 
it  were  one  animal  enclosed  within  another.     It  is  also  enve- 

02  Snow-water,  we  know,  is  apt  to  produce  goitre. 

63  "  Stomachus."     More  properly,  the  oesophagus,  or  ventricle. 

s4  Lacunae  modo. 

65  Or  turtle.  It  has  a  tongue,  and  though  it  has  no  teeth,  the  jaws  are 
edged  with  a  horny  substance  like  the  bills  of  birds. 

d6  "  Crenis"  is  read  for  "  renis  :"  otherwise  the  passage  is  unintelligible : 
it  is  still  most  probably  in  a  corrupt  state. 


Chap.  70.]  ANIMALS   WHICH   HAVE   TWO   HEARTS.  65 

loped  in  a  membrane  equally  supple  and  strong,  and  is  pro- 
tected by  the  bulwarks  formed  by  the  ribs  and  the  bone  of 
the  breast,  as  being  the  primary  source  and  origin  of  life.  It 
contains  within  itself  the  primary  receptacles  for  the  spirit  and 
the  blood,  in  its  sinuous  cavity,  which  in  the  larger  animals  is 
threefold,67  and  in  all  twofold  at  least :  here  it  is  that  the 
mind68  has  its  abode.  From  this  source  proceed  two  large 
veins,  which  branch  into  the  fore-part  and  the  back  of  the  body, 
and  which,  spreading  out  in  a  series  of  branches,  convey  the 
vital  blood  by  other  smaller  veins  over  all  parts  of  the  body. 
This  is  the  only  one69  among  the  viscera  that  is  not  affected  by 
maladies,  nor  is  it  subject  to  the  ordinary  penalties  of  human 
life;  but  when  injured,  it  produces  instant  death.  While  all 
the  other  viscera  are  injured,  vitality  may  still  remain  in  the 
heart. 

CHAP.  70. — THOSE  ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE  THE  LAEGEST  HEART, 
AND  THOSE  WHICH  HAVE  THE  SMALLEST.  WHAT  ANIMALS  HAVE 
TWO  HEARTS. 

Those  animals  are  looked  upon  as  stupid  and  lumpish  which 
have  a  hard,  rigid  heart,  while  those  in  which  it  is  small  are 
courageous,  and  those  are  timid  which  have  it  very  large. 
The  heart  is  the  largest,  in  proportion  to  the  body,  in  the 
mouse,  the  hare,  the  ass,  the  stag,  the  panther,  the  weasel,  the 
hyaena,  and  all  the  animals,  in  fact,  which  are  timid,  or  dan- 
gerous only  from  the  effects  of  fear.  In  Paphlagonia  the  par- 
tridge has  a  double  heart.  In  the  heart  of  the  horse  and  the 
ox  there  are  bones  sometimes  found.  It  is  said  that  the  heart 
increases  every  year  in  man,  and  that  two  drachmae  in  weight 
are  added70  yearly  up  to  the  fiftieth  year,  after  which  period 
it  decreases  yearly  in  a  similar  ratio ;  and  that  it  is  for  this 
reason  that  men  do  not  live  beyond  their  hundredth  year,  the 
heart  then  failing  them  :  this  is  the  notion  entertained  by  the 
Egyptians,  whose  custom  it  is  to  embalm  the  bodies  of  the 

s7  Among  all  the  mamniiferae  and  the  birds,  the  heart  has  four  cavities, 
two  on  each  side.  6S  Mens. 

69  This  is  a  mistake.  The  heart  is  subject  to  disease,  equally  with  other 
parts  of  the  body. 

70  In  spite  of  what  Schenkius  says  in  confirmation  of  Pliny,  this  is 
very  doubtful.  Of  course  it  must  increase  from  childhood,  but  the  in- 
crease surely  does  not  continue  till  the  fiftieth  year. 

VOL.    III.  E 


66  pliny's  NATURAL  EISTOET-  [Book  XI 

dead,  and  so  preserve  them.  It  is  said  that  men  have  been 
born  with  the  heart  covered  with  hair,  and  that  such  persons 
are  excelled  by  none  in  valour  and  energy ;  such,  for  instance, 
as  Aristomenes,71  the  Messenian,  who  slew  three  hundred 
Lacedaemonians.  Being  covered  wuth  wounds,  and  taken  pri- 
soner, he,  on  one  occasion,  made  his  escape  by  a  narrow  hole 
which  he  discovered72  in  the  stone  quarry  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned, while  in  pursuit  of  a  fox  which  had  found  that 
mode  of  exit.  Being  again  taken  prisoner,  while  his  guards 
were  fast  asleep  he  rolled  himself  towards  a  fire  close  by,  and, 
at  the  expense  of  his  body,  burnt  off  the  cords  by  which  he 
was  bound.  On  being  taken  a  third  time,  the  Lacedaemonians 
opened  his  breast  while  he  was  still  alive,  and  his  heart  was 
found  covered  with  hair. 

CHAP.  71. WHEN  THE  CUSTOM  WAS  FIEST  ADOPTED  OF  EXAMINING 

THE  HEAET  IN  THE  INSPECTION  OF  THE  ENTRAILS. 

On  an  examination  of  the  entrails,  to  find  a  certain  fatty 
part  on  the  top  of  the  heart,  is  looked  upon  as  a  fortunate 
presage.  Still,  however  the  heart  has  not  always  been  con- 
sidered as  forming  a  part  of  the  entrails  for  this  purpose.  It 
was  under  Lucius  Postumius  Albinus,  the  King  of  the  Sacri- 
fices,73 and  after  the  126th  Olympiad,  when  King  Pyrrhushad 
quitted  Italy,  that  the  aruspices  began  to  examine  the  heart, 
as  part  of  the  consecrated  entrails.  The  first  day  that  the 
Dictator  Caesar  appeared  in  public,  clothed  in  purple,  and  sit- 
ting on  a  seat  of  gold,  the  heart  was  twice  found  wanting 74 
when  he  sacrificed.  From  this  circumstance  has  risen  a  great 
question  among  those  who  discuss  matters  connected  with 
divination — whether  it  was  possible  for  the  victim  to  have 
lived  without  that  organ,  or  whether  it  had  lost  it  at  the  very 
moment75  of  its  death.     It  is  asserted  that  the  heart  cannot  be 

71  See  an  account  of  him  in  the  Messeniaca  of  Pausanias. 

72  In  this  part  of  the  story  may  have  originated  that  of  the  escape  of 
Sindhad  the  Sailor,  when  buried  in  the  vault  with  the  body  of  his  wife. — 
See  the  "Arabian  Nights." 

73  "  Rex  Sacrorum."  This  was  a  priest  elected  from  the  patricians,  on 
whom  the  priestly  duties  devolved,  which  had  been  originally  performed 
by  the  kings  of  Rome.  He  ranked  above  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  but  was 
possessed  of  little  or  no  political  influence. 

74  No  doubt  there  was  trickery  in  this. 

75  By  supernatural  agency. 


Chap.  73.]  iH£  LIVER.  67 

burnt ^ of  those  persons  who  die  of  the  cardiac  disease ;  and  the 
same  is  paid  of  those  who  die  by  poison.  At  all  events,  there 
is  still  in  existence  an  oration  pronounced  by  Vitellius,76  in 
which  he  accuses  Piso  of  this  crime,  and  employs  this  alleged 
fact  as  one  of  his  proofs,  openly  asserting  that  the  heart  of 
Germanicus  Caesar  could  not  be  burnt  at  the  funeral  pile,  in 
consequence  of  his  having  been  poisoned.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  peculiar  nature77  of  the  disease  under  which  Germanicus 
was  labouring,  was  alleged  in  Piso's  defence. 

CHAP.  72. THE  LUNGS  !  IN  WHAT  ANIMALS  THEY  ARE  THE  LAR- 
GEST, AND  IN  WHAT  THE  SMALLEST.  ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE 
NOTHING  BUT  LUNGS  IN  THE  INTERIOR  OF  THE  BODY.  CAUSES 
WHICH    PRODUCE    EXTRAORDINARY    SWIFTNESS    IN    ANIMALS. 

Beneath  the  heart  are  the  lungs,  the  laboratory  in  which 
the  respiration  is  prepared.  The  use  of  these,  is  to  draw  in  the 
air  and  then  expel  it ;  for  which  purpose  their  substance  is  of 
a  spongy  nature,  and  filled  with  cavernous  holes.  Some  few 
among  the  aquatic  animals  have  lungs,  as  we  have  already 
stated ; 7S  and  among  the  rest  of  those  which  are  oviparous,  they 
are  small,  of  a  fungous  nature,  and  containing  no  blood ;  hence 
it  is,  that  these  animals  do  not  experience  thirst.  It  is  for  the 
same  reason  also,  that  frogs  and  seals  are  able  to  remain  so 
long  under  water.  The  tortoise,  too,  although  it  has  lungs  of 
remarkable  size,  and  extending  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
shell,  is  also  equally  destitute  of  blood.  The  smaller  the  lungs 
are  m  proportion  to  the  body,  the  greater  is  the  swiftness  of 
the  animal.  It  is  in  the  chameleon  that  the  lungs  are  the 
largest  in  proportion  to  the  body;  in  which,  in  fact,  it  has  no 
other  viscera  at  all.79 

CHAP.   73. —THE  LIVER  :    IN    WHAT    ANIMALS,  AND  IN    WHAT  PART 
THERE  ARE  TWO  LIVERS  FOUND. 

The  liver  is  on  the  right  side  :  in  this  part  is  situate  what 
has  been  called  the  "  head  of  the  entrails,"  and  it  is  subject 

76  This  was  P.  Vitellius,  who  served  under  Germanicus  in  Germany 
He  was  one  of  the  accusers  of  Cn.  Piso,  who  was  charged  with  having 
poisoned  Germanicus. 

77  The  cardiac  disease,  as  alleged.  78  %  [x  c   6 
79  But  see  B.  viii.  c.  51,  and  B.  xxviii.  c.  29. 

F  2 


CS  pliny's  natural  histoby.  [Book  XI. 

to  considerable  variations.     No  liver80  at  all  was  found  in  a 
victim  which  was  sacrificed  by  M.  Marcellus,  about  the  period 
when  he  was  killed  in  battle  against  Hannibal ;  while  m  a 
victim  which  was  slain  on  the  following  day,  a  double  liver 
was  found.     It  was  wanting,  also,  in  a  victim  sacrificed  by  C. 
Marius,  at  Utica,  and  in  one  which  was  offered  by  the  Emperor 
Caius81  upon  the  calends  of  January,81*  on  the  occasion  of  his  en- 
tering the  year  of  the  consulship  in  which  he  wasslam:  the 
same°thing  happened,  also,  to  his  successor,  Claudius,  in  the 
month  in  which  he  was  cut  off82  by  poison.     When  the  late 
Emperor  Augustus  was  sacrificing  at  Spoletum,  upon  the  first 
day  of  his  entering  on  the  imperial  dignity,  in  six  different 
victims  the  liver  was  found  rolled  over  within  itself,  from  the 
very  lowest  lobe  ;  and  the  answer  that  was  given  by  the  diviners 
was  to  the  effect  that,  in  the  course  of  the  year,  he  would  gam 
a  twofold  sway.     It  is  of  evil  omen  to  find  an  incision  m  the 
head  of  the  entrails,   except  on  occasions  of  disquietude  and 
alarm ;  for  then  it  is  significant  of  cutting  all  cares,   and  so 
putting  an  end  to  them.     The  hares  that  are  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Briletum83  and  Tharne,  and  in  the  Chersonnesus 
on  the  Propontis,  have  a    double  liver;  but,  what  is   very 
singular,  if  they  are  removed  to  another  place,  they  will  lose 
one  of  them. 

CHAP.  74. THE  GALL  ;    WHERE   SITUATE,  AND    IN    WHAT    ANIMALS 

IT  IS  DOUBLE.       ANIMALS    WHICH    HAVE    NO    GALL,  AND     OTHERS 
IN  WHICH  IT  IS  NOT  SITUATE  IN  THE  LITER. 

In  the  liver  is  the  gall,  which,  however,  does  not  exist  in 
every  animal.  At  Chalcis,  in  Euboea,  none  of  the  cattle  have 
it  while  in  the  cattle  of  the  Isle  of  Naxos,  it  is  of  extraordi- 
nary size,  and  double,  so  that  to  a  stranger  either  of  these  facts 
would  appear  as  good  as  a  prodigy.  The  horse,  the  mule,  the 
ass,  the  stag,  the  roe-buck,  the  wild  boar,  the  camel,  and  the 
dolphin  have  no  gall,  but  some  kinds  of  rats  and  mice  have  it. 

so  Plutarch  says  that  it  was  the  "caput,"  or  "head"  of  the  liver  that 
was  wanting.  M .  Marcellus  was  slain  while  reconnoitring  the  Carthaginian 
camp  by  night. 

si  Caligula.  81    1st  of  January. 

«  By  his  niece  and  wife,  Agrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero. 

sa  See  B.  iv.  c.  11.  Tharne  does  not  seem  to  be  known.  Of  course, 
this  story  about  the  hares  is  fabulous. 


Chap.  75.]  THE    PBOPEETTES    OE    THE    GALL.  69 

Some  few  men  are  without  it,  and  such  persons  enjoy  robust 
health  and  a  long  life.  There  are  some  authors  who  say  that 
the  gall  exists  in  the  horse,  not  in  the  liver,  but  in  the  paunch, 
and  that  in  the  stag  it  is  situate  either  in  the  tail  or  the 
intestines ;  and  that  hence  it  is,  that  those  parts  are  so  bitter 
that  dogs  will  not  touch  them.  The  gall,  in  fact,  is  nothing 
else  but  the  worst  parts  of  the  blood  purged  off,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  that  it  is  so  bitter  :  at  all  events,  it  is  a  well-known 
fact,  that  no  animal  has  a  liver  unless  it  has  blood  as  well. 
The  liver  receives  the  blood  from  the  heart,  to  which  it  is 
united,  and  then  disperses  it  in  the  veins. 

CHAP.  75.— THE  PBOPEKTIES  OF  THE  GALL. 

When  the  gall  is  black,  it  is  productive  of  madness  in  man, 
and  if  it  is  wholly  expelled  death  will  ensue.  Hence  it  is,  too, 
that  the  word  "  bile"  has  been  employed  by  us  to  characterize 
a  harsh,  embittered  disposition ;  so  powerful  are  the  effects 
of  this  secretion,  when  it  extends  its  influence  to  the  mind. 
In  addition  to  this,  when  it  is  dispersed  over  the  whole  of 
the  body,  it  deprives  the  eyes,  even,  of  their  natural  colour ; 
and  when  ejected,  will  tarnish  copper  vessels  even,  rendering 
everything  black  with  which  it  comes  in  contact ;  so  that  no 
one  ought  to  be  surprised  that  it  is  the  gall  which  constitutes 
the  venom  of  serpents.  Those  animals  of  Pontus  which  feed 
on .  wormwood  have  no  gall :  in  the  raven,  the  quail,  and  the 
pheasant,  the  gall-bladder  is  united  to  the  renal  parts,  and,  on 
one  side  only,  to  the  intestines.  In  many  animals,  again,  it 
is  united  only  to  the  intestines,  the  pigeon,  the  hawk,  and  the 
murena,  for  example.  In  some  few  birds  it  is  situate  in  the 
liver  ;  but  it  is  in  serpents  and  fishes  that  it  is  the  largest  in 
proportion.  With  the  greater  part  of  birds,  it  extends  all  along 
throughout  the  intestines,  as  in  the  hawk  and  the  kite.  In 
some  other  birds,  also,  it  is  situate  in  the  breast  as  well :  the 
gall,  too,  of  the  sea-calf  is  celebrated  for  its  application  to  many 
purposes.  From  the  gall  of  the  bull  a  colour  is  extracted  like 
that  of  gold.  The  aruspices  have  consecrated  the  gall  to  Nep- 
tune and  the  influence  of  water.  The  Emperor  Augustus 
found  a  double  gall  in  a  victim  which  he  was  sacrificing  on 
the  day  of  his  victory  at  Actium. 


70  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XL 

CHAP.  76. IN  WHAT  ANIMALS  THE  LIVER  INCREASES  AND  DE- 
CREASES "WITH  THE  MOON.  OBSERVATIONS  OP  THE  ARHSP1CES 
RELATIVE  THERETO,  AND  REMARKABLE  PRODIGIES. 

It  is  said,  that  in  the  small  liver  of  the  mouse  the  number 
of  lobes  corresponds  to  the  day  of  the  moon,  and  that  they  are 
found  to  be  just  as  many  in  number  as  she  is  days  old ;  in 
addition  to  which,  it  is  said  that  it  increases  at  the  winter  sol- 
stice. In  the  rabbits  of  Bsetica,  the  liver  is  always  found  to 
have  a  double  lobe.  Ants  will  not  touch  one  lobe  of  the  liver 
of  the  bramble-frog,  in  consequence  of  its  poisonous  nature,  it 
is  generally  thought.  The  liver  is  remarkable  for  its  powers 
of  preservation,  and  sieges  have  afforded  us  remarkable  in- 
stances of  its  being  kept  so  long  as  a  hundred  years.84 

CHAP.  77. — THE  DIAPHRAGM.       THE   NATURE  OP  LAUGHTER. 

The  entrails  of  serpents  and  lizards  are  of  remarkable  length. 
It  is  related  that — a  most  fortunate  omen — Csecina  of  Yolaterrse 
beheld  two  dragons  arising  from  the  entrails  of  the  victim ; 
and  this  will  not  be  at  all  incredible,  if  we  are  ready  to  believe 
that  while  King  Pyrrhus  was  sacrificing,  the  day  upon  which 
he  died,  the  heads  of  the  victims,  on  being  cut  off,  crawled 
along  the  ground  and  licked  up  their  own  blood.  In  man,  the 
entrails  are  separated  from  the  lower  part  of  the  viscera  by  a 
certain  membrane,  which  is  called  the  "prseeordia,"  85  because 
it  is  extended  in  front  of  the  heart ;  the  Greeks  have  given  it 
the  name  of  "  phrenes."  All  the  principal  viscera  have  been 
enclosed  by  Nature,  in  her  prudent  foresight,  in  their  own  pe- 
culiar membranes,  just  like  so  many  sheaths,  in  fact.  With  re- 
ference to  the  diaphragm,  there  was  a  peculiar  reason  for  this 
wise  provision  of  Nature,  its  proximity  to  the  guts,  and  the 
chances  that  the  food  might  possibly  intercept  the  respiration. 
It  is  to  this  organ  that  is  attributed  quick  and  ready  wit,  and 
hence  it  is  that  it  has  no  fleshy  parts,  but  is  composed  of  tine 
sinews  and  membranes.  This  part  is  also  the  chief  seat  of 
gaiety  of  mind,  a  fact  which  is  more  particularly  proved  by 
the  ti  filiation  of  the  arm-holes,  to  which  the  midriff  extends ; 

84  There  must  he  some  corrupt  reading  here ;  for,  as  Sillig  remarks, 
who  ever  heard  of  a  siege  which  lasted  a  hundred  years  ? 

55  Or  diaphragm;  from  "pree,"  "before,"  and  "  cor,"  the  "  heart." 


Chap.  79.]  THE    INTESTINES.  71 

indeed,  in  no  part  of  the  body  is  the  skin  more  fine ;  for  this 
reason  it  is,  also,  that  we  experience  such  peculiar  pleasure  in 
scratching  the  parts  in  its  vicinity.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  battles 
and  gladiatorial  combats,  many  persons  have  been  known  to 
be  pierced  through  the  midriff,  and  to  die  in  the  act  of 
laughing.80 

CHAP.  78. THE  BELLY:    ANIMALS   WHICH    HAVE   NO  BELLY. 

WHICH  ABE  THE  ONLY  ANIMALS  THAT  VOMIT. 

In  those  animals  which  have  a  stomach,  below  the  diaphragm 
the  belly  is  situate.  In  other  animals  it  is  single,  but  in 
those  which  ruminate  it  is  double ;  in  those,  again,  which 
are  destitute  of  blood,  there  is  no  belly,  for  the  intestinal 
canal  commences  in  some  of  them  at  the  mouth,  and  returns  to 
that  part,  as  is  the  case  with  the  saepia  and  the  polypus.  In 
man  it  is  connected  with  the  extremity  of  the  stomach,  and 
the  same  with  the  dog.  These  are  the  only  creatures  that 
have  the  belly  more  narrow  at  the  lower  part ;  hence  it  is, 
too,  that  they  are  the  only  ones  that  vomit,  for  on  the  belly 
being  rilled,  the  narrowness  at  its  extremity  precludes  the  food 
from  passing  ;  a  thing  that  cannot  possibly  be  the  case  with 
the  animals  in  which  the  belly  is  more  capacious  at  the  ex- 
tremity, and  so  leaves  a  free  passage  for  the  food  to  the  lower 
parts  of  the  body. 

CHAP.   79. THE  SMALL  GUTS,  THE  FBONT   INTESTINES,   THE   ANUS, 

THE  COLON.       IHE  CAUSES    OF    THE  INSATIATE  VORACITY  OF    CER- 
TAIN ANIMALS. 

After  the  belly  we  find  in  man  and  the  sheep  the  "  lactes,''87 
the  place  of  which  in  other  animals  is  occupied  by  the 
"  hillae  :"68  it  is  through  these  organs  that. the  food  passes. 
We  then  find  the  larger  intestines,  Avhich  communicate  with 
the  anus,  and  which  in  man  consist  of  extremely  sinuous 
folds.  Those  animals  which  have  the  longest  intestinal  canal, 
are  the  most  voracious ;  and  those  which  have  the  belly  the 
most  loaded  with  fat,  are  the  least  intelligent.  There  are 
some  birds,  also,  which  have  two  receptacles ;  the  one  of 
which  is  the  crop,  in  which  they  stow  away  the  food  which 

66  "With  Sardonic  laughter,  as  Hardouin  remarks. 
,    87  Or  small  guts.  8s  Or  front  intestines. 


72  PLINY  S   NATUEAL   HISTOET.  [Book  XI. 

they  have  just  swallowed,  while  the  other  is  the  belly,  into 
which  they  discharge  the  food  when  it  is  duly  prepared 
and  digested ;  this  is  the  case  with  the  domestic  fowl,  the 
ring-dove,  the  pigeon,  and  the  partridge.  The  other  birds 
are  in  general  destitute  of  crop,  but  then  they  have  a  more  ca- 
pacious gorge,  the  jackdaw,  the  raven,  and  the  crow,  for  in- 
stance :  some,  again,  are  constituted  in  neither  manner,  but 
have  the  belly  close  to  the  gorge,  those,  for  instance,  which 
have  the  neck  very  long  and  narrow,  such  as  the  porphyrio.89 
In  the  solid-hoofed  animals  the  belly  is  rough  and  hard, 
while  in  some  land  animals  it  is  provided  with  rough  asperi- 
ties like  teeth,90  and  in  others,  again,  it  has  a  reticulated  sur- 
face like  that  of  a  file.  Those  animals  which  have  not  the 
teeth  on  both  sides,  and  do  not  ruminate,  digest  the  food  in 
the  belly,  from  whence  it  descends  to  the  lower  intestines. 
There  is  an  organ  in  all  animals  attached  in  the  middle  to 
the  navel,  and  in  man  similar  in  its  lower  part  to  that  of  the 
swine,  the  name  given  thereto  by  the  Greeks  being  "  colon," 
a  part  of  the  body  which  is  subject  to  excruciating  pains.91 
In  dogs  this  gut  is  extremely  contracted,  for  which  reason  it  is 
that  they  are  unable  to  ease  it,  except  by  great  efforts,  and  not 
without  considerable  suffering.  Those  animals  with  which  the 
food  passes  at  once  from  the  belly  through  the  straight  intestine, 
are  of  insatiate  appetite,  as,  for  instance,  the  hind- wolf,92  and 
among  birds  the  diver.  The  elephant  has  four93  bellies  ;  the 
rest  of  its  intestines  are  similar  to  those  of  the  swine,  and 
the  lungs  are  four  times  as  large  as  those  of  the  ox.  The  belly 
in  birds  is  fleshy,  and  formed  of  a  callous  substance.  In  that 
of  young  swallows  there  are  found  little  white  or  pink  pebbles, 
known  by  the  name  of  "  chelidonii,"  and  said  to  be  employed 
in  magical  incantations.  In  the  second  belly  of  the  heiter 
there  is  a  black  tufa  found,  round  like  a  ball,94  and  of  no 
weight  to  speak  of:    this,  it  is  generally  thought,  is  singu- 

69  The  coot,  probably. 

90  He  alludes  to  the  papillae  of  the  mucous  gland. 

91  The  colic. 

92  "  Lupus  cervarius."     Probably  the  lynx. 

93  The  belly  of  the  elephant  presents  five  transversal  folds. 

94  See  B.  xxviii.  c.  77.  This  substance,  known  by  the  name  of  egagro- 
pile,  consists  of  the  hair  which  the  animal  has  swallowed  when  licking 
itself.  It  assumes  a  round  form,  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  the  in- 
testines. 


Chap.  81.] 


THE    KIDNEYS.  73 


larly  efficacious  in  laborious  deliveries,  if  it  happens  not  to 
have  touched  the  ground. 

chap.  80. — the  omentum:  the  spleen;  animals  which  aee 

without  it. 

The  belly  and  the  intestines  are  covered  with  a  caul  known 
as  the  "omentum,"  consisting  of  a  fatty,  thin  membrane; 
except  in  the  case  of  those  animals  which  are  oviparous.  To 
this  membrane  is  attached  the  spleen,  which  lies  on  the  left 
side,  and  opposite  the  liver  :  sometimes,  indeed,  it  changes 
place  with  the  liver,  but  such  a  case  is  looked  upon  as  nothing 
less  than  a  prodigy.  Some  persons  imagine  that  a  spleen  of 
extremely  diminutive  size  exists  in  the  oviparous  animals, 
as  also  in  serpents  ;  at  all  events,  it  is  to  be  detected  in  the 
tortoise,  the  crocodile,  the  lizard,  and  the  frog;  though  it 
is  equally  certain  that  it  does  not  exist  in  the  bird  known  as 
the  "  Eegocephalos," 95  nor  yet  in  those  animals  which  are  des- 
titute of  blood.  The  spleen  sometimes  offers  a  peculiar  impe- 
diment in  running,  for  which  reason  the  region  of  the  spleen 
is  cauterized96  in  runners  who  are  troubled  with  pains  there. 
It  is  said  also,  that  if  the  spleen  is  removed97  by  an  incision, 
animals  may  survive.  There  are  some  persons  who  think 
that  with  the  spleen  man  loses  the  power  of  laughing,  and 
that  excessive  laughter  is  caused  by  the  overgrowth  of  it. 
There  is  a  territory  of  Asia,  known  as  Scepsis,"  in  which  it  is 
said  that  the  spleen  of  the  cattle  is  remarkably  small,  and 
that  from  thence  it  is  that  remedies  for  diseases  of  the  spleen 
have  been  introduced. 

chap.  81. — the  kidneys:  animals  which  have  four  kid- 
neys.     ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE  NO^NE. 

About  Briletum  and  Tharne96*  the  stags  have  four  kidneys : 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  those  animals  which  have  wings  and 
scales  have99  none.     The  kidneys  adhere  to  the  upper  part  of 

»5  Perhaps  the  godwit,  or  stone-plover,  the  Scolopax  aegocephala  of 
Linnaeus. 

96  See  also  B.  xxvi.  c.  S3. 

w  This  may  be  done  with  safety  in  dogs  or  other  animals. 

*s  See  B.  v.  c.  32.  98*  See  p.  68. 

99  This  is  not  the  case.     Birds  have  kidneys,  but  of  an  irregular  form. 


74  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XT*. 

the  loins.  Among  all  animals,  the  kidney  on  the  right  side  is 
more  elevated  than  the  other,  less  fat,  and  drier.  In  both  kid- 
neys there  is  a  certain  streak  of  fat  running  from  the  middle, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  those  of  the  sea-calf.  It  is  above 
the  kidneys,  also,  that  animals  are  fattest,  and  the  accumula- 
tion of  fat  about  them  is  often  the  cause  of  death  in  sheep. 
Small  stones  are  sometimes  found  in  the  kidneys.  All  quad- 
rupeds that  are  viviparous  have  kidneys,  but  of  those  which 
are  oviparous  the  tortoise  is  the  only  one  that  has  them ;  an 
animal  which  has  all  the  other  viscera,  but,  like  man,  has  the 
kidneys  composed,  to  all  appearance,  of  several  kidneys,  similar 
to  those  of  the  ox. 

chap.  82. — the  breast:  the  ribs. 

Nature  has  placed  the  breast,  or,  in  other  words,  certain 
bones,  around  the  diaphragm  and  the  organs  of  life,  but  not 
around  the  belly,  for  the  expansion  of  which  it  was  necessary 
that  room  should  be  left.  Indeed,  there  is  no  animal  that 
has  any  bones  around  the  belly.  Man  is  the  only  creature 
that  has  a  broad  breast ;  in  all  others  it  is  of  a  carinated 
shape,  in  birds  more  particularly,  and  most  of  all,  the  aquatic 
birds.  The  ribs  of  man  are  only  eight. in  number;  swine 
have  ten,  the  horned  animals  thirteen,  and  serpents  thirty. 

CHAP.    83. THE    BLADDER  :    ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE    NO    BLADBEB. 

Below  the  paunch,  on  the  anterior  side,  lies  the  bladder, 
which  is  never  found  in  any  oviparous  animal,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  tortoise,  nor  yet  in  any  animal  that  has  not 
lungs  with  blood,  or  in  any  one  that  is  destitute  of  feet. 
Between  it  and  the  paunch  are  certain  arteries,  which  extend 
to  the  pubes,  and  are  known  as  the  "  ilia."  In  the  bladder  of 
the  wolf  there  is  found  a  small  stone,  which  is  called  "  syrites ;" 
and  in  the  bladders  of  some  persons  calculi  are  sometimes 
found,  which  produce  most  excruciating  pains ;  small  hairs, 
like  bristles,  are  also  occasionally  found  in  the  bladder.  This 
organ  consists  of  a  membrane,  which,  when  once  wounded,  does 
not1  cicatrize,  just  like  those  in  which  the  brain  and  the  heart 
are  enveloped  :  there  are  many  kinds  of  membranes,  in  fact. 
1  This  is  a  mistake.     It  does  cicatrize. 


Chap.  85.]  ANIMALS   WHICH   HAVE    SUET.  75 

CHAP.  84. THE  WOMB  I    THE   WOMB    OF    THE    SOW  :    THE    TEATS. 

Women  have  all  the  same  organs,  except  that  adjoining  to 
the  bladder  there  is  one  like  a  small  sac,2  from  which  circum- 
stance it  is  called  the  "  uterus."  Another  name  for  this  partis 
"  loci  ;"3  but  in  other  animals  it  is  known  by  the  name  of 
"  vulva."  "With  the  viper  and  other  animals  which  generate 
their  young  within  themselves,  the  wonib  is  double ;  while 
with  those  which  are  oviparous,  it  is  attached  to  the  diaphragm. 
In  woman  it  has  two  concavities,  one  on  either  side :  when 
the  matrix  becomes  displaced,  it  is  productive  of  fatal  effects,  by 
causing  suffocation.4  It  is  asserted  that  the  cow,  when  preg- 
nant, carries  her  young  only  in  the  right  concavity  of  the  womb, 
and  that  this  is  the  case  even  when  she  produces  twins.  The 
womb  of  the  sow  is  considered  better  eating  if  she  has  slipped  her 
young,  than  if  she  has  duly  brought  forth  :  in  the  former  case 
it  is  known  by  the  name  of  "ejectitia,"  in  the  latter  it  is 
called  "  porcaria."  The  womb  of  a  sow  that  has  farrowed  only 
once  is  the  most  esteemed,  and  that  of  those  which  have 
ceased  farrowing,  the  least.  After  farrowing,  unless  the  ani- 
mal is  killed  the  same  day,  the  womb  is  of  a  livid  colour,  and 
lean.  This  part,  however,  is  not  esteemed  in  a  young  sow, 
except  just  after  the  first  farrowing  :  indeed,  it  is  much  more 
highly  valued  in  an  animal  of  a  more  mature  age,  so  long  as  it 
is  not  past  breeding,  or  has  been  killed  two  days  before  far- 
rowing, or  two  days  after,  or  upon  the  day  on  which  it  has 
miscarried.  The  next  best  after  that  of  a  sow  that  has  mis- 
carried, is  that  of  one  that  has  been  killed  the  day  after  far- 
rowing :  indeed,  the  paps  of  this  last,  if  the  young  have  not 
begun  to  suck,  are  excellent  eating,  while  those  of  an  animal 
that  has  miscarried  are  very  inferior.  The  ancients  called  this 
part  by  the  name  of  "  abdomen,''"  before  it  grew  hard,  and 
were  not  in  the  habit  of  killing  swine  while  in  a  state  of 
pregnancy. 

CHAP.  85. ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE  SUET  :    ANIMALS  WHICH  DO  NOT 

GEOW   EAT. 

Those  among  the  horned  animals  which  have  teeth  in  one 

2  Or  bag. 

8  "The  (principal)  place." 

4  Ajasson  renders  this  passage  :  "  The  effects  are  fatal  when  this  organ, 
becoming  displaced,  absorbs  the  air."     The  text  is  probably  corrupt. 


76  plint's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  IX. 

jaw  only,  and  pastern  bones  on  the  feet,  produce  tallow  or 
suet.  Those,  on  the  other  hand,  which  are  cloven-footed,  or 
have  the  feet  divided  into  toes,  and  are  without  horns,  have 
simple  fat  only.  This  fat  becomes  hard,  and  when  quite 
cold  turns  brittle,  and  is  always  found  at  the  extremity  of  the 
flesh  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fat  which  lies  between  the 
skin  and  the  flesh  forms  a  kind  of  liquid  juice.  Some  animals 
naturally  do  not  become  fat,  such  as  the  hare  and  the  par- 
tridge, for  instance.  All  fat  animals,  male  as  well  as  female, 
are  mostly  barren ;  and  those  which  are  remarkably  fat  become 
old  the  soonest.  All  animals  have  a  certain  degree  of  fatness 
in  the  eyes.  The  fat  in  all  animals  is  devoid  of  sensation, 
having  neither  arteries  nor  veins.  "With  the  greater  part  of 
animals,  fatness  is  productive  of  insensibility ;  so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  it  has  been  said,  that  living  swine  have  been 
gnawed  even  by  mice. 5  It  has  been  even  asserted  that  the  fat 
was  drawn  off  from  the  body  of  a  son  of  L.  Apronius,  a  man  of 
consular  rank,  and  that  he  was  thus  relieved  of  a  burden  which 
precluded  him  from  moving. 

CHAP.  86. THE  MARROW  :    ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE  NO  MARROW. 

The  marrow  seems  also  to  be  formed  of  a  similar  material ; 
in  the  young  it  is  of  a  reddish  colour,  but  it  is  white  in  the 
aged.  It  is  only  found  in  those  bones  which  are  hollow,  and 
not  in  the  tibia?  of  horses  or  dogs ;  for  which  reason  it  is,  that 
when  the  tibia  is  broken,  the  bone  will  not  reunite,  a  process 
which  is  effected6  by  the  flow  of  the  marrow.  The  marrow  is 
of  a  greasy  nature  in  those  animals  which  have  fat,  and  suetty 
in  those  with  horns.  It  is  full  of  nerves,  and  is  found  only  in 
the  vertebral  column7  in  those  animals  which  have  no  bones, 
fishes,  for  instance.  The  bear  has  no  marrow;  and  the 
lion  has  a  little  only  in  some  few  bones  of  the  thighs  and 
the  brachia,  which  are  of  such  extraordinary  hardness  that 
sparks  may  be  emitted  therefrom,  as  though  from  a  flint-st®ne. 

5  Varro,  De  Re  Rust.  B.  ii.  c.  4,  says  that  he  saw  an  instance  of  this  in 
Arcadia. 

6  This  is  not  the  case. 

1  There  is  no  similarity  whatever  between  the  spinal  marrow  and  that 
which  is  found  in  the  other  bones. 


Chap.  88.]  THE   NERVES.  77 

CHAP.     87. BONES    AND    EISH-BONES  :      ANIMALS    WHICH    HATE 

NEITHER.       CARTILAGES. 

The  bones  are  hard,  also,  in  those  animals 8  which  do  not 
grow  fat ;  those  of  the  ass  are  used  by  musicians  for  making 
flutes.  Dolphins  have  bones,  and  not  ordinary  fish-bones ;  for 
they  are  viviparous.  Serpents,  on  the  other  hand,  have  bones 
like  those  of  fish.  Among  aquatic  animals,  the  mollusks 
have  no  bones,  but  the  body  is  surrounded  with  circles  of 
flesh,  as  in  the  seepia  and  the  cuttle-fish,  for  instance ;  insects, 
also,  are  said  to  be  equally  destitute  of  bones.  Among  aquatic 
animals,  those  which  are  cartilaginous  have  marrow  in  the 
vertebral  column ;  the  sea-calf  has  cartilages,  and  no  bones. 
The  ears  also,  and  the  nostrils  in  all  animals,  when  remarkably 
prominent,  are  made  flexible  by  a  remarkable  provision  of 
Nature,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  broken.  When  cartilage 
is  once  broken,  it  will  not  unite  ;  nor  will  bone,  when  cut,  grow 
again,  except  in  beasts  of  burden,  between  the  hoof  and  the 
pastern. 

Man  increases  in  height  till  his  twenty-first  year,  after 
which  he  fills  out ;  but  it  is  more  particularly  when  he  first 
arrives  at  the  age  of  puberty  that  he  seems  to  have  untied  a 
sort  of  knot  in  his  existence,  and  this  especially  when  he  has 
been  overtaken  by  illness. 

CHAP.  88. THE  NERVE  :  ANIMALS  WHICH  HAVE  NONE. 

The  nerves 9  take  their  rise  at  the  heart,  and  even  surround 
it  in  the  ox  ;  they  have  the  same  nature  and  principle  as  the 
marrow.  In  all  animals  they  are  fastened  to  the  lubricous 
surface  of  the  bones,  and  so  serve  to  fasten  those  knots  in  the 
body  which  are  known  as  articulations  or  joints,  sometimes 
lying  between  them,  sometimes  surrounding  "them,  and  some- 
times, running  from  one  to  another;  in  one  place  they  are 
long  and  round,  and  in  another  broad,  according  as  the  ne- 
cessity of  each  case  may  demand.     "When  cut,  they  will  not 

8  The  hare  and  the  partridge,  for  instance. 

9  There  is  considerable  doubt  wbat  the  ancients  exactly  meant  by  the 
"nervi ;"  and  whether,  in  fact,  they  had  any  definite  idea  of  "  nerves,"  in 
our  acceptation  of  the  word.  Pliny  here  expresses  tbe  opinions  entertained 
by  Aristotle.  "  Tendons,"  or  "  sinews,"  would  almost  appear  to  be  the  proper 
translation  of  the  word. 


78  plint's  natueal  HISTORY.  [Book  XI 

reunite,  and  if  wounded,  it  is  wonderful  what  excruciating 
pain  they  cause ;  though,  if  completely  cut  asunder,  they  are 
productive  of  none  whatever.  Some  animals  are  destitute  of 
nerves,  fish,  for  instance,  the  bodies  of  which  are  united  by 
arteries,  though  even  these  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  mol- 
lusks.  Wherever  there  are  nerves  found,  it  is  the  inner  ones 
that  contract  the  limb,  and  the  outer  ones  that  extend  it. 

Among  the  nerves  lie  concealed  the  arteries,  which  are 
so  many  passages  for  the  spirit ;  and  upon  these  float  the  veins, 
as  conduits  for  the  blood.  The  pulsation  of  the  arteries  is 
more  especially  perceptible  on  the  surface  of  the  limbs,  and 
afford  indications  of  nearly  every  disease,  being  either  statio- 
nary, quickened,  or  retarded,  conformably  to  certain  measures 
and  metrical  laws,  which  depend  on  the  age  of  the  patient,  and 
which  have  been  described  with  remarkable  skill  by  Hero- 
philus,  who  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  prophet  in  the  wondrous 
art  of  medicine.  These  indications,  however,  have  been 
hitherto  neglected,  in  consequence  of  their  remarkable  subtilty 
and  minuteness,  though,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  by  the  observa- 
tion of  the  pulse,  as  being  fast  or  slow,  that  the  health  of  the 
body,  as  regulating  life,  is  ascertained. 

CHAP.     89. THE    AETEEIES;     THE    VEINS:     ANIMALS    WITHOUT 

AETEE1ES  OE  VEINS.      THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  SWEAT. 

The  arteries  are  destitute  of  sensation,  for  they  are  devoid  of 
blood.  They  do  not,  all  of  them,  however,  contain  the  vital 
spirit,  and  when  one  of  them  has  been  cut,  it  is  only  that  part 
of  the  body  that  is  reduced  to  a  torpid  state.  Birds  have 
neither  veins  nor  arteries,  which  is  the  case  also  with  serpents, 
tortoises,  and  lizards ;  and  they  have  but  a  very  small  propor- 
tion of  blood.  The  veins,  which  are  dispersed  beneath  the 
whole  skin  in  filaments  of  extreme  thinness,  terminate  with 
such  remarkable  fineness,  that  the  blood  is  able  to  penetrate  no 
further,  or,  indeed,  anything  else,  except  an  extremely  subtle 
humour  which  oozes  forth  from  the  skin  in  innumerable  small 
drops,  and  is  known  to  us  as  "  sweat."  The  knot,  and  place 
of  union  of  the  veins,  is  the  navel. 

CHAP.    90.    (38.) ANIMALS,    THE    BLOOD   OF    WHICH    COAGULATES 

WITH    IHE    GEEATEST    EAPIDITT :    OTHEE    ANIMALS,    THE    BLOOD 
OF  WHICH   DOES  NOT   COAGULATE.       ANIMALS   WHICH    HAVE   THE 


Chap.  91.]  ANIMALS  SOMETIMES  WITHOUT  BLOOD.  79 

THICKEST   BLOOD  :    THOSE  THE  BLOOD    OF    WHICH   IS   THE    THIN- 
NEST :    ANIMALS  WHICH  HAYE  NO  BLOOD. 

Those  animals  in  which  the  blood  is  more  abundant  and  of 
an  unctuous  nature,  are  irascible  ;  it  is  darker  in  males  than 
in  females,  and  in  the  young  than  in  the  aged  :  the  blood  of  the 
lower  extremities  is  the  thickest.  There  is  great  vitality,  too, 
in  the  blood,  and  when  it  is  discharged  from  the  body,  it 
carries  the  life  with  it :  it  is  not  sensible,  however,  of  touch. 
Those  animals  in  which  the  blood  is  the  thickest  are  the  most 
courageous,  and  those  in  which  it  is  the  thinnest  the  most 
intelligent ;  while  those,  again,  which  have  little  or  no  blood  are 
the  most  timorous  of  all.  The  blood  of  the  bull  coagulates  and 
hardens  the  most  speedily  of  all,  and  hence  it  is  so  particu- 
larly deadly 10  when  drunk.  On  the  other  hand,  the  blood  of 
the  wild  boar,  the  stag,  the  roe-buck,  and  oxen  of  all  kinds, 
does  not  coagulate.  Blood  is  of  the  richest  quality  in  the  ass, 
and  the  poorest  in  man.  Those  animals  which  have  more  than 
four  feet  have  no  blood.  In  animals  which  are  very  fat,  the 
blood  is  less  abundant  than  in  others,  being  soaked  up  by  the 
fat.  Man  is  the  only  creature  from  which  the  blood  flows  at 
the  nostrils ;  some  persons  bleed  at  one  nostril  only,  some  at 
both,  while  others  again  void  blood  by  the  lower11  parts. 
Many  persons  discharge  blood  from  the  mouth  at  stated  periods, 
such,  for  instance,  as  Macrinus  Viscus,  lately,  a  man  of  prae- 
torian dignity,  and  Yolusius  Saturninus,12  the  Prefect  of  the 
City,  who  every  year  did  the  same,  and  yet  lived  to  beyond 
ninety.  The  blood  is  the  only  substance  in  the  body  that  is 
sensible  of  any  temporary  increase,  for  a  larger  quantity  will 
come  from  the  victims  if  they  happen  to  have  drunk  just 
before  thev  are  sacrificed. 

CHAP.   91. ANIMALS    WHICH     AEE    WITHOUT    BLOOD     AT     CERTAIN 

PEKIODS    OF    THE    TEAB. 

Those  animals  which  conceal  themselves13  at  certain  periods 
of  the  year,  as  already  mentioned,  have  no  blood  at  those  times, 
with  the  exception,  indeed,  of  some  very  small  drops  about  the 

10  See  B.  xxviii.  c.  41. 

11  In  allusion,  probably,  to  haemorrhoids,  or  piles. 

12  See  B.  vii.  c.  12.  13  Bears,  dormice,  serpents,  &c. 


80  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTOET.  [Book  XI. 

heart.  A  marvellous  dispensation  of  Nature  !  and  very  similar 
to  that  witnessed  in  man,  where  the  blood  is  sensible  of  various 
modifications  from  the  slightest  causes ;  for  not  only,  similarly 
to  the  bile,  does  it  rush  upwards  to  the  face,  but  it  serves  also 
to  indicate  the  various  tendencies  of  the  mind,  by  depicting 
shame,  anger,  and  fear,  in  many  ways,  either  by  the  paleness 
of  the  features  or  their  unusual  redness  ;  as,  in  fact,  the  red- 
ness of  anger  and  the  blush  of  modesty  are  quite  different 
things.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  when  a  man  is  in  fear, 
the  blood  takes  to  flight  and  disappears,  and  that  many  per- 
sons have  been  pierced  through  the  body  without  losing  one 
drop  of  blood ;  a  thing,  however,  which  is  only  the  case  with 
man.  But  as  to  those  animals  which  we  have  already  men- 
tioned as  changing14  colour,  they  derive  that  colour  from  the 
reflection15  of  other  objects  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  man  is 
the  only  one  that  has  the  elements  which  cause  these  changes 
centred  in  himself.  All  diseases,  as  well  as  death,  tend  to 
absorb  the  blood. 

OHAP.     92.     (39.) WHETHER    THE    BLOOD    IS    THE    PRINCIPLE    OP 

LIFE. 

There  are  some  persons  who  are  of  opinion  that  the  fineness 
of  the  wit  does  not  depend  upon  the  thinness  of  the  blood,  but 
that  animals  are  more  or  less  stupid  in  proportion  to  the  skin 
or  other  coverings  of  the  body,  as  the  oyster  and  the  tortoise, 
for  instance  :  that  the  hide  of  the  ox  and  the  bristles  of  the  hog, 
in  fact,  offer  a  resistance  to  the  fine  and  penetrating  powers  of 
the  air,  and  leave  no  passage  for  its  transmission  in  a  pure 
and  liquid  state.  The  same,  they  say,  is  the  case,  too,  with 
men,  when  the  skin  is  very  thick  or  callous,  and  so  excludes 
the  air.  Just  as  if,  indeed,  the  crocodile  was  not  equally  re- 
markable for  the  hardness  of  its  skin  and  its  extreme  cunning. 

CHAP.    93. THE    HIDE    OF    ANIMALS. 

The  hide,  too,  of  the  hippopotamus  is  so  thick,  that  lances,16 
even,  are  turned  from  it,  and  yet  this  animal  has  the  intelligence 
to  administer  certain  medicaments  to  itself.     The  hide,  too,  of 

14  The  polypus  and  the  chameleon. 

15  See  B.  viii.  cc.  51,  52. 

16  Walking-sticks  are  still  made  of  it. 


Chap.  94.]  THE    HAIR.    ETC  81 

the  elephant  makes  bucklers  that  are  quite  impenetrable,  and 
yet  to  it  is  ascribed  a  degree  of  intelligence  superior  to  that  of 
any  quadruped.  The  skin  itself  is  entirely  devoid  of  sen- 
sation, and  more  particularly  that  of  the  head ;  wherever  it 
is  found  alone,  and  unaccompanied  with  flesh,  if  wounded,  it 
will  not  unite,  as  in  the  cheek  and  on  the  eyelid, ls  for 
instance. 

CHAP.   94. THE  HAIR  AND  THE  COVERING  OF  THE  SKIN. 

Those  animals  which  are  viviparous,  have  hair  ;  those  which 
are  oviparous,  have  feathers,  scales,  or  a  shell,  like  the  tor- 
toise ;  or  else  a  purple  skin,  like  the  serpent.  The  lower  part 
of  all  feathers  is  hollow  ;  if  cut,  they  will  not  grow  again,  but  if 
pulled  out,  they  will  shoot  afresh.  Insects  fly  by  the  aid  of  a 
frail  membrane  ;  the  wings  of  the  fish19  called  the  "swallow"  are 
moistened  in  the  sea,  while  those  of  the  bat  which  frequents 
our  houses  are  dry  ;  the  wings  of  this  last  animal  have  certain 
articulations  as  well.  The  hairs  that  issue  from  a  thick  skin 
are  rough,  while  those  on  females  are  of  a  finer  quality.  Those 
found  on  the  horse's  mane  are  more  abundant,  which  is  the 
case  also  with  the  shoulders  of  the  lion.  The  dasypus  lias 
hair  in  the  inside  of  the  mouth  even  and  under  the  feet/ two 
features  which  Trogus  has  also  attributed  to  the  hare ;  from 
which  the  same  author  concludes  that  hairy  men  are  the  most 
prone  to  lust.  The  most  hairy  of  all  animals  is  the  hare. 
Man  is  the  only  creature  that  has  hair  as  the  mark  of  puberty  ; 
and  a  person  who  is  devoid  of  this,  whether  male  or  female, 
is  sure  to  be  sterile.  The  hair  of  man  is  partly  born  with 
him,  and  in  part  produced  after  his  birth.  The  last  kind  of  hair 
will  not  grow  upon  eunuchs,  though  that  which  has  been  born 
with  them  does  not  fall  off;  which  is  the  case  also  with 
women,  in  a  great  degree.  Still  however,  there  have  been 
women  known  to  be  afflicted  with  falling  off  of  the  hair,  just 
as  some  are  to  be  seen  with  a  fine  down  on  the  face,  after  the 
cessation  of  the  menstrual  discharge.  In  some  men  the  hair 
that  mostly  shoots  forth  after  birth  will  not  grow  spontane- 
ously.    The  hair  of  quadrupeds  comes  off  every  year,   and 

ls  As  already  mentioned,  this  is  not  the  fact. 
19  See  B.  ix*.  c.  43. 


VOL.    in. 


G 


82  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

grows  again.  That  of  the  head  in  man  grows  the  fastest,  and 
nest  to  it  the  hair  of  the  beard.  When  cut,  the  hairs  shoot, 
not  from  the  place  where  they  have  been  cut,  as  is  the  case 
with  grass,  but  at  the  root.  The  hah'  grows  quickly  in  cer- 
tain diseases,  phthisis  more  particularly ;  it  grows  also  with 
rapidity  in  old  age,  and  on  the  body  after  death.  In  persons 
of  a  libidinous  tendency  the  hair  that  is  produced  at  birth  falls 
off  more  speedily,  while  that  which  is  afterwards  produced 
grows  with  the  greatest  rapidity.  In  quadrupeds,  the  hair 
grows  thicker  in  old  age  ;  but  on  those  with  wool,  it  becomes 
thinner.  Those  quadrupeds  which  have  thick  hair  on  the 
back,  have  the  belly  quite  smooth.  From  the  hides  of  oxen, 
and  that  of  the  bull  more  especially,  glue  is  extracted  by 
boiling. 

CHAP.    95. THE    PAPS  :     BIRDS  THAT   HAVE    PAPS.       REMARKABLE 

PACTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  DUGS  OF  ANIMALS. 

Man  is  the  only  male  among  animals  that  has  nipples,  all 
the  rest  having  mere  marks  only  in  place  of  them.  Among 
female  animals  even,  the  only  ones  that  have  mammseon  the 
breast  are  those  which  can  nurture  their  young.  No  oviparous 
animal  has  mammse,  and  those  only  have  milk  that  are  vivi- 
parous ;  the  bat  being  the  only  winged  animal  that  has  it.  As 
for  the  stories  that  they  tell,  about  the  screech-owl  ejecting  milk 
from  its  teats  upon  the  lips  of  infants,  I  look  upon  it  as  utterly 
fabulous  :  from  ancient  times  the  name  "  strix,"20 1  am  aware, 
has  been  employed  in  maledictions,  but  I  do  not  think  it  is 
well  ascertained  what  bird  is  really  meant  by  that  name. 

(40.)  The  female  ass  is  troubled  with  pains  in  the  teats 
after  it  has  foaled,  and  it  is  for  that  reason  that  at  the  end  of 
six  months  it  weans  its  young ;  while  the  mare  suckles  its 
young  for  nearly  the  whole  year.  The  solid-hoofed  animals 
do  not  bear  more  than  two  young  ones  at  a  time  :  they  all  of 
them  have  two  paps,  and  nowhere  but  between  the  hind  legs. 
Animals  with  cloven  feet  and  with  horns,  such  as  the  cow,  for 
instance,  have  four  paps,  similarly  situate,  sheep  and  goats  two. 

20  It  is  not  improbable  that,  under  tbis  name,  some  kind  of  large  vam- 
pire bat  was  meant;  but,  as  Pliny  says,  it  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  any 
certain  knowledge  on  the  subject.  The  best  account  given  of  the  strix  is 
that  in  Ovid's  Fasti,  B.  vi.  The  name  was  given  opprobiously  to  supposed 
witches,  the  "  foul  and  midnight  hags  "  of  Shakspeare. 


Chap.  96.]  THE    MILE.  83 

Those  which  produce  a  more  numerous  progeny,  and  those 
which  have  toes  on  the  feet,  have  a  greater  number  of  paps  dis- 
tributed in  a  double  row  all  along  the  belly,  such  as  the 
sow,  for  instance  j  the  better  sorts  have  twelve,  the  more 
common  ones  two  less :  the  same  is  the  case  also  with  the 
female  of  the  dog.  Other  animals,  again,  have  four  paps  situate 
in  the  middle  of  the  belly,  as  the  female  panther;  others,  again, 
two  only,  as  the  lioness.  The  female  elephant  has  two  only, 
situate  between  the  shoulders,  and  those  not  in  the  breast,  but 
without  it,  and  hidden  in  the  arm-pits  :  none  of  the  animals 
which  have  toes  have  the  paps  between  the  hind  legs.  The  sow 
presents  the  first  teat  to  the  first-born  in  each  farrow,  the  first 
teat  being  the  one  that  is  situate  nearest  to  the  throat.  Each 
pig,  too,  knows  its  own  teat,  according  to  the  order  in  which 
it  was  born,  and  draws  its  nourishment  from  that  and  no  other  : 
if  its  own  suckling,  too,  should  happen  to  be  withdrawn  from 
any  one  of  them,  the  pap  will  immediately  dry  up,  and  shrink 
back  within  the  belly :  if  there  should  be  only  one  pig  left 
of  all  the  farrow,  that  pap  alone  which  has  been  assigned  for 
its  nutriment  when  born,  will  continue  to  hang  down  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  suck.  The  she-bear  has  four  mammae,  the 
dolphin  only  two,  at  the  bottom  of  the  belly ;  they  are  not 
easily  visible,  and  have  a  somewhat  oblique  direction  :  this  is 
the  only  animal  which  gives  suck  while  in  motion.  The  balsena 
and  sea-calf  also  suckle  their  young  by  teats. 

CHAP.  96.  (41.) THE  MILK  :    THE  BIESTESTGS.     CHEESE  |  OF  WHAT 

MILK  CHEESE  CANNOT  BE  MADE.       B.ENNET  ;    THE  VAKIOTJS  KINDS 
OF  ALIMENT  IN  MILK. 

The  milk  that  is  secreted  in  a  woman  before  her  seventh 
month  is  useless  ;  but  after  that  month,  so  long  as  the  foetus 
is  healthy,  the  milk  is  wholesome :  many  women,  indeed, 
are  so  full  of  milk,  that  it  will  flow  not  only  from  the  mammas, 
but  exudes  at  the  arm-pits  even.21  Camels  continue  in  milk 
until  they  are  pregnant  again.  Their  milk,  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  part  to  three  of  water,  is  considered  a  very 
pleasant  beverage.  The  cow  has  no  milk  before  it  has  calved, 
and  that  which  immediately  follows  upon  its  bringing  forth  is 
known  as  the  "  colostra  : " 22  if  water  is  not  mixed  with  it,  it  will 

21  This  assertion  is  borrowed  from  Aristotle,  Hist.  Anim.  B.  vii.  e.  14. 
82  Or  biestings. 

G    2 


84  PLINY'S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

coagulate,  and  assume  the  hardness  of  pumice.  She-asses,  as 
socn  as  they  are  pregnant,  have  milk  in  their  udders ;  when 
the  pasturage  is  rich,  it  is  fatal  to  their  young  to  taste  the 
mother's  milk  the  first  two  days  after  birth ;  the  kind  of 
malady  by  which  they  are  attacked  is  known  by  the  name 
of  "  colostration."  Cheese  cannot  be  made  from  the  milk  of 
animals  which  have  teeth  on  either  jaw,  from  the  circumstance 
that  their  milk  does  not  coagulate.  The  thinnest  milk  of  all 
is  that  of  the  camel,  and  next  to  it  that  of  the  mare.  The  milk 
of  the  she- ass  is  the  richest  of  all,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  is 
often  used  instead  of  rennet.  Asses'  milk  is  also  thought  to 
be  very  efficacious  in  whitening  the  skin  of  females  :  at  all 
events,  Popptea,23  the  wife  of  Domitius  Nero,  used  always  to 
have  with  her  five  hundred  asses  with  foal,  and  used  to  bathe 
the  whole  of  her  body  in  their  milk,  thinking  that  it  alsp  con- 
ferred additional  suppleness  on  the  skin.  All  milk  thickens 
by  the  action  of  fire,  and  becomes  serous  when  exposed  to  cold. 
The  milk  of  the  cow  produces  more  cheese  than  that  of  the 
goat :  when  equal  in  quantity,  it  will  produce  nearly  twice  the 
weight.  The  milk  of  animals  which  have  more  than  four 
mammas  does  not  produce  cheese ;  and  that  is  the  best  which  is 
made  of  the  milk  of  those  that  have  but  two.  The  rennet  of 
the  fawn,  the  hare,  and  the  kid  is  the  most  esteemed,  but  the 
best  of  all  is  that  of  the  dasypus  :  this  last  acts  as  a  specific 
for  diarrhoea,  that  animal  being  the  only  one  with  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  the  rennet  of  which  has  that  property.  It  is  a  re- 
markable circumstance,  that  the  barbarous  nations  which  sub- 
sist on  milk  have  been  for  so  many  ages  either  ignorant  of  the 
merits  of  cheese,  or  else  have  totally  disregarded  it ;  and  yet 
they  understand  how  to  thicken  milk  and  form  therefrom  an 
acrid  kind  of  liquid  with  a  pleasant  flavour,  as  well  as  a  rich 
butter  :  this  last  is  the  foam24  of  milk,  and  is  of  a  thicker  con- 
sistency than  the  part  which  is  known  as  the  "  serum."  25  Aft  e 
ought  not  to  omit  that  butter  has  certain  of  the  properties  of 
oil,  and  that  it  is  used  for  an  ointment  among  all  barbarous 
nations,  and  among  ourselves  as  well,  for  infants. 

23  See  B.  xxviii.  c.  12.  Poppeea  Sabina,  first  the  mistress,  then  the  wife, 
of  the  Emperor  Nero.  . 

24  "  Spuma."  He  calls  it  so,  because  it  floats  on  the  sunace.  bee  B. 
xxviii.  c.  35.  The  "  acor,"  or  acrid  liquid,  which  he  speaks  of,  is,  no 
doubt,  butter-milk,  M  Or  whey. 


Cbap.  97."}                    VARIOUS    KINDS    OF    CHEESE.  85 

CHAP.  97.   (42.) VARIOUS    KINDS    OF    CHEESE. 

The  kinds  of  cheese  that  are  most  esteemed  at  Eome,  where 
the  various  good  things  of  all  nations  are  to  be  judged  of  by 
comparison,  are  those  which  come  from  the  provinces  of  Ne- 
mausus,26  and  more  especially  the  villages  there  of   Lesura 
and  Gabalis;27  but  its  excellence  is  only  very  short-lived,  and 
it  must  be  eaten  while  it  is  fresh.     The  pastures  of  the  Alps 
recommend  themselves  by  two  sorts  of  cheese  ;  the  Dalmatic 
Alps  send  us  the  Docleatian28  cheese,  and  the  Centronian29 
Alps  the  Vatusican.    The  kinds  produced  in  the  Apennines  are 
more  numerous;  from  Liguria  we  have  the  cheese  of  Ceba, 
which  is  mostly  made  from  the  milk  of  sheep  ;  from  TJmbria 
we  have  that  of  iEsina,  and  from  the  frontiers  of  Etruna  and 
Liguria  those  of  Luna,  remarkable  for  their  vast  size,  d  single 
cheese  weighing  as  much  as  a  thousand  pounds.     Nearer  the 
City,  again,  we  have  the  cheese  of  Yestinum,  the  best  of  this 
kind   being  that  which   comes   from   the  territory  of  Cedi- 
tium.31     Goats  also  produce  a  cheese  which  has  been  of  late 
held  in  the  highest  esteem,  its  flavour  being  heightened  by 
smoking  it.     The  cheese  of  this  kind  which  is  made  at  Rome 
is  considered  preferable  to  any  other  ;  for  that  which  is  made 
in  Gaul  has  a  strong  taste,  like  that  of  medicine.   -Of.  the 
cheeses  that  are  made  beyond  sea,  that  of  Bithyma32  is  usually 
considered  the  first  in  quality.      That  salt  exists  m  pasture- 
lands  is  pretty  evident,  from  the  fact  that  all  cheese  as  it 
grows  old  contracts  a  saltish  flavour,  even  where  it  does  not 
appear  to  any  great  extent;33  while  at  the  same  time  it  is 
equally  well  known  that  cheese  soaked  in  a  mixture  of  thyme 
and  vinegar  will  regain  its  original  fresh  flavour.     It  is  said 
that  Zoroaster  lived  thirty  years  in  the  wilderness  upon  cheese, 
prepared  in  such  a  peculiar  manner,  that  he  was  insensible  to 
the  advances  of  old  age. 

26  Nismes,  in  France.     Hardouin  speaks  of  goats'-milk  cheeses  made  in 
its  neighbourhood,  and  known  as  frontages  de  Bam. 

27  Probably  the  modern  Losere  and  Gevaudan.     See  B.  iv.  c.  IJ. 

28  For  the  Docleatse,  see  B.  hi.  c.  26. 

™  For  the  Centrones,  see  B.  hi.  c.  24.     He  perhaps  refers  to  the  modem 
frontage  de  Passi.  „     ,    . 

so  The  modern  Marquisat  de  Cive,  which  still  produces  excellent  cneese. 

si  See  B.  xiv.  c.  8. 

32  And  more  especially  at  Salona  in  Bithynia. 

33  «  Etiam  ubi  non  videtur  major."     This  is  probably  corrupt. 


8$  plint's  natueal  histoey.  [Book  XI. 

CHAP.  98.   (43.) DIFFERENCES  OF  THE  MEMBEES  OF  MAX  FE0M 

THOSE    OF    OTHEE   ANIMALS. 

Of  all  the  terrestrial  animals,  man  is  the  only  biped  :  he  is 
also  the  only  one  that  has  a  throat,  and  shoulders,  or  "  hu- 
meri," parts  in  other  animals  known  by  the  name  of  "  armi." 
Man,  too,  is  the  only  animal  that  has  the  "  ulna,"  or  elbow. 
Those  animals  which  are  provided  with  hands,  have  flesh 
only  on  the  interior  of  them,  the  outer  part  consisting  of  sinews 
and  skin. 

CHAP.  99. THE  FINGEES,  THE  AEMS. 

Some  persons  have  six  fingers  on  the  hands,  "We  read  that 
C.  Horatius,  a  man  of  patrician  rank,  had  two  daughters,  who 
for  this  reason  had  the  name  of  "  Sedigitae ;"  and  we  find 
mention  made  of  Volcatius  Sedigitus,34  as  a  famous  poet. 
The  fingers  of  man  have  three  joints,  the  thumb  only  two, 
it  bending  in  an  opposite  direction  to  all  the  other  fingers. 
Viewed  by  itself,  the  movement  of  the  thumb  has  a  sidelong 
direction,  and  it  is  much  thicker  than  the  rest  of  the  fingers. 
The  little  finger  is  equal  in  length  to  the  thumb,  and  two  others 
are  also  equal  in  length,  the  middle  finger  being  the  longest 
of  all.  Those  quadrupeds  which  live  by  rapine  have  five  toes 
on  the  fore  feet,  and  four  on  the  hinder  ones.  The  lion,  the 
wolf,  and  the  dog,  with  some  few  others,  have  five  claws 
on  the  hind  feet,  one  of  which  hangs  down  near  the  joint  of  the 
leg.  The  other  animals,  also,  which  are  of  smaller  size,  have 
five  toes.  The  two  arms  are  not  always  equal  in  length  :  it 
is  a  well-known  fact,  that,  in  the  school  of  gladiators  belong- 
ing to  Caius  Caesar,35  the  Thracian  Studiosus  had  the  right 
arm  longer  than  the  left.  Some  animals  also  use  their  fore- 
paws  to  perform  the  duties  of  hands,  and  employ  them  in 
conveying  food  to  the  mouth  as  they  sit,  the  squirrel,  for  in- 
stance. 

CHAP.    100.  (44.) EESEMBLAXCE    OF   THE   APE    TO   MAX. 

As  to  the  various  kinds  of  apes,  they  offer  a  perfect  resem- 

54  He  wrote  a  poem,  in  which,  the  principal  Latin  dramatists  are  enume- 
rated, in  the  order  of  merit.  A.  Gellius,  B.  xv.  c.  24,  has  preserved  a  por- 
tion of  it. 

35  Germanicus. 


Chap.  102.]  THE    KNEES    AND    THE    HAMS.  87 

blance  to  man  in  the  face,  the  nostrils,  the  ears,  and  the  eye- 
lids ;  being  the  only  quadrupeds,  in  fact,  that  have  eyelashes  on 
the  lower  eyelid.  They  have  mammas  also  on  the  breast,  arms 
and  legs,  which  bend  in  opposite  directions,  and  nails  upon 
the  hands  and  fingers,  the  middle  finger  being  the  longest. 
They  differ  somewhat  from  man  in  the  feet ;  which,  like  the 
hands,  are  of  remarkable  length,  and  have  a  print  similar  to 
that  of  the  palm  of  our  hand.  They  have  a  thumb  also,  and 
articulations  similar  to  those  in  man.  The  males  differ  from 
man  in  the  sexual  parts  only,  while  all  the  internal  viscera 
exactly  resemble  those  of  man. 

CHAP.    101.  (45.) THE  NAILS. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  nails  are  the  terminations 
of  the  sinews.  All  animals  which  have  fingers  have  nails  as 
well.  In  the  ape  they  are  long  and  overlapping,36  like  a  tile, 
while  in  man  they  are  broad  :  they  will  grow  even  after  death. 
In  the  beasts  of  prey  they  are  hooked,  while  in  others,  such 
as  the  dog,  for  instance,  they  are  straight,  with  the  exception, 
indeed,  of  the  one  which  is  attached  to  the  leg  in  most  of 
them.  All  the  animals  which  have  feet  [and  not  hoofs],  have 
toes  as  well,  except  the  elephant ;  he,  also,  would  appear  to 
have  toes,  five  in  number,  but  rudely  developed,  undivided, 
and  hardly  distinct  from  one  another,  bearing  a  nearer  resem- 
blance, in  fact,  to  hoofs  than  to  claws.  In  the  elephant  the 
fore-feet  are  the  largest,  and  in  the  hind-feet  there  are  short 
joints.  This  animal  is  able,  also,  to  bend  the  hams  inward 
like  a  man,  while  in  all  the  others  the  joints  of  the  hinder 
legs  bend  in  a  contrary  direction  to  those  of  the  fore  ones. 
Those  animals  which  are  viviparous  bend  the  fore-leg  forward, 
while  the  joint  of  the  hind-leg  is  directed  backward. 

CHAP.  102. THE  KNEES  AND  THE  HAMS. 

In  man  the  knee  and  the  elbow  bend  contrary  ways  ;  the 
same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the  bear  and  the  ape,  and  it  is  for 
this  reason  that  they  are  not  so  swift  of  foot  as  other  ani- 
mals. Those  quadrupeds  which  are  oviparous,  such  as  the 
crocodile  and  the  lizard,  bend  the  knee  of  the  fore -leg  back- 

36  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "  imbricatus." 


8$  PLINY'S    NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XL 

wards,  and  that  of  the  hind-log  forwards ;  their  thighs  are 
placed  on  them  obliquely,  in  a  similar  manner  to  a  man's 
thumb ;  which  is  the  case  also  with  the  multipede  insects,  the 
hind-legs  only  excepted  of  such  as  leap.  Birds,  like  quadru- 
peds, have  the  joints  of  the  wings  bending  forwards,  but  those 
of  the  legs  backwards. 

CHAP.     103. PARTS    OF    THE    HUMAN    BODY     TO    WHICn    CERTAIN 

RELIGIOUS    IDEAS    ARE    ATTACHED. 

In  accordance  with  the  usages  of  various  nations,  certain 
religious  ideas  have  been  attached  to  the  knees.  It  is  the 
knees  that  suppliants  clasp,  and  it  is  to  these  that  they  extend 
their  hands  ;  it  is  the  knees  that  they  worship  like  so  many 
altars,  as  it  were ;  perhaps,  because  in  them  is  centred  ^  the 
vital  strength.  For  in  the  joint  of  either  knee,  the  right 
as  well  as  the  left,  there  is  on  the  fore- side  of  each  a  certain 
empty  space,  which  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  mouth,  and 
through  which,  like  the  throat,  if  it  is  once  pierced,  the  vital 
powers  escape.37  There  are  also  certain  religious  ideas  at- 
tached to  other  parts  of  che  body,  as  is  testified  in  raising  the 
back  of  the  right  hand  to  the  lips,  and  extending  it  as  a  token 
of  good  faith.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  when 
in  the  act  of  supplication,  to  touch  the  chin.  The  seat  of  the 
memory  lies  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ear,  which  we  touch 
when  we  summon  a  witness  to  depose  upon  memory  to  an 
arrest.38  The  seat,  too,  of  Nemesis39  lies  behind  the  right  ear,  a 
goddess  which  has  never  yet  found  a  Latin  name,  no,  not  in  the 
Capitol  even.  It  is  to  this  part  that  we  apply  the  finger  next 
the  little  finger,  after  touching  the  mouth  with  it,  when  we 
silently  ask  pardon  of  the  gods  for  having  let  slip  an  indiscreet 
word. 

CHAr.   104. VARICOSE  VEINS. 

^len  only,  in  general,  have  varicose  veins  in  the  legs,  wo- 
men but  very  rarely.      We  are   informed  by  Oppius,  that 

37  Though  wounds  in  the  knee  are  highly  dangerous,  death  does  not  ne- 
cessarily ensue. 

38  Of  another  person,  who  had  thus  forfeited  his  bail.  It  was  the  cus- 
tom to  touch  the  ear  of  the  attesting  witness. 

39  The  goddess  of  retribution.  See  R.  xxviii.  c.  5,  where  he  makes  fur- 
ther mention  of  her  statue  in  the  Capitol. 


Chap.  106.].  hoofs.  89 

C.  Marius,  who  was  seven  times  consul,  was  the  only  man  ever 
known  to  be  able  to  have  them  extracted  in  a  standing  po- 
sition. 

CHAP.     105. THE    GAIT,    THE    FEET,    THE    LEGS. 

All  animals  take  a  right-hand  direction  when  they  first 
begin  to  walk,  and  lie  down  on  the  left  side.  "While  the  other 
animals  walk  just  as  it  may  happen,  the  lion  only  and  the 
camel  walk  foot  by  foot,  or  in  such  a  way  that  the  left  foot 
never  passes  the  right,  but  always  comes  behind  it.  Men  have 
the  largest  feet ;  in  every  kind  of  animal  the  female  has  the 
smallest.  Man  only40  has  calves,  and  flesh  upon  the  legs  :  we 
find  it  stated  by  authors,  however,  that  there  was  once  an 
Egyptian  who  had  no  calves  on  his  legs.  All  men,  too,  with 
some  few  ey  jeptions,  have  a  sole  to  the  foot.  It  is  from  these 
exceptional  cases  that  persons  have  obtained  the  names  of 
Plancus,41  Plautus,  Pansa,  and  Scaurus  ;  just  as,  from  the  mal- 
formation of  the  legs,  we  find  persons  called  Varus,42  Yacia,  and 
Vatiniv.s,  all  which  blemishes  are  to  be  seen  in  quadrupeds 
also. ,  Animals  which  have  no  horns  have  a  solid  hoof,  from 
whi',h  circumstance  it  is  used  by  them  as  a  weapon  of  offence, 
in  place  of  horns ;  such  animals  as  these  are  also  des- 
tfcute  of  pastern  bones,  but  those  which  have  cloven  hoofs 
nave  them ;  while  those,  again,  which  have  toes  have  none, 
nor  are  they  ever  found  in  the  fore-feet  of  animals.  The 
camel  has  pastern  bones  like  those  of  the  ox,  but  somewhat 
smaller,  the  feet  being  cloven,  with  a  slight  line  of  division, 
and  having  a  fleshy  sole,  like  that  of  the  bear  :  hence  it  is, 
that  in  a  long  journey,  the  animal  becomes  fatigued,  and  the 
foot  cracks,  if  it  is  not  shod. 

chap.  106.  (46.) — HOOFS.- 

The  horn  of  the  hoof  grows  again  in  no  animals  except 
beasts  of  burden.  The  swine  in  some  places  in  Illyricum 
have  solid  hoofs.  Nearly  all  the  horned  animals  are  cloven- 
footed,  no  animal  having  solid  hoofs  and  two  horns.  The 
Indian  ass  is  only  a  one-homed  animal,  and  the  oryx  is  both 

40  The  frog  is,  in  some  measure,  an  exception. 

41  Or  "flat-foot,"  "splay-foot,"  "large-foot,"  and  "club-footed." 

42  Words  meaning  "  knock-kneed,"  "  bow-legged,"  and  "  wry-legged." 


90  flint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

one-horned  and  cloven-footed.  The  Indian  ass43  is  the 
only  solid-hoofed  animal  that  has  pastern-bones.  As  to 
swine,  they  are  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  mongrel  race,  with  a 
mixture  of  both  kinds,  and  hence  it  is  that  their  ankle-bones 
are  so  misshapen.  Those  authors  who  have  imagined  that 
man  has  similar  pastern-bones,  are  easily  to  be  confuted.  The 
lynx  is  the  only  one  among  the  animals  that  have  the  feet 
divided  into  toes,  that  has  anything  bearing  a  resemblance 
to  a  pastern-bone ;  while  with  the  lion  it  is  more  crooked 
still.  The  great  pastern-bone  is  straight,  and  situate  in  the 
joints  of  the  foot ;  it  projects  outwards  in  a  convex  protube- 
rance, and  is  held  fast  in  its  vertebration  by  certain  liga- 
ments. 

CHAP.     107.    (47.) THE    FEET    OF    BIRDS. 

Among  birds,  some  have  the  feet  divided  into  toes,  while 
others,  again,  are  broad  and  flatfooted — in  others,  which  par- 
take of  the  intermediate  nature  of  both,  the  toes  are  divided, 
with  a  wide  space  between  them.  All  birds,  however,  have 
four  toes — three  in  front,  and  one  on  the  heel ;  this  last,  how- 
ever, is  wanting  in  some  that  have  long  legs.  The  iynx44  is 
the  only  bird  that  has  two  toes  on  each  side  of  the  leg.  This 
bird  also  protrudes  a  long  tongue  similar  to  that  of  the  serpent, 
and  it  can  turn  the  neck  quite  round  and  look  backwards  ;  it 
has  great  talons,  too,  like  those  of  the  jackdaw.  Some  of  the 
heavier  birds  have  spurs  also  upon  the  legs;  but  none  of 
those  have  them  which  have  crooked  talons  as  well.  The 
long-footed  birds,  as  they  fly,  extend  the  legs  towards  the  tail, 
while  those  that  have  short  legs  hold  them  contracted  close  to 
the  middle  of  the  body.  Those  authors  who  deny  that  there 
is  any  bird  without  feet,  assert  that  those  even  which  are 
called  apodes,45  are  not  without  them,  as  also  the  oce,  and  the 
drepanis,46  which  last  is  a  bird  but  very  rarely  seen.  Ser- 
pents, too,  have  been  seen  with  feet  like  those  of  the  goose. 

43  The  rhinoceros. 

44  Or  wryneck.  «  See  B.  x.  c.  5. 

46  Supposed  to  be  the  Hirundo  apus  of  Linnaeus.  Of  the  "oce"  nothing 
is  known ;  indeed,  the  reading  is  very  doubtful. 


Chap.  109.]  THE    SEXUAL    PARTS.  91 

CHAP.    108.    (48.) THE  FEET   OF  ANIMALS,  FROM    TIKSE    TJAYINO 

TWO    FEET    TO    THOSE    WITH    A    HUNDRED. DWARFS. 

Among  insects,  those  which  have  hard  eyes  have  the  fore- 
feet long,  in  order  that  from  time  to  time  they  may  rub  the 
eyes  with  their  feet,  as  we  frequently  see  done  by  flies.  The 
insects  which  have  long  hind-feet  are  able  to  leap,  the  locust, 
for  instance.  All  these  insects  have  six  feet :  and  some  of  the 
spiders  have  two  very  long  feet  in  addition.  They  have,  all 
of  them,  three  joints.  We  have  already47  stated  that  marine 
insects  have  eight  feet,  such  as  the  polypus,  the  saepia,  the 
cuttle-fish,  and  the  crab,  animals  which  move  their  arms  in  a 
contrary  direction  to  their  feet,  which  last  they  move  around 
as  well  as  obliquely  :  they  are  the  only  animals  the  feet  of 
which  have  a  rounded  form.  Other  insects  have  two  feet  to 
regulate  their  movements  ;  in  the  crab,  and  in  that  only,  these 
duties  are  performed  by  four.  The  land  animals  which  exceed 
this  number  of  feet,  as  most  of  the  worms,48  never  have  fewer 
than  twelve  feet,  and  some,  indeed,  as  many  as  a  hundred. 
The  number  of  feet  is  never  uneven  in  any  animal.  Among 
the  solid-hoofed  animals,  the  legs  are  of  their  proper  length 
from  the  moment  of  their  birth,  after  which  they  may  with 
more  propriety  be  said  to  extend  themselves  than  to  increase 
in  growth  :  hence  it  is,  that  in  infancy  they  are  able  to  scratch 
their  ears  with  the  hind  feet,  a  thing  which,  when  they  grow 
older,  they  are  not  able  to  do,  because  their  increase  of  growth 
affects  only  the  superficies  of  the  body.  It  is  for  the  same 
reason  also,  that  they  are  only  able  to  graze  at  first  by  bending 
the  knees,  until  such  time  as  the  neck  has  attained  its  proper 
length. 

(49.)  There  are  dwarfs  to  be  found  among  all  animals,  and 
among  birds  even. 

CHAP.     109. THE    SEXUAL    PARTS. HERMAPHRODITES. 

"We  have  already  spoken  sufficiently49  at  length  of  those  ani- 
mals, the  males  of  which  have  the  sexual  parts  behind.  In 
the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  weasel,  and  the  ferret,  these  parts  are 
bony ;    and  it  is  the  genitals  of  the  last-mentioned  animal 

47  B.  ix.  c.  44. 

48  He  evidently  means  insects  of  the  centipede  class.     See  B.  xxix.  c.  39. 

49  B.  x.  c.  83. 


92  pliny's  natural  histoey.  [Book  XI. 

that  supply  the  principal  remedies  for  calculus  in  the  human 
bladder.  It  is  said  also  that  the  genitals  of  the  bear  are 
turned  into  a  horny  substance  the  moment  it  dies.  Among 
the  peoples  of  the  East  the  very  best  bow-strings  are  those 
which  are  made  of  the  member  of  the  camel.  These  parts  also, 
among  different  nations,  are  made  the  object  of  certain  usages50 
and  religious  observances  ;  and  the  Galli,51  the  priests  of  the 
Mother  of  the  gods,  are  in  the  habit  of  castrating  themselves, 
without  any  dangerous  results.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
in  some  few  women  a  monstrous  resemblance  to  the  male  con- 
formation, while  hermaphrodites  appear  to  partake  of  the 
nature  of  both.  Instances  of  this  last  conformation^  were 
seen  in  quadrupeds  in  Nero's  reign,  and  for  the  first  time,  I 
imagine  ;  for  he  ostentatiously  paraded  hermaphrodite  horses 
yoked  to  his  car,  which  had  been  found  in  the  territory  of 
the  Treviri,  in  Gaul ;  as  if,  indeed,  it  was  so  remarkably  fine  a 
sight  to  behold  the  ruler  of  the  earth  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn 
by  monstrosities  ! 

CHAP.    110. THE  TESTES — THE  THEEE  CLASSES  OF  EUNUCHS. 

In  sheep  and  cattle  the  testes  hang  down  to  the  legs,  while 
in  the  boar  they  are  knit  up  close  to  the  body.  In  the  dolphin 
they  are  very  long,  and  are  concealed  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
belly.  In  the  elephant,  also,  they  are  quite  concealed.  In 
oviparous  animals  they  adhere  to  the  interior  of  the  loins  : 
these  animals  are  the  most  speedy  in  the  venereal  congress. 
Pishes  and  serpents  have  no  testes,  but  in  place  of  them  they 
have  two  veins,  which  run  from  the  renal  region  to  the  genitals. 
The  bird  known  as  the  "  buteo,"51  has  three  testes.  Man  is 
the  only  creature  in  which  the  testes  are  ever  broken,  either 
accidentally  or  by  some  natural  malady ;  those  who  are  thus 
afflicted  form  a  third  class  of  half  men,  in  addition  to  her- 
maphrodites and  eunuchs.  In  all  species  of  animals  the  male 
is  more  courageous  than  the  female,  with  the  exception  of  the 
panther  and  the  bear. 

CHAP.   111.    (50.) THE    TAILS    OF    ANIMALS. 

Nearly  all  the  animals,  both  viviparous  as  well  as  oviparous, 

50  Such  as  circumcision  among  the  Jews. 

51  See  B.  xxxv.  c.  46. 

51  Probably  the  buzzard ;  from  this  story  also  called  the  "  triorchis." 


Chap.  112.]  DIFFERENT  VOICES   OF  ANIMALS.  93 

with  the  exception  of  man  and  the  ape,  have  tails  in  propor- 
tion to  the  necessities  of  the  body.  In  animals  with  bristles 
the  tail  is  bare,  as  in  the  boar,  for  instance.  In  those  that  are 
shaggy,  it  is  small,  such  as  the  bear ;  while  in  those  animals 
that  have  long  hair,  the  tail  is  long  also,  the  horse,  for  in- 
stance. The  tail  of  a  lizard  or  serpent,  if  cut  off,  will  grow 
again.  The  tail  governs  the  movements  of  the  fish  like  a 
rudder,  and  turning  from  side  to  side,  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left,  impels  it  onwards,  acting  in  some  degree  like  an  oar. 
A  double  tail  is  sometimes  found  in  lizards.  In  oxen,  the 
stalk  of  the  tail  is  of  remarkable  length,  and  is  covered  with 
rough  hair  at  the  extremity.  In  the  ass,  too,  it  is  longer  than 
in  the  horse,  but  in  beasts  of  burden  it  is  covered  with  bristly 
hairs.  The  tail  of  the  lion,  at  the  extremity,  is  like  that  of 
the  ox  and  the  field-mouse ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the 
panther.  In  the  fox  and  the  wolf  it  is  covered  with  long 
hair,  as  in  sheep,  in  which  it  is  longer  also.  In  swine,  the 
tail  is  curled ;  among  dogs,  those  that  are  mongrels  carry  it 
close  beneath  the  belly. 

CHAP.    112.    (51.) THE    DIFFERENT    VOICES    OF    ANIMALS. 

Aristotle52  is  of  opinion  that  no  animal  has  a  voice  which 
does  not  respire,  and  that  hence  it  is  that  there  is  no  voice  in 
insects,  but  only  a  noise,  through  the  circulation  of  the  air  in 
the  interior,  and  its  resounding,  by  reason  of  its  compression. 
Some  insects,  again,  he  says,  emit  a  sort  of  humming  noise, 
such  as  the  bee,  for  instance  ;  others  a  shrill,  long-drawn  note, 
like  the  grasshopper,  the  two  cavities  beneath  the  thorax  re- 
ceiving the  air,  which,  meeting  a  moveable  membrane  within, 
emits  a  sound  by  the  attrition. — Also  that  flies,  bees,  and 
other  insects  of  that  nature,  are  only  heard  while  they  are 
flying,  and  cease  to  be  heard  the  moment  they  settle,  and  that 
the  sound  which  they  emit  proceeds  from  the  friction  and  the 
air  within  them,  and  not  from  any  act  of  respiration.  At  all 
events,  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  locust  emits  a  sound 
by  rubbing  together  the  wings  and  thighs,  and  that  among 
the  aquatic  animals  the  scallop  makes  a  certain  noise  as  it 
flies.53  Mollusks,  however,  and  the  testaceous  animals  have  no 
voice  and  emit  no  sounds.     As  for  the  other  fishes,  although 

52  Hist.  Anim.  B.  iv.  c.  9.  53  See  B.  ix.  c.  52. 


94  plint's  natural  history.  Book  XI. 

they  are  destitute  of  lungs  and  the  tracheal  artery,  they  are 
not  entirely  without  the  power  of  emitting  certain  sounds :  it 
is  only  a  mere  joke  to  sa)^  that  the  noise  which  they  make  is 
produced  by  grating  their  teeth  together.  The  fish,  too,  that 
is  found  in  the  river  Acheloiis,  and  is  known  as  the  boar-fish,64 
makes  a  grunting  noise,  as  do  some  others  which  we  have  pre- 
viously55 mentioned.  The  oviparous  animals  hiss:  in  the 
serpent  this  hissing  is  prolonged,  in  the  tortoise  it  is  short  and 
abrupt.  Frogs  make  a  peculiar  noise  of  their  own,  as  already 
stated;56  unless,  indeed,  this,  too,  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
matter  of  doubt ;  but  their  noise  originates  in  the  mouth,  and 
not  in  the  thorax.  Still,  however,  in  reference  to  this  subject, 
the  nature  of  the  various  localities  exercises  a  very  considerable 
influence,  for  in  Macedonia,  it  is  said,  the  frogs  are  dumb,  and 
the  same  in  reference  to  the  wild  boars  there.  Among  birds, 
the  smaller  ones  chirp  and  twitter  the  most,  and  more  espe- 
cially about  the  time  of  pairing.  Others,  again,  exercise  their 
voice  while  fighting,  the  quail,  for  instance ;  others  before 
they  begin  to  fight,  such  as  the  partridge ;  and  others  when, 
they  have  gained  the  victory,  the  dunghill  cock,  for  instance. 
The  males  in  these  species  have  a  peculiar  note  of  their  own, 
while  in  others,  the  nightingale  for  example,  the  male  has 
the  same  note  as  the  female. 

Some  birds  sing  all  the  year  round,  others  only  at  certain 
times  of  the  year,  as  we  have  already  mentioned  when  speak- 
ing of  them  individually.  The  elephant  produces  a  noise 
similar  to  that  of  sneezing,  by  the  aid  of  the  mouth,  and  in- 
dependently of  the  nostrils ;  but  by  means  of  the  nostrils  it 
emits  a  sound  similar  to  the  hoarse  braying  of  a  trumpet. 
It  is  only  in  the  bovine  race  that  the  voice  of  the  female  is  the 
deepest,  it  being  in  all  other  kinds  of  animals  more  shrill  than 
that  of  the  male ;  it  is  the  same  also  with  the  male  of  the 
human  race  when  castrated.  The  infant  at  its  birth  is  never 
heard  to  utter  a  cry  before  it  has  entirely  left  the  uterus : 
it  begins  to  speak  at  the  end  of  the  first  year.  A  son  of 
Croesus,57  however,  spoke  when  only  six  months  old,  and,  while 
yet  wielding  the  child's  rattle,  afforded  portentous  omens,  for 

54  "Aper."  55  B.  ix.  c.  7. 

56  See  c.  65  of  the  present  Book. 

51  Not  the  dumb  son  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  who  saved  his  father's 
life  at  the  taking  of  Surdes. 


Chap.  113.]  SUPERFLUOUS    LIMBS.  95 

it  was  at  the  same  period  that  his  father's  empire  fell.  Those 
children  which  begin  to  speak  the  soonest,  begin  to  walk  the 
latest.  The  human  voice  acquires  additional  strength  at  the 
fourteenth  year ;  but  in  old  age  it  becomes  more  shrill  again, 
and  there  is  no  living  creature  in  which  it  is  subject  to  more 
frequent  changes. 
_  In  addition  to  the  preceding,  there  are  still  some  singular 
circumstances  that  deserve  to  be  mentioned  with  reference  to 
the  voice.  If  saw-dust  or  sand  is  thrown  down  in  the  orches- 
tra of  a  theatre,  or  if  the  walls  around  are  left  in  a  rough 
state,  or  empty  casks  are  placed  there,  the  voice  is  absorbed  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  wall  is  quite  straight,  or  if 
built  in  a  concave  form,  the  voice  will  move  along  it,  and  will 
convey  words  spoken  in  the  slightest  whisper  from  one 
end58  to  the  other,  if  there  is  no  inequality  in  the  surface  to 
impede  its  progress.  The  voice,  in  man,  contributes  in  a  great 
degree  to  form  his  physiognomy,  for  we  form  a  knowledge  of 
a  man  before  we  see  him  by  hearing  his  voice,  just  as  well59 
as  if  we  had  seen  him  with  our  eyes.  There  are  as  many 
kinds  of  voices,  too,  as  there  are  individuals  in  existence,  and 
each  man  has  his  own  peculiar  voice,  just  as  much  as  his  own 
peculiar  physiognomy.  Hence  it  is,  that  arises  that  vast  di- 
versity of  nations  and  languages  throughout  the  whole  earth  : 
in  this,  too,  originate  the  many  tunes,  measures,  and  inflexions 
that  exist.  But,  before  all  other  things,  it  is  the  voice  that 
serves  to  express  our  sentiments,60  a  power  that  distinguishes 
us  from  the  beasts ;  just  as,  in  the  same  way,  the  various  shades 
and  differences  in  language  that  exist  among  men  have  created 
an  equally  marked  difference  between  us  and  the  brutes. 

CHAP.   113.  (52.) SUPERFLUOUS    LIMBS. 

Supernumerary  limbs,  when  they  grow  on  animals,  are  of 
no  use,  which  is  the  case  also  with  the  sixth  finger,  when  it 
grows  on  man.  It  was  thought  proper  in  Egypt  to  rear  a 
human  monster,  that  had  two  additional  eyes  in  the  back  part 
of  the  head  ;  it  could  not  see  with  them,  however. 

58  Like  the  whispering  gallery  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

59  "  Non  aliter  quam  oculis."  On  this,  few  will  be  found  to  asn-ee  with 
Pliny.  & 

6u  And  not  to  "  conceal "  them,  according  to  the  opinion  of  some  modern 
politicians. 


9G  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XI. 

CHAP.   114. — SIGNS    OF    VITALITY    AND    OF    THE   MORAL 
DISPOSITION    OF    MAN,    FROM    THE    LIMBS. 

I  am  greatly  surprised  that  Aristotle  has  not  only  believed, 
but  has  even  committed  it  to  writing,  that  there  are  in  the 
human  body  certain  prognostics  of  the  duration  of  life.  Al- 
though I  am  quite  convinced  of  the  utter  futility  of  these  re- 
marks, and  am  of  opinion  that  they  ought  not  to  be  published 
without  hesitation,  for  fear  lest  each  person  might  be  anxiously 
looking  out  for  these  prognostics  in  his  own  person,  I  shall  still 
make  some  slight  mention  of  the  subject,  seeing  that  so  learned 
a  man  as  Aristotle  did  not  treat  it  with  contempt.  He  has  set 
down  the  following  as  indications  of  a  short  life — few  teeth, 
very  long  fingers,  a  leaden  colour,  and  numerous  broken  lines 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  On  the  other  hand,  he  looks  upon  the 
following  as  prognostics  of  a  long  life — stooping  in  the  shoul- 
ders, one  or  two  long  unbroken  lines  in  the  hand,  a  greater  num- 
ber than  two-and-thirty  teeth,  and  large  ears  .  He  does  not,  I 
imagine,  require  that  all  these  symptoms  should  unite  in  one 
person,  but  looks  upon  them  as  individually  significant :  in  my 
opinion,  however,  they  are  utterly  frivolous,  all  of  them,  al- 
though they  obtain  currency  among  the  vulgar.  Our  own  writer, 
Trogus,  has  in  a  similar  manner  set  down  the  physiognomy  as 
indicative  of  the  moral  disposition ;  one  of  the  very  gravest  of 
the  Eoman  authors,  whose  own61  words  I  will  here  subjoin  : — 

"  Where  the  forehead  is  broad,  it  is  significant  of  a  dull  and 
sluggish  understanding  beneath  ;  and  where  it  is  small,  it  in- 
dicates an  unsteady  disposition.  A  rounded  forehead  denotes 
an  irascible  temper,  it  seeming  as  though  the  swelling  anger 
had  left  its  traces  there.  Where  the  eye-brows  are  extended 
in  one  straight  line,  they  denote  effeminacy  in  the  owner,  and 
when  they  are  bent  downwards  towards  the  nose,  an  austere 
disposition.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  eye-brows  are  bent 
towards  the  temples,  they  are  indicative  of  a  sarcastic  dispo- 
sition ;  but  when  they  lie  very  low,  they  denote  malice  and 
envy.  Long  eyes  are  significant  of  a  spiteful,  malicious  nature  ; 
and  where  the  corners  of  the  eyes  next  the  nose  are  fleshy,  it 
is  a  sign  also  of  a  wicked  disposition.  If  the  white  of  the  eye 
is  large,  it  bears  tokens  of  impudence,  while  those  who  are 
incessantly  closing  the  eyelids  are  inconstant.     Largeness  of 

61  But  thev  are  borrowed  from  Aristotle,  Hist.  Anira.  B.  i.  c.  9. 


Chap.  115.]  RESPIRATION   AND    NUTRIMENT.  97 

the  ears  is  a  sign  of  loquacity  and  foolishness."     Thus  much 
of  what  Trogus  says. 

CHAP.   115.    (53.) RESPIRATION    AND    NUTRIMENT. 

The  breath  of  the  lion  is  fetid,  and  that  of  the  bear  quite 
pestilential ;  indeed,  no  beast  will  touch  anything  with  which 
its  breath  has  come  in  contact,  and  substances  which  it  has 
breathed  upon  will  become  putrid  sooner  than  others.  It  is 
in  man  only  that  Nature  has  willed  that  the  breath  should 
become  tainted  in  several  ways,  either  through  faultiness  in 
the  victuals  or  the  teeth,  or  else,  as  is  more  generally  the  case, 
through  extreme  old  age.  Our  breath  in  itself  was  insensible 
to  all  pain,  utterly  devoid  as  it  was  of  all  powers  of  touch  and 
feeling,  without  which  there  can  be  no  sensation ;  ever  re- 
newed, it  was  always  forthcoming,  destined  to  be  the  last  ad- 
junct that  shall  leave  the  body,  and  the  only  one  to  remain 
when  all  is  gone  beside  ;  it  drew,  in  fine,  its  origin  from 
heaven.  In  spite  of  all  this,  however,  certain  penalties  were 
discovered  to  be  inflicted  upon  it,  so  that  the  very  substance 
by  the  aid  of  which  we  live  might  become  a  torment  to  us  in 
life.  This  inconvenience  is  more  particularly  experienced 
among  the  Parthians,  from  their  youth  upwards,  on  account 
of  the  indiscriminate  use  of  food  among  them ;  and,  indeed, 
their  very  excess  in  wine  causes  their  breath  to  be  fetid.  The 
grandees,  however,  of  that  nation  have  a  remedy  for  bad  breath 
in  the  pips  of  the  Assyrian  citron,62  which  they  mix  with  their 
food,  and  the  aroma  of  which  is  particularly  agreeable.  The 
breath  of  the  elephant  will  attract  serpents  from  their  holes, 
while  that  of  the  stag  scorches  them.  "We  have  already  made 
mention63  of  certain  races  of  men  who  could  by  suction  extract 
from  the  body  the  venom  of  serpents ;  and  swine  will  even  eat 
serpents,64  which  to  other  animals  are  poisonous.  All  those 
creatures  which  we  have  spoken  of  as  insects,  can  be  killed  by 
merely  sprinkling  them  with  oil.65  Vultures,  which  are  put 
to  flight  by  unguents,  are  attracted  by  other  odours  :  the  beetle, 
too,  is  attracted  by  the  rose.  The  scorpion  puts  to  death  certain 
serpents.     The  Scythians  dip  their  arrows  in  the  poison  of 

62  See  B.  xii.  c.  7.  63  B.  vii.  c.  2 

64  See  B.  xxix.  c.  23. 

65  See  c.  21  of  the  present  Book. 

VOL.  III.  H 


98  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XL 

serpents  and  human  blood :  against  this  frightful  composition 
there  is  no  remedy,  for  with  the  slightest  touch  it  is  productive 
of  instant  death. 

CHAP.   116. ANIMALS    WHICH  WHEN    FED    UPON    POISON    DO 

NOT    DIE,    AND    THE    FLESH    OF    WHICH    IS    POISONOUS. 

The  animals  which  feed  upon  poison  have  been  already61' 
mentioned.  Some  of  them,  which  are  harmless  of  themselves, 
become  noxious  if  fed  upon  venomous  substances.  The  wild 
boar  of  Pamphylia  and  the  mountainous  parts  of  Cilicia,  after 
having  devoured  a  salamander,  will  become  poisonous  to  those 
who  eat  its  flesh ;  and  yet  the  danger  is  quite  imperceptible 
by  reason  of  any  peculiarity  in  the  smell  and  taste.  The  sala- 
mander, too,  will  poison  either  water  or  wine,  in  which  it 
happens  to  be  drowned ;  and  what  is  more,  if  it  has  only  drunk 
thereof,  the  liquid  becomes  poisonous.  The  same  is  the  case, 
too,  with  the  frog  known  to  us  as  the  bramble-frog.  So  nu- 
merous are  the  snares  that  are  laid  in  wTait  for  life  !  Wasp3 
greedily  devour  the  flesh  of  the  serpent,  a  nutriment  which 
renders  their  stings  fatal ;  so  vast  is  the  difference  to  be  found 
between  one  kind  of  food  and  another.  In  the  country,  too, 
of  the  Ichthyophagi,67  as  we  learn  from  Theophrastus,  the  oxen 
are  fed  upon  fish,  but  only  when  alive. 

CHAP.    117. — REASONS     FOR     INDIGESTION.       REMEDIES    FOR 

CRUDITY. 

The  most  wholesome  nutriment  for  man  is  plain  food.  An 
accumulation  of  flavours  is  injurious,  and  still  more  so,  if 
heightened  by  sauces.  All  acrid  elements  are  difficult  of  di- 
gestion, and  the  same  is  the  case  if  food  is  devoured  greedily, 
or  in  too  large  quantities.  Food  is  also  less  easily  digested  in 
summer  than  in  winter,  and  in  old  age  than  in  youth.  The 
vomits  which  man  has  invented,  by  way  of  remedy  for  this 
evil,  render  the  body  more  cold,  and  are  more  particularly  inju- 
rious to  the  eyes  and  teeth. 

CHAP.     118. FROM    WHAT     CAUSES     CORPULENCE    ARISES; 

HOW    IT    MAY    BE    REDUCED. 

Digestion  during  sleep  is  more  productive  of  corpulence  than 
strength.     Hence  it  is,  that  it  is  preferable  for  athletes  to 
es  B.  ix.  c.  33.  67  Or  Fish-eaters. 


Chap.  119.]  SUMMARY.  99 

quicken  digestion  by  walking.     Watching,  at  night  more  es- 
pecially, promotes  digestion  of  the  food. 

(54.)  The  size  of  the  body  is  increased  by  eating  sweet  and 
fatty  substances,  as  well  as  by  drinking,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  diminished  by  eating  dry,  acrid,  or  cold  substances, 
and  by  abstaining  from  drink.  Some  animals  of  Africa,  as 
well  as  sheep,  drink  but  once  every  four  days.  Abstinence 
from  food  for  seven  days,  even,  is  not  of  necessity  fatal  to  man  ; 
and  it  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  many  persons  have  not  died  till 
after  an  abstinence  of  eleven  days.  Man  is  the  only  animal 
that  is  ever  attacked  with  an  insatiate68  craving  for  food. 

CHAP.     119. WHAT    THINGS,    BY    MERELY    TASTING    OF    THEM, 

ALLAY   HUNGER    AND    THIRST. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  substances  which,  tasted 
in  small  quantities  only,  appease  hunger  and  thirst,  and  keep 
up  the  strength,  such  as  butter,  for  instance,  cheese  made  of 
mares'  milk,  and  liquorice.  But  the  most  pernicious  thing  of 
all,  and  in  every  station  of  life,  is  excess,  and"  more  especiallv 
excess  in  food ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  most  prudent  plan  to  re- 
trench everything  that  may  be  possibly  productive  of  injury. 
Let  us,  however,  now  pass  on  to  the  other  branches  of  Nature. 

Summary. — Eemarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
two  thousand,  two  hundred,  and  seventy. 

Roman  authors  quoted. — M.  Varro,69  Hyginus,70  Scrofa,71 
Saserna,72  Celsus  Cornelius,73  iEmilius  Macer,7i  Virgil,75  Colu- 
mella,76 Julius  Aquila77  who  wrote  on  the  Tuscan  art  of  Divi- 
nation, Tarquitius78  who  wrote  on  the  same  subject,  Umbricius 
Melior79  who  wrote  on  the  same  subject,  Cato  the  Censor,80 
Doniitius  Calvinus,81  Trogus,82  Melissus,83  Fabianus,84  Muci- 
anus,85  ]NTigidius,86  Manilius,87  Oppius.88 

68  Or  bulimia. 

69  See  end  of  B.  ii.  "°  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

71  C.  Tremellius  Scrofa,  a  Mend  of  M.  Varro,  and  one  of  the  early  writers 
on  agriculture.  "2  See  end  of  B.  x. 

73  See  end  of  B.  vii.  74  See  end  of  B.  ix. 

75  See  end  of  B.  vii.  ™  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

77  See  end  of  B.  ii.  w  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

79  See  end  of  B.  x.  so  gee  end  of  B.  iii. 

81  Nothing  seems  to  be  ltnown  of  this  writer. 

82  See  end  of  B.  vii.  «»  See  end  of  B.  vii. 
84  See  end  of  B.  ii.  ^  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
86  See  end  of  B.  vi.                         *7  See  end  of  B.  x. 

88  C.  Oppius,  one  of  the  most  intimate  friends  of  Julius  Caesar,  for  whom, 


100  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XI. 

Foreign  authors  quoted.— Aristotle,89  Democritus,90  Neop- 
tolemus91  who  wrote  the  Meliturgica,  Aristomachus92  who 
wrote  on  the  same  subject,  Philistus93  who  wrote  on  the  same 
subiect,  Meander,91  Menecrates,95  Dionysius96  who  translated 
Mago,  Empedocles,97  Callimaehus,98  King  Attains,99  Apollo-  - 
dorns1  who  wrote  on  venomous  animals,  Hippocrates,2  Hero- 
philus,3  Erasistratus,4  Asclepiades,5  Themison,6  Posidomus7  the 
Stoic  Menander8  of  Priene  and  Menander9  of  Heraclea,  Eu- 
phronius10  of  Athens,  Theophrastus,11  Hesiod,12  King  Philo- 
metor.13 

with  Balbus,  he  acted  in  Spain.     Of  his  numerous  biographical  and  his- 
torical works,  none  have  survived  to  our  time. 

99  See  end  of  B.  ii.  90  See  end  of  B  n.  . 

91  Probably  Neoptolemus  of  Paros,  who  wrote  a  book  ot  Epigrams,  a 
treatise  on  Languages,  and  other  works. 

92  Of  Soli,  an  observer  of  the  habits  of  bees.  His  portrait  is  said  still 
to  exist,  on  a  cornelian,  attentively  observing  a  swarm  of  bees.  He  wrote 
upon  bees,  honey,  and  the  art  of  mixing  wines. 

93  Probably  a  different  writer  from  the  one  mentioned  at  the  end  ot 
B  viii  •  nothing  seems  to  be  known  of  him.  91  See  end  of  B.  vm. 

95  See  end  of  B.  viii.  96  See  end  of  B.  x. 

97  A  philosopher  of  Agrigentum,  and  disciple  of  Pythagoras.  He  is 
said  to  have  perished  in  the  crater  of  Mount  Etna.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  of  which  only  some  fragments  exist. 

98  See  end  of  B.  iv.  Q 

99  Apparently  the  same  as  the  King  Philometor,  mentioned  below.-  bee 

end  of  B.  viii. 

1  Of  this  writer  nothing  seems  to  be  known. 

2  See  end  of  B.  vii.  . 

3  Of  Chalcedon,  one  of  the  most  famous  physicians  ot  antiquity.  Jle 
was  physician  to  Phalaris,  the  tyrant  of  Sicily,  and  is  said  to  have  dis- 
sected criminals  alive.  He  was  the  first  that  paid  particular  attention  to 
the  nervous  system.  . 

4  A  native  of  Iulis,  in  Cos,  or  else  Ceos,  grandson  of  Aristotle,  ana 
disciple  of  Theophrastus.  He  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  physician,  at 
the  court  of  Seleucus  Nicator,  king  of  Syria,  where  be  discovered  the  sup- 
posed disease  of  Prince  Antiochus,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with  his  step- 
mother, Stratonice.  Of  his  numerous  medical  works,  only  the  titles  and 
a  few  fragments  exist.  5  See  end  of  B.  vn. 

«  A  physician  of  Laodicsea,  founder  of  the  school  of  the  Methodici.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Asclepiades,  and  died  about  b.c.  43.  Of  his  medical  works 
only  a  few  fragments  survive.  7  See  end  of  B.  u. 

*  See  end  of  B.  viii.  9  See  end  of  B.  ym. 

jo  See  end  of  B.  viii.  "  See  end  of  B.  m. 

12  See  end  of  B.  vii.  13  See  King  Attains,  above. 


101 
BOOK  X 

TEE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  TREES. 

CHAP.    1. THE   HONOURABLE    PLACE    OCCUPIED   BY   TEEES   IN 

THE    SYSTEM    OF    NATURE. 

Such,  then,  is  the  history,  according  to  their  various  species 
and  their  peculiar  conformations,  of  all  the  animals  within  the 
compass  of  our  knowledge.  It  now  remains  for  us  to  speak  of 
the  vegetable  productions  of  the  earth,  which  are  equally  far 
from  being  destitute  of  a  vital  spirit,1  (for,  indeed,  nothing  can 
live  without  it),  that  we  may  then  proceed  to  describe  the  mine- 
rals extracted  from  it,  and  so  none  of  the  works  of  Nature  may 
be  passed  by  in  silence.  Long,  indeed,  were  these  last  boun- 
ties of  hers  concealed  beneath  the  ground,  the  trees  and  forests 
being  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  benefits  conferred  by  Na- 
ture upon  mankind.  It  was  from  the  forest  that  man  drew 
his  first  aliment,  by  the  leaves  of  the  trees  was  his  cave  ren- 
dered more  habitable,  and  by  their  bark  was  his  clothing  sup- 
plied ;  even  at  this  very  day,2  there  are  nations  that  live 
under  similar  circumstances  to  these.  Still  more  and  more, 
then,  must  we  be  struck  with  wonder  and  admiration,  that 
from  a  primaeval  state  such  as  this,  we  should  now  be  cleaving 
the  mountains  for  their  marbles,  visiting  the  Seres3  to  obtain 
our  clothing,  seeking  the  pearl  in  the  depths  of  the  Eed  Sea, 
and  the  emerald  in  the  very  bowels  of  the  earth.  For  our 
adornment  with  these  precious  stones  it  is  that  we  have  devised 
those  wounds  which  we  make  in  our  ears;  because,  forsooth, 
it  was  deemed  not  enough  to  carry  them  on  our  hands,  our 
necks,  and  our  hair,  if  we  did  not  insert  them  in  our  very  flesh 
as  well.  It  will  be  only  proper,  then,  to  follow  the  order  of 
human  inventions,  and  to  speak  of  the  trees  before  treating  of 

1  "  Anima."  The  notion  that  plants  are  possessed  of  a  soul  or  spirit,  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  philosophers,  who  attributed  to  them  intellect  also, 
and  sense. 

2  Vitruvius  mentions  the  people  of  Gaul,  Hispania,  Lusitania,  and 
Aquitania,  as  living  in  his  day  in  dwellings  covered  with  oak  shingles,  or 
with  straw. 

3  See  B.  vi.  c.  20,  and  B.  xi.  c.  26. 


}Q2  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

other  subjects ;  thus  may  we  trace  up  to  their  very  origin  the 
manners  and  usages  of  the  present  day. 

CHAP.  2.   (1.) THE    EARLY    HISTORY    OF    TREES. 

The  trees  formed  the  first  temples  of  the  gods,  and  even  at 
the  present  day,  the  country  people,  preserving  in  all  their 
simplicity  their  ancient  rites,  consecrate  the  finest  among  their 
trees  to  some  divinity  ;4  indeed,  we  feel  ourselves  inspired  to 
adoration,  not  less  by  the  sacred  groves  and  their  very  stillness, 
than  by  the  statues  of  the  gods,  resplendent  as  they  are  with 
gold  and  ivory.  Each  kind  of  tree  remains  immutably  conse- 
crated to  its  own  peculiar  divinity,  the  beech5  to  Jupiter,6  the 
laurel  to  Apollo,  the  olive  to  Minerva,  the  myrtle  to  Yenus, 
and  the  poplar  to  Hercules  :  besides  which,  it  is  our  belief 
that  the  Sylvans,  the  Fauns,  and  various  kinds  of  goddess 
Nymphs,  have  the  tutelage  of  the  woods,  and  we  look  upon 
those  deities  as  especially  appointed  to  preside  over  them  by 
the  will  of  heaven.  In  more  recent  times,  it  was  the  trees 
that  by  their  juices,  more  soothing  even  than  corn,  first  molli- 
fied the  natural  asperity  of  man  ;  and  it  is  from  these  that  we 
now  derive  the  oil  of  the  olive  that  renders  the  limbs  so  supple, 
the  draught  of  wine  that  so  efficiently  recruits  the  strength, 
and  the  numerous  delicacies  which  spring  up  spontaneously  at 
the  various  seasons  of  the  year,  and  load  our  tables  with  their 
viands — tables  to  replenish  which,  we  engage  in  combat  with 
wild  beasts,  and  seek  for  the  fishes  which  have  fattened  upon 
the  dead  corpse  of  the  shipwrecked  mariner — indeed,  it  is  only 
at  the  second 7  course,  after  all,  that  the  produce  of  the  trees 
appears. 

But,  in  addition  to  this,  the  trees  have  a  thousand  other 
uses,  all  of  which  are  indispensable  to  the  full  enjoyment  of 

4  Desfontaines  remarks,  that  we  may  still  trace  vestiges  of  this  custom 
in  the  fine  trees  that  grow  near  church  porches,  and  in  church-yards. 
Of  course,  his  remark  will  apply  to  France  more  particularly. 

5  It  is  doubtful  "whether,  the  sesculus  of  the  Romans  was  the  same  as  the 
bay-oak,  the  holm-oak,  or  the  beech.     See  B.  xvi.  c.  4. 

6  See  further  on  this  subject  in  Phsedrus's  Fables,  B.  hi.  f.  17. 

7  Reckoning  the  promulsis,  antecaena,  or  gustatio,  not  as  a  course,  but 
only  a  prelude,  the  bellaria,  or  dessert,  at  the  Roman  banquets,  formed  the 
second  course,  or  mensa.  It  consisted  of  fruits  uncooked,  sweetmeats,  and 
pastry. 


Chap.  3.]  EXOTIC    TEEES.  ]  03 

life.  It  is  by  the  aid  of  the  tree  that  we  plough  the  deep,  and 
bring  near  to  us  far  distant  lands  ;  it  is  by  the  aid  of  the  tree, 
too,  that  we  construct  our  edifices.  The  statues,  even,  of  the 
deities  were  formed  of  the  wood  of  trees,  in  the  days  when  no 
value  had  been  set  as  yet  on  the  dead  carcase8  of  a  wild  beast, 
and  when,  luxury  not  yet  deriving  its  sanction  from  the 
gods  themselves,  we  had  not  to  behold,  resplendent  with  the 
same  ivory,  the  heads  of  the  divinities9  and  the  feet  of  our 
tables.  It  is  related  that  the  Gauls,  separated  from  us  as  they 
were  by  the  Alps,  which  then  formed  an  almost  insurmountable 
bulwark,  had,  as  their  chief  motive  for  invading  Italy,  its 
dried  figs,  its  grapes,  its  oil,  and  its  wine,  samples10  of  which 
had  been  brought  back  to  them  by  Helico,  a  citizen  of  the 
Helvetii,  who  had  been  staying  at  Eome,  to  practise  there  as 
an  artizan.  "We  may  offer  some  excuse,  then,  for  them,  when 
we  know  that  they  came  in  quest  of  these  various  productions, 
though  at  the  price  even  of  war. 

CHAP.  3. EXOTIC  TREES.       WHEN  THE  PLANE-TREE    FIRST 

APPEARED    IN    ITALY,  AND  WHENCE    IT    CAME. 

But  who  is  there  that  will  not,  with  good  reason,  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  a  tree  has  been  introduced  among  us  from 
a  foreign  clime  for  nothing  but  its  shade  ?  I  mean  the  plane,11 
which  was  first  brought  across  the  Ionian  Sea  to  the  Isle12  of 
Diomedes,  there  to  be  planted  at  his  tomb,  and  was  afterwards 
imported  thence  into  Sicily,  being  one  of  the  very  first  exotic 
trees  that  were  introduced  into  Italy.  At  the  present  day, 
however,  it  has  penetrated  as  far  as  the  country  of  the 
Morini,  and  occupies  even  a  tributary13  soil;  in  return  for  which 

8  He  alludes  to  the  pursuit  of  the  elephant,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
ivory,  which  was  extensively  used  in  his  day,  in  making  the  statues  of  the 
divinities. 

9  A  sarcastic  antithesis.  And  yet  Dalechamps  would  read  "hominum" 
instead  of  "  numinum"  ! 

10  Praemissa,  The  exact  meaning  of  this  word  does  not  appear.  Though 
all  the  MSS.  agree  in  it,  it  is  probably  a  corrupt  reading.  Plutarch,  in 
his  Life  of  Camillus,  says  that  the  wine  of  Italy  was  first  introduced  in 
Gaul  by  Aruns,  the  Etruscan. 

11  The  Platanus  orientalis  of  Linnoeus.  It  received  its  name  from  the 
Greek  ttXcltoq,  "breadth,"  by  reason  of  its  wide-spreading  branches. 

12  For  further  mention  of  this  island,  now  Tremiti,  see  B.  iii.  c.  30. 

13  He  alludes,  probably,  to  the  "vectigal  solarium,"  a  sort  of  ground- 


104  pliny's  NATUEAL  HISTOET.  [Book  XII, 

those  nations  have  to  pay  a  tax  for  the  enjoyment  of  its  shade. 
Dionysius  the  Elder,  one  of  the  tyrants  of  Sicily,  had  plane- 
trees  conveyed  to  the  city  of  Rhegium,  where  they  were  looked 
upon  as  the  great  marvel  of  his  palace,  which  was  afterwards 
converted  into  a  gymnasium.  These  trees  did  not,  however, 
in  that  locality,  attain  any  very  great  height.  I  find  it  also 
stated  by  some  authors,  that  there  were  some  other  instances, 
in  those  days  even,  of  plane-trees  being  found  in  Italy,  and  I 
find  some  mentioned  by  name  as  existing  in  Spain.14 

CHAP.  4. THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PEANE-TEEE. 

This  circumstance  took  place  about  the  time  of  the  capture 
of  the  City  of  Rome  ;  and  to  such  high  honour,  in  the  course 
of  time,  did  the  plane-tree  attain,  that  it  was  nurtured  by 
pouring  wine  upon  it,  it  being  found  that  the  roots  were  greatly 
strengthened  by  doing15  so.  Thus  have  we  taught  the  very 
trees,  even,  to  be  wine-bibbers  ! 

CHAP.   5. — EEMAEKABEE    FACTS    CONNECTED    WITH    THE 
PLANE-TEEE. 

The  first  plane-trees  that  were  spoken  of  in  terms  of  high 
admiration  were  those  which  adorned  the  walks  of  the  Aca- 
demy16 at  Athens — [in  one  of  which],  the  roots  extended  a  dis- 
tance of  thirty- three  cubits,  and  spread  far  beyond  its  branches. 
At  the  present  day,  there  is  a  very  famous  plane  in  Lycia, 
situate  in  close  proximity  to  a  fountain  of  the  most  refresh- 
ing coolness  ;    standing  near  the  road,  with  the  cavity  in  its 

rent  which  the  tributary  nations  paid  to  the  Roman  treasury.  Virgil  and 
Homer  speak  of  the  shade  of  the  plane-tree,  as  a  pleasant  resort  for  festive 
parties. 

14  It  is  not  improbable  that  Pliny,  in  copying  from  Theophrastus,  has 
here  committed  an  error.  That  author,  B.  ix.  c.  7,  says  :  iv  fikv  yap  t<£ 
'Adpia  TrXdravov  ov  (paaiv  eivai,  ttXi^v  irtpi  to  AiofiijSovg  itpov  inraviav 
Be  ical  iv  'IraXia  7rd<r?j.  "  They  say  that  in  Adria  there  are  no  plane- 
trees,  except  about  the  temple  of  Diomedes  :  and  that  they  are  extremely 
rare  in  Italy."  Pliny,  probably,  when  his  secretary  was  reading  to  him, 
mistook  the  word  mraviav,  "rare,"  for  7I(nraviq,  "in  Spain." 

15  It  has  been  remarked  that,  in  reality,  this  process  would  only  tend 
to  impede  its  growth.  Macrobius  tells  us,  that  Hortensius  was  guilty  of 
this  singular  folly. 

16  Situate  near  the  sea-shore.  It  was  here  that  Plato  taught.  See  B. 
xxxi.  c.  3. 


Chap,  o.] 


THE    PLANE-TEEE.  105 


interior,  it  forms  a  species  of  house  eighty- one  feet  in  width. 
Its  summit,  too,  presents  the  foliage  of  a  grove,  while  it  shields 
itself  with  huge  branches,  each  of  which  would  equal  an  ordi- 
nary tree  in  size,  as  it  throws  its  lengthened  shade  across  the 
fields.  In  addition  to  this,  that  nothing  may  be  wanting  to 
its  exact  resemblance  to  a  grotto,  there  is  a  circle  of  seats 
within,  formed  of  stone,  intermingled  with  pumice  overgrown 
with  moss.  This  tree  was  looked  upon  as  so  worthy  of  remark, 
that  Licinius  Mucianus,  who  was  three  times  consul,  and  re- 
cently the  legatus  of  that  province,  thought  it  a  circumstance 
deserving  of  transmission  even  to  posterity,  that  he,  together 
with  eighteen  persons  of  his  retinue,  had  sat  down  to  a  banquet 
in  the  interior  of  it.  Its  leaves  afforded  material  for  their 
couches  in  the  greatest  abundance,  while  he  himself,  sheltered 
from  every  gust  of  wind,  and  trying  in  vain  to  hear  the  pat- 
tering of  the  rain  on  the  leaves,  took  his  meal  there,  and  en- 
joyed himself  more  than  he  would  have  done  amid  the  resplen- 
dence of  marble,  a  multiplicity  of  paintings,  and  beneath  a 
cieling  refulgent  with  gold. 

Another  curious  instance,  again,  was  that  afforded  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Caius.17  That  prince  was  so  struck  with 
admiration  on  seeing  a  plane  in  the  territory  of  Yeliternum, 
which  presented  floor  after  floor,  like  those  of  the  several  stories 
of  a  house,  by  means  of  broad  benches  loosely  laid  from  branch 
to  branch,  that  he  held  a  banquet  in  it — himself  adding18  very 
materially  to  the  shade  it  threw — the  triclinium  being  formed 
for  the  reception  of  fifteen  guests  and  the  necessary  attendants : 
to  this  singular  dining-room  he  gave  the  name  of  his  "nest." 

At  Gortyna,  in  the  Isle  of  Crete,  there  is,  in  the  vicinity  of 
a  fountain  there,  a  single  plane-tree,  which  has  been  long  cele- 
brated in  the  records  of  both  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  language : 
it  never  loses19  its  leaves,  and  from  an  early  period  one  of  the 
fabulous  legends  of  Greece  has  been  attached  to  it,  to  the  effect 
that  it  was  beneath  this  tree  that  Jupiter  lay  with  Europa  ; 
just  as  if  there  had  not  been  another  tree  of  a  similar  nature 

17  Caligula. 

18  It  is  supposed  that  he  here  alludes  sarcastically  to  the  extreme  cor- 
pulence of  Caligula. 

19  M.  Fee,  the  learned  editor  of  the  botanical  books  in  Ajasson's  trans- 
lation, remarks,  that  this  cannot  have  been  the  Platanus  of  the  botanists, 
and  that  there  is  no  tree  of  Europe,  which  does  not  lose  its  leaves,  that  at 
all  resembles  its 


106  pliny's  natueal  histoey.  [Book  XII. 

in  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Slips  of  the  tree  at  Gortyna— so 
fond  is  man  by  nature  of  novelty — were  at  an  early  period 
planted  at  different  places  in  Crete,  and  reproduced  the  natural 
imperfections  of  the  tree  ;20  though,  indeed,  there  is  no  higher 
recommendation  in  the  plane  than  the  fact  that  in  summer  it 
protects  us  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  while  in  winter  it  admits 
them.^  In  later  times,  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  a  Thessalian  eunuch,  the  freedman  of  Marcellus 
JEserninus,21  who,  however,  from  motives  of  ambition  had  en- 
rolled himself  in  the  number  of  the  freedmen  of  the  emperor, 
and  had  acquired  very  considerable  wealth,  introduced  this 
plane  into  Italy,  in  order  to  beautify  his  country-seat :  so  that 
he  may  not  inappropriately  be  styled  a  second  Dionysiusi 
These  monstrosities  of  other  lands  are  still  to  be  seen  in  Italy, 
independently  of  those  which  that  country  has  herself  devised. 

CHAP.  6.    (2.) THE    CHAM2EPLATANT7S.       WHO   WAS    THE    FIRST 

TO    CLIP    GREEN    SHRUBS. 

For  we  find  in  Italy  some  plane-trees,  which  are  known  as 
chamseplatani,22  in  consequence  of  their  stunted  growth ;  for 
we  have  discovered  the  art  of  causing  abortion  in  trees  even, 
and  hence,  even  in  the  vegetable  world  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  make  mention  of  dwarfs,  an  unprepossessing  subject  in  every 
case.  This  result  is  obtained  in  trees,  by  a  peculiar  method 
adopted  in  planting  and  lopping  them.  C.  Matins,23  a  member 
of  the  Equestrian  order,  and  a  friend  of  the  late  Emperor 
Augustus,  invented  the  art  of  clipping  arbours,  within  the  last 
eighty  years. 

CHAP.   7.  (3.) HOW  THE    CITRON  IS  PLANTED. 

^  The  cherry  and  the  peach,  and  all  those  trees  which  have 
either  Greek  or  foreign  names,  are  exotics :  those,  however,  of 

20  The  tendency,  namely,  to  lose  their  leaves. 

21  Grandson  of  Asinius  Pollio.  Tacitus  tells  us,  that  he  was  one  of 
those  whom  Piso  requested  to  undertake  his  defence,  when  charged  with 
having  poisoned  Germanicus ;  but  he  declined  the  office. 

22  Or  "  ground  plane-trees."  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  dwarf 
varieties  of  the  larger  trees,  which  are  thus  reduced  to  the  dimensions  of 
mere  shrubs. 

23  C.  Matius  Calvena,  the  friend  of  Julius  and  Augustus  Csesar,  as  also 
of  Cicero.  He  is  supposed  to  have  translated  the  Iliad  into  Latin  verse, 
and  to  have  written  a  work  on  cookery. 


Chap.  8.]  THE    TEEES   OF   IKDIA.  107 

this  number,  which  have  begun  to  be  naturalized  among  us, 
will  be  treated  of  when  I  come  to  speak  of  the  fruit-trees  in 
general.  For  the  present,  I  shall  only  make  mention  of  the 
really  exotic  trees,  beginning  with  the  one  that  is  applied  to 
the  most  salutary  uses.  The  citron  tree,  called  the  Assyrian, 
and  by  some  the  Median  apple,  is  an  antidote  against  poisons.24 
The  leaf  is  similar  to  that  of  the  arbute,  except  that  it  has 
small  prickles25  running  across  it.  As  to  the  fruit,  it  is  never 
eaten,26  but  it  is  remarkable  for  its  extremely  powerful  smell, 
which  is  the  case,  also,  with  the  leaves ;  indeed,  the  odour  is 
so  strong,  that  it  will  penetrate  clothes,  when  they  are  once 
impregnated  with  it,  and  hence  it  is  very  useful  in  repelling 
the  attacks  of  noxious  insects.  The  tree  bears  fruit  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year ;  while  some  is  falling  off,  other  fruit  is 
ripening,  and  other,  again,  just  bursting  into  birth.  Various 
nations  have  attempted  to  naturalize  this  tree  among  them,  for 
the  sake  of  its  medical  properties,  by  planting  it  in  pots  of 
clay,  with  holes  drilled  in  them,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing 
the  air  to  the  roots ;  and  I  would  here  remark,  once  for  all, 
that  it  is  as  well  to  remember  that  the  best  plan  is  to  pack  all 
slips  of  trees  that  have  to  be  carried  to  any  distance,  as  close 
together  as  they  can  possibly  be  placed.  It  has  been  found, 
however,  that  this  tree  will  grow  nowhere27  except  in 
Media  or  Persia.  It  is  this  fruit,  the  pips  of  which,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,28  the  Parthian  grandees  employ  in 
seasoning  their  ragouts,  as  being  peculiarly  conducive  to  the 
sweetening  of  the  breath.  We  find  no  other  tree  very  highly 
commended  that  is  produced  in  Media. 

CHAP.  8.  (4.) THE  TREES  OF  INDIA. 

In  describing  the  country  of  the  Seres,  we  have  already 

24  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  55.  Fee  remarks,  that  the  ancients  confounded  the 
citron  with  the  orange-tree. 

25  Fee  remarks,  that  this  is  not  the  case.  The  arbute  is  described 
in  B.  xv.  c.  28. 

26  In  the  time  of  Plutarch,  it  had  begun  to  be  somewhat  more  used.  It 
makes  one  of  the  very  finest  preserves. 

27  At  the  present  day,  it  is  cultivated  all  over  India,  in  China,  South 
America,  and  the  southern  parts  of  Europe.  Fee  says,  that  they  grow 
even  in  the  open  air  in  the  gardens  of  Malmaison. 

26  B.  xi.  c.  115.  Virgil  says  the  same,  Georg.  B.  ii.  11.  134,  135. 
Theophrastus  seems  to  say,  that  it  was  the  outer  rind  that  was  so  used. 


108  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

made  mention 29  of  the  wool-bearing  trees  which  it  produces ; 
and  we  have,  likewise,  touched30  upon  the  extraordinary 
magnitude  of  the  trees  of  India.  Yirgil31  has  spoken  in 
glowing  terms  of  the  ebony-tree,  one  of  those  which  are  pecu- 
liar to  India,  and  he  further  informs  us,  that  it  will  grow  in 
no  other  country.  Herodotus,  however,  has  preferred  to 
ascribe 32  it  to  ^Ethiopia ;  and  states  that  the  people  of  that 
country  were  in  the  habit  of  paying  to  the  kings  of  Persia, 
every  third  year,  by  way  of  tribute,32*  one  hundred  billets  of 
ebony-wood,  together  with  a  certain  quantity  of  gold  and 
ivory.  Nor  ought  we  here  to  omit  the  fact,  inasmuch  as  the 
same  author  has  stated  to  that  effect,  that  the  .^Ethiopians 
were  also  in  the  habit  of  paying,  by  way  of  tribute,  twenty 
large  elephants'  teeth.  So  high  was  the  esteem  in  which 
ivory  was  held  in  the  year  from  the  building  of  our  city, 
310:  for  it  was  at  that  period33  that  this  author  was  com- 
piling his  History  at  Thurii,  in  Italy  ;  which  is  all  the  more 
remarkable,  from  the  implicit  confidence  we  place  in  him, 
when  he  says34  that  up  to  that  time,  no  native  of  Asia  or 
Greece,  to  his  knowledge  at  least,  had  ever  beheld  the  river 
Padus.  The  plan  of  ^Ethiopia,  which,  as  we  have  already 
mentioned,35  was  recently  laid  before  the  Emperor  Nero,  in- 
forms us,  that  this  tree  is  very  uncommon  in  the  country  that 
lies  between  Syene,  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  empire,  and 
Meroe,  a  distance  of  eight  hundred  and  ninety-six  miles ;  and 
that,  in  fact,  the  only  kind  of  tree  that  is  to  be  found  there,  is 
the  palm.  It  was,  probably,  for  this  reason,  that  ebony  held 
the  third  place  in  the  tribute  that  was  thus  imposed. 

29  See  B.  vi.  c.  20. 

30  See  B.  vii.  c.  2.     The  tree  to  which  he  alludes  is  unknown. 

31  Georg.  B.  ii.  11.  116,  117. 

32  B.  iii.  c.  97.  There  is  little  doubt  that,  under  the  general  name  of 
"  ebony,"  the  wood  of  many  kinds  of  trees  was,  and  is  still,  imported  into 
the  western  world,  so  that  both  Herodotus  and  Virgil  may  have  been  cor- 
rect in  representing  ebony  as  the  product  of  both  India  and  ^Ethiopia. 

-    32*  Herodotus  says  two  hundred. 

33  In  Italy,  whither  he  had  retired  from  the  hostile  attacks  of  his  fellow- 
citizens.  It  is  supposed  by  Le  Vayer  and  others,  that  Pliny  is  wrong  in 
his  assertion,  that  Herodotus  wrote  to  this  effect  while  at  Thurii ;  though 
Dr.  Schmitz  is  inclined  to  be  of  opinion  that  he  is  right  in  his  statement. 

34  B.  iii.  c.  115. 

35  B.  vi.  c.  35. 


Chap.  11.]  THE  INDIAN  TIG.  109 

CHAP.  9. WHEN  EBONY  WAS  EIEST  SEEN  AT  EOME.       THE  VARIOUS 

KINDS  OE  EBONT. 

Pompeius  Magnus  displayed  ebony  on  the  occasion  of  his 
triumph  over  Mithridates.  Fabianus  declares,  that  this  wood 
will  give  out  no  flame ;  it  burns,  however,  with  a  very  agree- 
able smell.  There  are  two  kinds 36  of  ebony  ;  the  rarest  kind 
is  the  best,  and  is  produced  from  a  tree  that  is  singularly  free 
from  knots.  The  wood  is  black  and  shining,  and  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  without  any  adventitious  aid  from  art.  The  other 
kind  of  ebony  is  the  produce  of  a  shrub  which  resemblesthe 
cytisus,  and  is  to  be  found  scattered  over  the  whole  of  India. 

CHAP.  10.  (5.) — THE   INDIAN  THORN. 

There  is  in  India,  also,  a  kind  of  thorn37  very  similar  to 
ebony,  though  it  may  be  distinguished  from  it,  by  the  aid  of 
a  lantern  even ;  for,  on  the  application  of  flame,  it  will  in- 
stantly run  across  the  tree.  We  will  now  proceed  to  describe 
those  trees  which  were  the  admiration  of  Alexander  the  Great 
in  his  victorious  career,  when  that  part  of  the  world  was  first 
revealed  by  his  arms. 

CHAP.   1 1 . THE  INDIAN  EIG. 

The  Indian  fig 38  bears  but  a  small  fruit.  Always  growing 
spontaneously,  it  spreads  far  and  wide  with  its  vast  branches, 
the  ends  of  which  bend  downwards  into  the  ground  to  such  a 
degree,  that  they  take  fresh  root  in  the  course  of  a  year,  and 
thus  form  a  new  plantation  around  the  parent  stock,  traced  in 
a  circular  form,  just  as  though  it  had  been  the  work  of  the 
ornamental  gardener.  Within  the  bowers  thus  formed,  the 
shepherds  take  up  their  abode  in  the  summer,  the  space  occu- 
pied by  them  being,  at  once,  overshadowed  and  protected  by 

se  Fee  remarks,  that  the  words  of  Pliny  do  not  afford  us  any  means  of 
judging  precisely  what  tree  it  was  that  he  understood  by  the  name  of  ebony. 
He  borrows  his  account  mainly  from  Theophrastus. 

37  It  is  not  known  to  what  tree  he  alludes. 

s8  This  account  of  the  Ficus  Indica,  or  religiosa,  known  to  us  as  toe 
banian-tree,  is  borrowed  entirely  from  Theophrastus.  Fee  remarks,  how- 
ever, that  he  is  wrong  in  some  of  his  statements,  for  that  the  leaves  are  not 
jjrescent-shaped,  but  oblong  and  pointed,  and  that  the  fruit  has  not  a  plea- 
sant flavour,  and  is  only  eaten  by  the  birds. 


110  PLINY'S  NATUEAL  HISTOllT.  [Book  XII. 

the  bulwark  which  the  tree  thus  throws  around ;  a  most 
graceful  sight,  whether  we  stand  beneath  and  look  upwards, 
or  whether  we  view  its  arcaded  foliage  from  a  distance.  The 
higher  branches,  however,  shoot  upwards  to  a  very  consider- 
able height,  and,  by  their  number,  form  quite  a  grove,  spring- 
ing aloft  from  the  vast  trunk  of  the  parent  tree,  which 
overspreads,  very  frequently,  a  space  of  sixty  paces  in  extent, 
while  the  shade  that  is  thrown  by  it  will  cover  as  much  as 
a  couple  of  stadia.  The  broad  leaves  of  the  tree  have  just  the 
shape  of  an  Amazonian  buckler;  and  hence  it  is  that  the 
fruit,  from  being  quite  covered  by  the  leaves,  is  greatly  impeded 
in  its  growth.  The  fruit,  indeed,  of  this  tree  is  but  scanty, 
and  never  exceeds  a  bean  in  size ;  being  ripened,  however,  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  as  these  penetrate  the  leaves,  the  figs  are 
remarkable  for  their  singular  lusciousness,  and  are  quite  worthy 
of  the  marvellous  tree  by  which  they  are  produced.  These 
fig-trees  are  found,  more  particularly,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
river  Acesines.39 

CHAP.  12.  (6.) — the  pala:   the  petjit  called  aeiena. 

There  is  another  tree 40  in  India,  of  still  larger  size,  and 
even  more  remarkable  for  the  size  and  sweetness  of  its  fruit, 
upon  which  the  sages41  of  India- live.  The  leaf  of  this  tree 
resembles,  in  shape,  the  wing  of  a  bird,  being  three  cubits  in 
length,  and  two  in  breadth.  It  puts  forth  its  fruit  from  the 
bark,  a  fruit  remarkable  for  the  sweetness  of  its  juice,  a  single 
one  containing  sufficient  to  satisfy  four  persons.  The  name  of 
this  tree  is  "pala,"  and  of  the  fruit,  "  ariena."  They  are  found  in 
the  greatest  abundance  in  the  country  of  the  Sydraci,42  a  terri- 
tory which  forms  the  extreme  limit  of  the  expedition  of  Alex- 
ander. 

There  is  another43  tree,  also,  very  similar  to  this,  but  bearing 
a  still  sweeter  fruit,  though  very  apt  to  cause  derangement  of 

39  See  B.  vi.  c.  23. 

40  Sprengel  and  Bauhin  are  of  opinion  that  the  banana  is  the  tree  meant 
here ;  Dodonaeus  thinks  that  it  is  the  pomegranate.  Thevet  says  that  the 
pala  is  the  paquovera  of  India,  the  fruit  of  which  is  called  pacona.  The 
account  is  borrowed  from  Tbeophrastus. 

41  The  Gymnosophists,  or  Brahmins. 

42  Called  Syndraci  in  B.  vi.  c.  25, 

43  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Tamavindus  Indica  of  Linnaeus  is  the 
tree  here  alluded  to :  though  M.  Fee  combats  that  opinion. 


Chap.  14-]  THE    PEPPER-TREE.  1  1  1 

the  bowels.     Alexander  issued  strict  orders,   forbidding  any- 
one in  the  expedition  to  touch  this  fruit. 

CHAP.    13. INDIAN   TREES,  THE  NAMES  OF  WHICH  ARE  UNKNOWN. 

INDIAN  TREES  WHICH  BEAR  FLAX. 

The  Macedonians44  have  made  mention  of  various  other 
kinds  of  trees,  the  greater  part  of  which,  however,  are  without 
names.  There  is  one  which  resembles  the  terebinth 45  in  every 
respect,  except  the  fruit,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  almond, 
though  less  in  size,  and  remarkable  for  its  extreme  sweetness. 
This  tree  was  met  with  in  Bactria,  and  some  persons  looked 
upon  it  as  a  variety  of  the  terebinth,  rather  than  as  bearing  a 
strong  resemblance  to  it.  As  to  the  tree  from  which  they 
manufacture  a  kind  of  linen 46  cloth,  in  leaf  it  resembles  the 
mulberry-tree,  while  the  calix  of  the  fruit  is  similar  to  the 
dog-rose.47  This  tree  is  reared  in  the  plains,  and  there  is  no 
sight  throughout  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  country  that  is 
more  enchanting  than  the  plantations  of  it. 

CHAP.   14.    (7.) THE    PEPPER-TREE. — THE    VARIOUS    KINDS    OF 

PEPPER — BREGMA ZINGIBERI,  OR  ZLMP1BERI. 

The  olive-tree48  of  India  is  unproductive,  with  the  sole 
exception  of  the  wild  olive.  In  every  part  we  meet  with  trees 
that  bear  pepper,49  very  similar  in  appearance  to  our  junipers, 

44  See  Theoplirastus,  B.  iv.  c.  5. 

45  Dalechamps  and  Desfontaines  are  of  opinion,  that  the  pistachio,  or 
Pistacia  terebiuthus  of  Linnaeus,  is  here  alluded  to ;  but  Fee  considers  that 
there  are  no  indications  to  lead  to  such  a  conclusion. 

46  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  may  here  allude  to  the  cotton-tree,  of 
which  further  mention  is  made  in  c.  xxi.  of  the  present  Book. 

47  Fee  is  of  opinion  thatCynorrhodon  here  means,  hot  the  dog-rose,  but 
the  gall  which  is  formed  on  the  tree  by  the  sting  of  the  Cynips  bedeguar. 

48  Fee  expresses  himself  at  a  loss  to  conjecture  what  trees  are  here  meant 
by  Pliny. 

49  Fee  remarks,  that  there  are  many  inaccuracies  in  the  account  here 
given  by  Pliny  of  the  pepper-tree,  and  that  it  does  not  bear  any  resem- 
blance to  the  j  uniper-tree.  The  grains,  he  says,  grow  in  clusters,  and  not 
in  a  husk  or  pod ;  and  he- remarks,  that  the  long  pepper  and  the  black  pep- 
per, of  which  the  white  is  only  a  variety  divested  of  the  outer  coat,  are 
distinct  spe3ies.  He  also  observes,  that  the  real  long  pepper,  the  Piper 
longum  of  Linnaeus,  was  not  known  to  the  ancients. 


112  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XII. 

although,  indeed,  it  has  been  alleged  by  some  authors  that  they 
only  grow  on  the  slopes  of  Caucasus  which  lie  exposed  to  the 
sun.  The  seeds,  however,  differ  from  those  of  the  juniper,  in 
being  enclosed  in  small  pods  similar  to  those  which  we  see  in 
the  kidney-bean.  These  pods  are  picked  before  they  open, 
and  when  dried  in  the  sun,  make  what  we  call  "  long  pepper." 
But  if  allowed  to  ripen,  they  will  open  gradually,  and  when 
arrived  at  maturity,  discover  the  white  pepper;  if  left  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  this  becomes  wrinkled,  and  changes 
its  colour.  Even  these  productions,  however,  are  subject  to 
their  own  peculiar  infirmities,  and  are  apt  to  become  blasted 
by  the  inclemency  of  the  weather ;  in  which  case  the  seeds 
are  found  to  be  rotten,  and  mere  husks.  These  abortive  seeds  are 
known  by  the  name  of  "  bregma/'  a  word  which  in  the  Indian 
language  signifies  "  dead."  Of  all  the  various  kinds  of  pepper, 
this  is  the  most  pungent,  as  well  as  the  very  lightest,  and  is 
remarkable  for  the  extreme  paleness  of  its  colour.  That  which 
is  black  is  of  a  more  agreeable  flavour ;  but  the  white  pepper 
is  of  a  milder  quality  than  either. 

The  root  of  this  tree  is  not,  as  many  persons  have  imagined, 
the  same  as  the  substance  known  as  zimpiberi,  or,  as  some  call 
it,  zingiberi,  or  ginger,  although  it  is  very  like  it  in  taste. 
For  ginger,  in  fact,  grows  in  Arabia  and .  in  Troglodytica,  in 
various  cultivated  spots,  being  a  small  plant50  with  a  white 
root.  This  plant  is  apt  to  decay  very  speedily,  although  it  is 
of  intense  pungency ;  the  price  at  which  it  sells  is  six  denarii 
per  pound.  Long  pepper  is  very  easily  adulterated  with 
Alexandrian  mustard ;  its  price  is  fifteen  denarii  per  pound, 
while  that  of  white  pepper  is  seven,  and  of  black,  four.  It  is 
quite  surprising  that  the  use  of  pepper  has  come  so  much  into 
fashion,  seeing  that  in  other  substances  which  we  use,  it  is 
sometimes  their  sweetness,  and  sometimes  their  appearance  that 
has  attracted  our  notice ;  whereas,  pepper  has  nothing  in  it 
that  can  plead  as  a  recommendation  to  either  fruit  or  berry,  its 
only  desirable  quality  being  a  certain  pungency ;  and  yet  it  is 
for  this  that  we  import  it  all  the  way  from  India!  Who  was 
the  first  to  make  trial  of  it  as  an  article  of  food  ?  and  who,  I 
wonder,  was  the  man  that  was  not  content  to  prepare  himself 

50  Fee  remarks,  that  this  is  not  a  correct  description  of  ginger,  the  Amo- 
Jnum  zingiher  of  Linnaeus.  Dioscorides  was  one  of  those  who  thought 
that  ginger  was  the  root  of  the  pepper- tree. 


Chap.  15.]  CARYOPHYLLOtf.  113 

by  hunger  only  for  the  satisfying  of  a  greedy  appetite  ?  Both 
pepper  and  ginger  grow  wild  in  their  respective  countries,  and 
yet  here  we  buy  them  by  weight — just  as  if  they  were  so 
much  gold  or  silver.  Italy,31  too,  now  possesses  a  species  of 
pepper-tree,  somewhat  larger  than  the  myrtle,  and  not  very 
unlike  it.  The  bitterness  of  the  grains  is  similar  to  that  which 
we  may  reasonably  suppose  to  exist  in  the  Indian  pepper 
when  newly  gathered  ;  but  it  is  wanting  in  that  mature  fla- 
vour which  the  Indian  grain  acquires  by  exposure  in  the  sun, 
and,  consequently,  bears  no  resemblance  to  it,  either  in  colour 
or  the  wrinkled  appearance  of  the  seeds.  Pepper  is  adulterated 
with  juniper  berries,  which  have  the  property,  to  a  marvellous 
degree,  of  assuming  the  pungency  of  pepper.  In  reference  to 
its  weight,  there  are  also  several  methods  of  adulterating  it. 

CHAP.   15. CAEYOPHYLLOIST,    LYCION,    AND    THE    CHIEONIAN 

PYXACANTHTJS. 

There  is,  also,  in  India  another  grain  which  bears  a  consi- 
derable resemblance  to  pepper,  but  is  longer  and  more  brittle ; 
it  is  known  by  the  name  of  caryophyllon.52  It  is  said  that 
this  grain  is  produced  in  a  sacred  grove  in  India ;  with  us  it 
is  imported  for  its  aromatic  perfume.  The  same  country  pro- 
duces, also,  a  thorny  shrub,  with  grains  which  bear  a  resem- 
blance to  pepper,  and  are  of  a  remarkably  bitter  taste.  The 
leaves  of  this  shrub  are  small,  like  those  of  the  Cyprus  ; 53  the 
branches  are  three  cubits  in  length,  the  bark  pallid,  and  the 
roots  wide-spreading  and  woody,  and  of  a  colour  resembling 
that  of  boxwood.  By  boiling  this  root  with  the  seed  in  a 
copper  vessel,  the  medicament  is  prepared  which  is  known  by 
the  name  of  lycion.54      This  thorny  shrub  grows,  also,   on 

51  It  is  very  doubtful  what  tree  is  here  alluded  to  by  Pliny,  though  cer- 
tain that  it  is  not  one  of  the  pepper-trees.  Sprengel  takes  it  to  be  the 
Daphne  Thymelaea. 

52  It  has  been  suggested  that  under  this  name  the  clove  is  meant,  though 
Fee  and  Desfontaines  express  a  contrary  opinion.  Sprengel  thinks  that  it 
is  the  Vitex  trifolia  of  Linnseus,  and  Bauhin  suggests  the  cubeb,  the  Piper 
cubeba  of  Linnseus.  Fee  thinks  it  may  have  possibly  been  the  Myrtus 
caryophyllata  of  Ceylon,  the  fruit  of  which  corresponds  to  the  description 
here  given  by  Pliny. 

53  See  c.  52  of  the  present  Book. 

54  Or  "  Lycium."  It  is  impossible  to  say  with  exactness  what  the  medical 
liquid  called  "  Lycion  "  was.  Catechu,  an  extract  from  the  tan  of  the 
acacia,  has  been  suggested ;  though  the  fruit  of  that  tree  does  not  answer 
the  present  description. 

VOL.   III.  I 


114  pliny's  natubal  history.  [Book  XII. 

Mount  Pelion ; 65  this  last  kind  is  much  used  for  the  purpose 
of  adulterating  the  medicament  above  mentioned.  The  root 
of  the  asphodel,  ox-gall,  wormwood,  sumach,  and  the  amurca 
of  olive  oil,  are  also  employed  for  a  similar  purpose.  The  best 
lycion  for  medicinal  purposes,  is  that  which  has  a  froth  on  its 
surface  ;  the  Indians  send  it  to  us  in  leather  bottles,  made  of 
the  skin  of  the  camel  or  the  rhinoceros.  The  shrub  itself  is 
known  by  some  persons  in  Greece  under  the  name  of  the 
Chironian  pyxacanthus.56 

chap.  16.  (8.) — MACIE. 

Macir,57  too,  is  a  vegetable  substance  that  is  brought  from 
India,  being  a  red  bark  that  grows  upon  a  large  root,  and  bears 
the  name  of  the  tree  that  produces  it ;  what  the  nature  of  this 
tree  is,  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain.  A  decoction  of  this 
bark,  mixed  with  honey,  is  greatly  employed  in  medicine,  as  a 
specific  for  dysentery. 

CHAP.   17. STJGAE. 

Arabia,  too,  produces  sugar ; 58  but  that  of  India  is  the  most 
esteemed.     This  substance  is  a  kind  of  honey,  which  collects 

55  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  possibly  be  the  Lycium  Europseum  of 
Linnaeus,  a  shrub  not  uncommonly  found  in  the  south  of  Europe. 

56  The  Ehamnus  Lycioides  of  Linnaeus,  known  to  us  as  buckthorn.  The 
berries  of  many  varieties  of  the  Rhamnus  are  violent  purgatives. 

57  "What  he  means  under  this  head  is  not  known.  Fee  speaks  of  a  tree 
which  the  Brahmins  call  macre,  and  which  the  Portuguese  called  arvore 
de  las  camaras,  arvore  sancto,  arvore  de  sancto  Thome,  but  of  which  they 
have  given  no  further  particulars.  Acosta,  Clusius,  and  Bauhin  have  also 
professed  to  give  accounts  of  it,  but  they  do  not  lead  to  its  identification. 
De  Jussieu  thinks  that  either  the  Soulamea,  the  Rex  amaroris  of  Rumphius, 
or  else  the  Polycardia  of  Commerson  is  meant.  It  seems  by  no  means  im- 
possible that  mace,  the  covering  of  the  nutmeg,  is  the  substance  alluded  to, 
an  opinion  that  is  supported  by  Gerard  and  Desfontaines. 

58  "  Saecharon."  Fee  suggests  that  Pliny  alludes  to  a  peculiar  kind 
of  crystallized  sugar,  that  is  found  in  the  bamboo  cane,  though,  at 
the  same  time,  he  thinks  it  not  improbable  that  he  may  have  heard  of 
the  genuine  sugar-cane ;  as  Strabo,  B.  xv.,  speaks  of  a  honey  found  in 
India,  prepared  without  the  aid  of  bees,  and  Lucan  has  the  line — 

"  Quique  bibunt  tenera  dulces  ab  arundine  succos," 
evidently  referring  to  a  sugar  in  the  form  of  a  syrup,  and  not  of  crystal, 
like  that  of  the  Bambos  arundinacea.  It  is  by  no  means  improbable,  that 
Pliny,  or  rather  Dioscorides,  from  whom  he  copies,  confuses  the  two  kinds 
of  sugar ;  as  it  is  well  known  that  the  Saccharum  officinarum,  or  sugar- 
cane, has  been  cultivated  from  a  very  early  period  in  Arabia  Felix. 


Chap.  19.]  TREES   OF   BACTEIANA.  1  1  5 

in  reeds,  white,  like  gum,  and  brittle  to  the  teeth.  The 
larger  pieces  are  about  the  size  of  a  filbert ;  it  is  only  em- 
ployed, however,  in  medicine. 

CHAP.   18. — TEEES  OP  ABIA^A,  GEDEOSIA,  A2*D  HTBCANIA. 

On  the  frontiers  of  India  is  a  country  called  Ariana,  which 
produces  a  thorny  shrub,59  rendered  precious  by  the  tears 
which  it  distils.  It  bears  some  resemblance  to  myrrh,  but  is 
very  difficult  of  access,  by  reason  of  the  thorns  with  which  it 
is'  armed.  Here,  too,  a  poisonous  shrub  is  found,  with  a  root 
like  the  radish,60  and  leaves  like  those  of  the  laurel,  By  its 
powerful  odour  it  attracts  horses,  and  was  very  nearly  depriv- 
ing Alexander  of  all  his  cavalry  upon  his  first  arrival  there, 
an  accident  which  also  happened  in  Gedrosia.  A  thorny 
shrub61  has  been  also  spoken  of  as  a  native  of  the  same 
country,  with  leaves  like  those  of  the  laurel,  the  juice  of 
which,  if  sprinkled  upon  the  eyes,  is  productive  of  blindness 
in  all  animals.  Another  plant  is  also  mentioned,  with  a  most 
remarkable  odour,  and  full  of  diminutive  serpents,63  the  sting 
of  which  is  sure  to  cause  instant  death.  Onesicritus  states, 
that  in  the  vallies  of  Hyrcania,  there  is  a  tree  resembling  the 
fig,  and  known  as  the  occhus,63  from  which  a  honey  distils 
for  two  hours  every  morning. 

CHAP.   19.   (9.) TEEES    OF    BACTEIANA,    BDELLIUM,    OE    BEOCHON, 

OTHERWISE    MALACHA,    OE    MALDACON,    SCOEDASTUM.       ADULTEE- 

89  It  is  unknown  what  plant  is  here  alluded  to  by  Pliny,  hut  Sprengel 
suggests  that  it  is  the  Acacia  latronum. 

60  From  the  description,  this  would  appear  to  be  a  sort  of  poisonous 
horse-radish. 

61  There  is  a  tree  in  India,  as  we  are  informed  by  Fee,  which  is  known 
as  the  Exca3caria  Agallochum,  the  juice  of  which  is  remarkably  acrid. 
Sailorsr  on  striking  it  with  a  hatchet,  and  causing  the  juice  to  spirt  into 
their  eyes,  have  been  in  danger  of  losing  their  sight.  It  is  possible  that 
this  may  be  the  tree  here  alluded  to  by  Pliny. 

62  He  borrows  the  account  of  this  marvellous  shrub  from  Theophrastus. 
No  such  plant  is  likely  to  have  ever  existed  ;  though  small,  and  even  large, 
snakes  may  occasionally  take  refuge  among  shruhs  and  hollow  trees. 

63  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  Hedysarum  Alhagi  of  Linnaeus  is  here 
meant,  from  which  a  kind  of  honey  or  manna  flows,  known  as  "  Eastern  " 
manna,  or  tereniahin.  It  is  not  so  high  as  the  fig-tree,  and  is  found  in 
Khorasan,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  elsewhere.  The  manna  distils  prin- 
cipally in  the  morning. 

I  2 


116  PLINY's   NATUEAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XII. 

ATTONS    "USED    IN    ALL    SPICES     AND    AEOHATICS ;    THE    VAEIOUS 
TESTS  OF  THEM  AND  THEIE  EESPECTIVE   VALUES. 

In  the  vicinity,  too,  of  India,  is  Bactriana,  in  which  region 
■we  find  bdellium,64  that  is  so  highly  esteemed.  This  tree  is  of  a 
black  colour,  and  about  the  size  of  the  olive ;  it  has  leaves  like 
those  of  the  robur,  and  bears  a  fruit  similar  to  that  of  the  wild 
fig,  and  in  nature  resembling  a  kind  of  gum.  This  fruit  is 
by  some  persons  called  brochon,  by  others  malacha,  and  by 
others,  again,  maldacon.  "When  of  a  black  colour,  and  rolled 
up  in  cakes,  it  bears  the  name  of  hadrobolon.  This  substance 
ought  to  be  transparent  and  the  colour  of  wax,  odoriferous, 
unctuous  when  subjected  to  friction,  and  bitter  to  the  taste, 
though  without  the  slightest  acidity.  When  used  for  sacred 
purposes,  it  is  steeped  in  wine,  upon  which  it  emits  a  still 
more  powerful  odour.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  both  India  and 
Arabia,  as  well  as  Media  and  Babylon ;  some  persons  give  to 
the  bdellium  that  is  imported  by  way  of  Media,  the  name  of 
peraticum.63  This  last  is  remarkable  for  its  brittleness,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  it  is  harder  and  more  bitter  than  the  other 
kinds ;  that  of  India,  on  the  other  hand,  is  moister,  and  gummy. 
This  last  sort  is  adulterated  by  means  of  almonds,  while  the 
various  other  kinds  are  falsified  with  the  bark  of  scordastum, 
that  being  the  name  of  a  tree66  the  gum  of  which  strongly  re- 
sembles bdellium.  These  adulterations,  however,  are  to  be 
detected — and  let  it  suffice  to  mention  it  here,  in  relation  to  all 
other  perfumes  as  well — by  the  smell,  the  colour,  the  weight, 
the  taste,  and  the  action  of  fire.  The  bdellium  of  Bactriana 
is  shining  and  dry,  and  covered  with  numerous  white  spots 
resembling  the  finger-nails ;  besides  which,  it  should  be  of  a 
certain  weight,  heavier  or  lighter  than  which  it  ought  not  to 
be.  The  price  of  bdellium,  in  its  pure  state,  is  three  denarii 
per  pound. 

64  Fee  remarks,  that  it  is  singular  that  a  resinous  gum,  such  as  bdel- 
lium, should  have  been  used  in  commerce  for  now  two  thousand  years, 
and  yet  its  origin  remain  unknown.  Ksempfer  and  Kumphus  are  of 
opinion,  that  the  tree  which  produces  it  is  the  one  known  to  naturalists  as 
the  Borassus  flahelliformis  of  Linnseus,  or  the  Lontarus  of  others.  It  is 
imported  into  Europe  from  Arabia  and  India,  and  is  often  found  mixed 
with  gum  Arabic. 

65  UtpaTiKov;  from  7repara  y^c,  "the  remotest  parts  of  the  earth," 
from  which  it  was  brought. 

66  The  modem  name  of  this  tree  is  unknown. 


Chap.  21.]                             THE    COTTON   TREE.  117 

CHAP.  20. TKEES  OF  PEKSIS. 

Adjoining  the  countries  which  we  have  previously  mentioned 
is  Persis,  lying  along  the  shores  of  the  Bed  Sea,  which,  when 
describing67  it,  we  have  mentioned  as  the  Persian  Sea,  the  tides 
of  which  peDetrate  far  into  the  land.  The  trees  in  these 
regions  are  of  a  marvellous  nature  ;  for,  corroded  by  the  action 
of  the  salt,  and  bearing  a  considerable  resemblance  to  vegeta- 
ble substances  that  have  been  thrown  up  and  abandoned  by 
the  tide,  they  are  seen  to  embrace  the  arid  sands  of  the  sea- 
shore with  their  naked  roots,  just  like  so  many  polypi.  "When 
the  tide  rises,  buffeted  by  the  waves,  there  they  stand,  fixed 
and  immoveable ;  nay,  more,  at  high  water  they  are  completely 
covered  ;  a  fact  which  proves  to  conviction,  that  they  derive 
their  nutriment  from  the  salt  contained  in  the  water.  The 
size  of  these  trees  is  quite  marvellous;  in  appearance  they 
strongly  resemble  the  arbute ;  the  fruit,  which  on  the  outside 
is  very  similar  to  the  almond,  has  a  spiral  kernel  within.68 

CHAP.  21.    (10.) TKEES    OF    THE    ISLANDS    OF    THE    PEBS1AN    SEA. 

THE    COTTON    TREE. 

In  the  same  gulf,  there  is  the  island  of  Tylos,69  covered  with 
a  forest70  on  the  side  which  looks  towards  the  East,  where  it 
is  washed  also  by  the  sea  at  high  tides.  Each  of  the  trees 
is  in  size  as  large  as  the  fig ;  the  blossoms  are  of  an  indescri- 
bable sweetness,  and  the  fruit  is  similar  in  shape  to  a  lupine, 
but  so  rough  and  prickly,  that  it  is  never  touched  by  any  ani- 
mal. On  a  more  elevated  plateau  of  the  same  island,  we  find 
trees  that  bear  wool,  but  of  a  different  nature  from  those  of  the 
Seres ; 71  as  in  these  trees  the  leaves  produce  nothing  at  all, 
and,  indeed,  might  very  readily  be  taken  for  those  of  the  vine. 

e?  B.  vi.  c.  28. 

68  -It  is  supposed  that  the  Rhizophora  Mangle  of  Linnams  is  the  tree 
that  is  here  described.  It  grows  on  all  the  coasts  of  India,  from  Siam  to 
the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  takes  root  on  spots  which  have  been 
inundated  by  the  sea,  and  its  boughs  bend  downwards,  and  taking  root  in 
the  earth,  advance  gradually  towards  the  sea.  The  leaf  and  fruit  have  the 
characteristics  of  those  of  the  arbute  and  almond  as  here  mentioned. 

69  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

70  Fee  suggests  that  some  kind  of  mangrove  is  probably  alluded  to,  of 
the  kind  known  as  avicennia,  or  bruguiera. 

7i  See  B.  vi.  c.  20. 


118  plant's  NATUBAL  HISTOEY.  [Cook  XII. 

were  it  not  that  they  are  of  smaller  size.  They  bear  a  kind  of 
gourd,  about  the  size  of  a  quince ; n  which,  when  arrived  at 
maturity,  bursts  asunder  and  discloses  a  ball  of  down,  from 
which  a  costly  kind  of  linen  cloth  is  made. 

(11.)  This  tree  is  known  by  the  name  of  gossypinus : 73 
the  smaller  island  of  Tylos,  which  is  ten  miles  distant  from  the 
larger  one,  produces  it  in  even  greater  abundance. 

CHAP.  22. THE    TREE    CALLED    CYNA.       TEEES  PEOM  WHICH 

PABEICS   FOE  CLOTHING  ARE  MADE  IN  THE  EAST. 

Juba  states,  that  about  a  certain  shrub  there  grows  a  woolly 
down,  from  which  a  fabric  is  manufactured,  preferable  even  to 
those  of  India.  He  adds,  too,  that  certain  trees  of  Arabia, 
from  which  vestments  are  made,  are  called  cynse,  and  that  they 
have  a  leaf  similar  to  that  of  the  palm.  Thus  do  their  very 
trees  afford  clothing  for  the  people  of  India.  In  the  islands  of 
Tylos,  there  is  also  another  tree,  with  a  blossom  like  the  white 
violet u  in  appearance,  though  four  times  as  large,  but  it  is 
destitute  of  smell,  a  very  remarkable  fact  in  these  climates. 

CHAP.  23. A  COTJNTEY   WHEEE  THE  TEEES  NEVEE  LOSE  THEIR 

LEAVES. 

There  is  also  another  tree  similar  to  the  preceding  one,  but 
with  a  thicker  foliage,  and  a  blossom  like  the  rose.  This  flower 
shuts75  at  night,  and,  beginning  to  open  towards  sun-rise, 
appears  in  full  blow  by  mid-day ;  the  natives  are  in  the  habit 
of  saying  that  in  this  way  it  goes  to  sleep.  The  same  island 
bears  also  the  palm,  the  olive,  the  vine,  and  the  fig,  with 
various  other  kinds  of  fruit.  None  of  the  trees  in  this  island 
lose  their  leaves ; 76  it  is  abundantly  watered  by  cool  streams, 
and  receives  the  benefit  of  rain. 

72  "  Cotonei."  To  this  resemblance  of  its  fruit  to  the  quince,  the  cotton- 
tree,  which  is  here  alluded  to,  not  improbably  owes  its  modern  name. 

73  The  cotton-tree,  or  Gossypium  arboreum  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark,  tbat  Pliny  copies  here  almost  literally  from  Theophrastus.  Ac- 
cording to  Philostratus,  the  byssus,  or  fine  tissues  worn  by  the  Egyptian 
priests,  were  made  of  cotton. 

71  The  Malthiola  incana. 

75  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  be  a  Magnolia ;  but,  as  he  remarks,  most 
plants  open  and  shut  at  certain  hours ;  consequently,  this  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  any  peculiar  characteristic,  sufficient  to  lead  with  certainty  to 
its  identification. 

76  Theophrastus,  from  whom  our  author  is  copying,  says  that  this  is  the 
case  only  with  the  fig-tree  there. 


KATVD.  119 


Chap.  26.1 

CHAP.  24. THE  VARIOUS  USEFUL  PRODUCTS  OF  TREES. 

Arabia,  which  is  in  the  vicinity  of  these  islands,  requires 
that  we  should  make  some  distinction  in  its  vegetable  products, 
seeing  that  here  the  various  parts  of  trees  which  are  em- 
ployed for  useful  purposes  are  the  root,  the  branches,  the 
bark,  the  juices,  the  gum,  the  wood,  the  shoots,  the  blossoms, 
the  leaves,  and  the  fruit. 

chap.  25.  (12.)— COSTUS. 

A  root  and  a  leaf,  however,  are  the  productions  which  are 
held  in  the  very  highest  estimation  in  India.  The  root  is  that 
of  the  costus ; 77  it  has  a  burning  taste  in  the  mouth,  and  a 
most  exquisite  odour ;  in  other  respects,  the  branches  are  good 
tor  nothing.  In  the  island  of  Patale,78  situate  at  the  very 
mouth  of  the  river  Indus,  there  are  two  kinds  of  costus  found, 
the  black  and  the  white  ;  the  last  is  considered  the  best.  The 
price  of  it  is  five  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.   26. NARD.       THE  TWELVE  VARIETIES  OF  THE  PLANT. 

Of  the  leaf,  which  is  that  of  the  nard,79  it  is  only  right  to 
speak  somewhat  more  at  length,  as  it  holds  the  principal  place 
among  our  unguents.  The  nard  is  a  shrub  with  a  heavy, 
thick  root,  but  short,  black,  brittle,  and  yet  unctuous  as  well ; 

W  According  to  most  commentators,  this  is  the  Costus  Arabicus  of  Lin- 
nams  Dioscorides  mentions  three  varieties  of  costus  :  the  Arabian,  which 
is  of  the  best  quality,  and  is  white  and  odoriferous;  the  Indian  which  is 
black  and  smooth ;  and  the  Syrian,  which  is  of  the  colour  of  wax,  dusky,  and 
6tron°-  smelling.  Fee,  however,  doubts  whether  the  modern  costus  is  the 
same°thing  as  that  of  the  ancients  ;  for,  as  he  says,  although  it  has  a  sweet 
odour,  it  does  not  deserve  the  appellation  of  a  "  precious  aromatic,  which 
we  find  constantly  given  to  it  by  the  ancients. 

w  SeeB.  vi.  c.  23.  . 

79  It  is  probable  that  the  nard  of  the  ancients,  from  which  they  extracted 
the  famous  nard-oil,  was  not  the  same  plant  which  we  know  as  the  Indian 
nard  or  Andropogon  nardus  of  Linnseus.  Indeed,  it  has  been  pretty  con- 
clusively  established  by  Sir  William  Jones,  in  his  «  Asiatic  Researches," 
that  the  Valeriana  Jatamansi  is  the  plant  from  which  they  obtained  the  oil. 
Among  the  Hindoos,  it  is  known  as  djatamansi,  and  by  the  Arabs  under 
the  name  of  sombul,  or  "  spike,"  from  the  fact  of  the  base  being  surrounded 
with  ears  or  spikes,  whence,  probably,  the  Roman  appellation.  Ihis  spe- 
cies of  valerian  grows  in  the  more  distant  and  mountainous  parts  oi  India, 
Bootan  and  Nepaul,  for  instance. 


120  plint's  katueal  HISTOEY.  [Book  XII. 

it  has  a  musty  smell,  too,  very  much  like  that  of  the  cyperus, 
with  a  sharp,  acrid  taste,  the  leaves  being  small,  and  growing 
in  tufts.  The  heads  of  the  nard  spread  out  into  ears  ;  hence 
it  is  that  nard  is  so  famous  for  its  two-fold  production,  the 
spike  or  ear,  and  the  leaf.  There  is  another  kind,  again,  that 
grows  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  but  is  altogether  con- 
demned, as  being  good  for  nothing;  it  bears  the  name  of 
ozsenitis, 80  and  emits  a  fetid  odour.  Nard  is  adulterated 
with  a  sort  of  plant  called  pseudo-nard,81  which  is  found 
growing  everywhere,  and  is  known  by  its  thick,  broad  leaf, 
and  its  sickly  colour,  which  inclines  to  white.  It  is  so- 
phisticated, also,  by  being  mixed  with  the  root  of  the  genuine 
nard,  which  adds  very  considerably  to  its  weight.  Gum  is 
also  used  for  the  same  purpose,  antimony,  and  cyperus ;  or, 
at  least,  the  outer  coat  of  the  cyperus.  Its  genuineness  is  tested 
by  its  lightness,  the  redness  of  its  colour,  its  sweet  smell,  and 
the  taste  more  particularly,  which  parches  the  mouth,  and 
leaves  a  pleasant  flavour  behind  it ;  the  price  of  spikenard  is 
one  hundred  denarii  per  pound. 

Leaf82  nard  varies  in  price  according  to  the  size ;  for  that 
which  is  known  by  the  name  of  hadrosphaerum,  consisting  of 
the  larger  leaves,  sells  at  forty  denarii  per  pound ;  when  the 
leaves  are  smaller,  it  is  called  mesosphaerum,  and  is  sold  at 
sixty.  But  that  which  is  considered  the  most  valuable  of  all, 
is  known  as  microsphaerum,  and  consists  of  the  very  smallest 
of  the  leaves ;  it  sells  at  seventy-five  denarii  per  pound.  All 
these  varieties  of  nard  have  an  agreeable  odour,  but  it  is  most 
powerful  when  fresh.  If  the  nard  is  old  when  gathered,  that 
which  is  of  a  black  colour  is  considered  the  best. 

In  our  part  of  the  world,  the  Syrian83  nard  is  held  in  the 

80  From  the  Greek,  o^aiva,  "  a  putrid  sore."  Fee  suggests  that  this 
may  have  been  the  Nardus  hadrosphaerum  of  the  moderns. 

81  Fee  supposes  that  this  is  not  lavender,  as  some  have  thought,  but  the 
Allium  victorialis  of  modern  naturalists,  which  is  still  mixed  with  the  nard 
from  the  Andropogon.  He  doubts  the  possibility  of  its  haying  been  adul- 
terated with  substances  of  such  a  different  nature  as  those  mentioned  here 
by  Pliny. 

82  Fee  is  of  opinion,  that  the  Greek  writers,  from  whom  Pliny  copied 
this  passage,  intended  to  speak  of  the  ears  of  nard,  or  spikenard. 

83  According  to  Dioscorides,  this  appellation  only  means  such  nard  as  is 
cultivated  in  certain  mountains  of  India  which  look  toward  Syria,  and 
which,  according  to  that  author,  was  the  best  nard  of  all.  Dalechamps  and 
Hardouin,  however,  ridicule  this  explanation  of  the  term. 


Chap.  27.]  ASAEUM,    OE  FOAL-FOOT.  121 

next  highest  esteem  next  to  this;  then  the  Gallic;84  and  in 
the  third  place,  that  of  Crete,85  which  by  some  persons  is 
called  "agrion,"  and  by  others  "phu."  This  last  has  exactly  the 
leaf  of  the  olusatrum,86  with  a  stalk  a  cubit  in  length,  knotted, 
of  a  whitish  colour,  inclining  to  purple,  and  a  root  that  runs 
sideways ;  it  is  covered,  too,  with  long  hair,  and  strongly 
resembles  the  foot  of  a  bird.  Field  nard  is  known  by  the 
name  of  baccar.87  We  shall  have  further  occasion  to  mention 
it  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  flowers.  All  these  kinds^  of 
nard,  however,  are  to  be  reckoned  as  herbs,  with  the  exception 
of  Indian  nard.  Of  these,  the  Gallic  kind  is  pulled  up  along 
with  the  root,  and  washed  in  wine ;  after  which  it  is  dried  in 
the  shade,  and  wrapped  up  in  paper,  in  small  parcels.  It  is 
not  very  different  from  the  Indian  nard,  but  is  lighter  than 
that  of  Syria ;  the  price  at  which  it  sells  is  three  denarii  per 
pound.  The  only  way  of  testing  the  leaves  of  all  these 
varieties  of  nard,  is  to  see  that  they  are  not  brittle  and  parched, 
instead  of  being  dried  naturally  and  gradually.  Together 
with  the  nard  that  grows  in  Gaul,  there  always 88  springs  up 
a  herb,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  hirculus,  or  the 
"  little  goat,"  on  account  of  its  offensive  smell,  it  being  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  goat.  This  herb,  too,  is  very  much,  used 
in  the  adulteration  of  nard,  though  it  differs  from  it  in  the 
fact  that  it  has  no  stem,  and  its  leaves  are  smaller  ;  the  root, 
too,  is  not  bitter,  and  is  entirely  destitute  of  smell. 

CHAP.  27.  (13.) ASAETJH,  OE  FOAL-FOOT. 

The  herb  asarum,89  too,  has  the  properties  of  nard,  and, 
indeed,  by  some  persons  is  known  as  wild  nard.     It  has  a  leaf, 

84  Generally  supposed  to  be  the  Valeriana  Celtica  of  modern  naturalists. 
See  B.  xxi.  c.  79. 

85  Probably  the  Valeriana  Italica  of  modern  naturalists. 
8e  See  B.  xix.  c.  48. 

8'  Known  in  this  country  as  fox-glove,  our  Lady's  gloves,  sage  of  Jeru- 
salem, or  clown's  spikenard.     See  B.  xxi.  c.  16. 

88  Not  always,  but  very  seldom,  Brotier  says.  Clusius  has  established, 
from  observation,  that  this  plant  is  only  a  variety  of  the  Valeriana  Celtica. 

*»  Fee  remarks,  that  the  name  "  baccara,"  in  Greek,  properly  belonged 
to  this  plant,  but  that  if  was  transferred  by  the  Komans  to  the  field  nard, 
with  which  the  Asarum  had  become  confounded.  It  is  the  same  as  the 
Asarum  Europaeum  of  modern  naturalists  ;  but  it  does  not,  as  Pliny  asserts, 
flower  twice  in  the  year. 


122  plint's  katttbal  histoky.  [Book  XII. 

however,  more  like  that  of  the  ivy,  only  that  it  is  rounder  and 
softer.  The  flower  is  purple,  the  root  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Gallic  nard,  and  the  seed  is  like  a  grape.  It  is  of  a  warm 
and  vinous  flavour,  and  blossoms  twice  a  year,  growing  upon 
hill  sides  that  are  densely  shaded.  The  best  kind  is  that  found 
in  Pontus,  and  the  next  best  that  of  Phrygia ;  that  of  Illyri- 
cum  being  only  of  third-rate  quality.  The  root  is  dug  up 
when  it  is  just  beginning  to  put  forth  its  leaves,  and  then  dried 
in  the  sun.  It  very  soon  turns  mouldy,  and  loses  rts  properties. 
There  has,  also,  been  lately  found  a  certain  herb  in  some  parts 
of  Greece,  the  leaves  of  which  do  not  differ  in  the  slightest 
degree  from  those  of  the  Indian  nard. 

CHAP.  28. AMOMTJM. AMOMTS. 

The  clustered  amomum90  is  very  extensively  used ;  it 
grows  upon  a  kind  of  wild  vine  that  is  found  in  India,  though 
some  persons  have  been  of  opinion  that  it  is  borne  by  a  shrub, 
resembling  the  myrtle  in  appearance,  and  about  the  same 
height  as  the  palm.  This  plant,  also,  is  plucked  along  with 
the  root,  and  is  carefully  pressed  together  with  the  hands  ;  for 
it  very  soon  becomes  brittle.  That  kind  is  held  in  the  highest 
esteem,  the  leaves  of  which  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  those 
of  the  pomegranate,  being  free  from  wrinkles,  and  of  a  red 
colour.  The  second  quality  is  that  which  is  of  a  pallid  hue. 
That  which  has  a  green,  grassy  appearance,  is  not  so  good, 
and  the  white  is  the  worst  of  all ;  it  assumes  this  appearance 
when  old.  The  price  of  clustered  amomum  is  sixty  denarii  per 
pound,  but  in  dust  it  sells  at  only  forty-nine.  Amomum  is  pro- 
duced, also,  in  that  part  of  Armenia  which  is  known  as  Otene ; 
as,  also,  in  Media  and  Pontus.  It  is  adulterated  with  the  leaves 
of  the  pomegranate  and  a  solution  of  gum,  which  is  employed 

90  It  is  by  no  means  settled  among  naturalists,  what  plant  the  Amomum 
of  the  ancients  was ;  indeed,  there  has  been  the  greatest  divergence  of 
opinion.  Tragus  takes  it  to  be  a  kind  of  bindweed  :  Matthioli,  the  Piper 
iEthiopicuni  of  Linnaeus :  Cordus  and  Scaliger,  the  rose  of  Jericho,  the 
Anastatica  hierocuntica  of  Linnaeus.  Gesner  thinks  it  to  have  been  the 
garden  pepper,  the  Solanum  bacciferum  of  Tournefort:  Csesalpinus  the 
cubeb,  the  Piper  cubeba  of  Linnaeus :  Plukenet  and  Sprengel  the  Cissus 
vitiginea,  whde  Fee  and  Paulet  look  upon  it  as  not  improbably  identical 
with  the  Amomum  racemosum  of  Linnaeus.  The  name  is  probably  derived 
from  the  Arabic  hahmama,  the  Arabians  having  first  introduced  it  to  the 
notice  of  the  Greeks. 


Chap.  30.]  TIIE    COUNTRY   OF   FRANKINCENSE.  1 23 

in  order  to  make  the  leaves  adhere  and  form  clusters,  like 
those  of  the  grape. 

There  is  another  substance,  also,  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  amomis ; 91  it  is  not  so  full  of  veins  as  amomum, 
harder,  and  not  so  odoriferous ;  from  which  it  would  appear, 
either  that  it  is  altogether  a  different  plant,  or  else  that  it  is 
amomum  gathered  in  an  unripe  state. 

CHAP.  29. — CARDAMOMUM. 

Similar  to  these  substances,  both  in  name  as  well  as  the 
shrub  which  produces  it,  is  the  cardamomum,92  the  seeds  of 
which  are  of  an  oblong  shape.  It  is  gathered  in  the  same 
manner  both  in  India  and  Arabia.  There  are  four  different 
kinds  of  cardamomum.  That  which  is  of  a  very  green  colour, 
unctuous,  with  sharp  angles,  and  very  difficult  to  break,  is  the 
most  highly  esteemed  of  all.  The  next  best  is  of  a  reddish 
white  tint,  while  that  of  third-rate  quality  is  shorter  and 
blacker,  the  worst  of  all  being  mottled  and  friable,  and  emit- 
ting but  little  smell ;  which,  in  its  genuine93  state  ought  to  be 
very  similar  to  costum.  Cardamomum  grows  also  in  Media. 
The  price  of  the  best  is  three  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.  30. THE  COUNTRY  OF   FRANKINCENSE. 

Next  in  affinity  to  cardamomum  would  have  been  cinnamo- 
mum,94  and  this  we  should  have  now  proceeded  to  speak  of,  were 
it  not  more  convenient  first  to  make  mention  of  the  treasures 
of  Arabia,  and  the  reasons  for  which  that  country  has  received 
the  names  of  "Happy"  and  " Blest."  The  chief  productions 
of  Arabia  are  frankincense  and  myrrh,  which  last  it  bears  in 

91  Supposed  to  have  been  only  the  Amomum,  in  an  unripe  state,  as  Pliny 
himself  suggests. 

92  Still  known  in  pharmacy  as  "  cardamum."  It  is  not,  however,  as 
Pliny  says,  found  in  Arabia,  but  in  India  ;  from  which  it  probably  reached 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea.  There  are  three  kinds 
known  in  modern  commerce,  the  large,  the  middle  size,  and  the  small. 
M.  Bonastre,  "  Journal  de  Pharmacie,"  May,  1828,  is  of  opinion,  that  the 
word  cardamomum  signifies  "  amomum  in  pods,"  the  Egyptian  kardh 
meaning  "pod,"  or  "husk."  It  is,  however,  more  generally  supposed, 
that  the  Greek  word,  icapdia,  "  heart,"  enters  into  its  composition. 

93  u  yerus  "  seems  a  preferable  reading  here  to  "  vero,"  which  has  been 
adopted  by  Sillig. 

94  See  c.  42  of  the  present  Book. 


124  plikt's  NATUEAL  HISTOEY.  [Book  XII. 

common  with  the  country  of  the  Troglodyte.  (14.)  There  is 
no  country  in  the  world  that  produces  frankincense  except 
Arabia,95  and,  indeed,  not  the  whole  of  that.  Almost  in  the 
very  centre  of  that  region,  are  the  Atramitae,96  a  community  of 
the  Sab&ei,  the  capital  of  whose  kingdom  is  Sabota,  a  place 
situate  on  a  lofty  mountain.  At  a  distance  of  eight  stations 
from  this  is  the  incense-bearing  region,  known  by  the  name 
of  Saba.  The  Greeks  say  that  the  word  signifies  a  "  secret 
mystery."  This  district  looks  towards  the  north-east,  and 
is  rendered  inaccessible  by  rocks  on  every  side,  while  it  is 
bounded  on  the  right  by  the  sea,  from  which  it  is  shut  out  by 
cliffs  of  tremendous  height.  The  soil  of  this  territory  is  said 
to  be  of  a  milky  white,  a  little  inclining  to  red.  The  forests 
extend  twenty  schceni  in  length,  and  half  that  distance  in 
breadth.  The  length  of  the  schcenus,  according  to  the  esti- 
mate of  Eratosthenes,  is  forty  stadia,  or,  in  other  words,  five 
miles ;  some  persons,  however,  have  estimated  the  schcenus  at 
no  more  than  thirty-two  stadia.  In  this  district  some  lofty 
hills  take  their  rise,  and  the  trees,  which  spring  up  sponta- 
neously, run  downwards  along  the  declivities  to  the  plains. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  soil  is  argillaceous,  and  that 
the  springs  which  there  take  their  rise  are  but  few  in  number, 
and  of  a  nitrous  quality.  Adjoining  are  the  Minsei,  the  people 
of  another  community,  through  whose  country  is  the  sole  tran- 
sit for  the  frankincense,  along  a  single  narrow  road.     The 

95  Virgil,  Georg.  B.  ii,  1.  139,  mentions  Panchaia,  in  Arabia,  as  being 
more  especially  the  country  of  frankincense.  That  region  corresponds  with 
the  modern  Yemen.  It  is,  however,  a  well-ascertained  fact,  that  it  grows 
in  India  as  well,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  greater  part  of  it  used  by 
the  ancients  was  in  reality  imported  from  that  country.  The  Indian  in- 
cense is  the  product  of  a  tree  belonging  to  the  terebinth  class^  named  by 
Eoxburgh,  who  first  discovered  it,  Boswellia  thurifera.  It  is  more  espe- 
cially found  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  India.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  asserted  that  the  Arabian  incense  was  the  product  of  a  coniferous  tree, 
either  the  Juniperus  Lycia,  the  Juniperus  Phoenicea,  or  the  Juniperus 
thurifera  of  Linnaeus.  But,  as  Fee  justly  remarks,  it  would  appear  more 
reasonable  to  look  among  the  terebinths  of  Arabia  for  the  incense  tree,  if 
one  of  that  class  produces  it  in  India,  and  more  especially  because  the  coni- 
ferous trees  produce  only  resins,  while  the  terebinths  produce  gum  resins, 
to  which  class  of  vegetable  products  frankincense  evidently  belonged.  In 
commerce,  the  gum  resin,  Olibanum,  the  produce  of  the  Boswellia  serrata, 
and  imported  from  the  Levant,  bears  the  name  of  frankincense. 

96  See  B.  vi.  c.  32.  Their  name  is  still  preserved  in  the  modern  Hadra- 
niaut,  to  the  east  of  Aden. 


Chap.  31.]         THE   TREES   THAT   BEAR   FRANKINCENSE.  125 

Minaei  were  the  first  people  who  carried  on  any  traffic  in 
frankincense,  which  they  still  do  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  persons,  and  hence  it  is  that  it  has  received  the  appella- 
tion of  "  MinaBan."  It  is  the  Sabsei  alone,  and  no  other 
people  among  the  Arabians,  that  behold  the  incense-tree  ;  and, 
indeed,  not  all  of  them,  for  it  is  said  that  there  are  not  more 
than  three  thousand  families  which  have  a  right  to  claim  that 
privilege,  by  virtue  of  hereditary  succession;  and  that  for  this 
reason  those  persons  are  called  sacred,  and  are  not  allowed, 
while  pruning  the  trees  or  gathering  the  harvest,  to  receive 
any  pollution,  either  by  intercourse  with  women,  or  coming  in 
contact  with  the  dead ;  by  these  religious  observances  it  is 
that  the  price  of  the  commodity  is  so  considerably  enhanced. 
Some  persons,  however,  say,  that  the  right  of  gathering  in- 
cense in  the  forests  belongs  to  all  these  people  in  common, 
while  others  again  state,  that  they  take  their  turns  year  by 
year. 

CHAP.   31. THE    TREES    THAT    BEAR    FRANKINCENSE. 

Nor  is  it  by  any  means  agreed  what  is  the  appearance  of 
the  incense-tree.  We  have  sent  several  expeditions  against 
Arabia,  and  the  Eoman  arms  have  penetrated  into  the  greater 
part  of  that  country ;  indeed,  Caius  Csasar,97  the  son  of  Augus- 
tus, even  earned  considerable  renown  there  ;  and  yet  this  tree 
has  been  described  by  no  Latin  writer,  at  least  that  I  know 
of.  The  descriptions  given  of  it  by  the  Greek  writers  vary 
very  considerably :  some  of  them  say  that  it  has  exactly  the 
leaf  of  the  pear-tree,  only  somewhat  smaller,  and  of  a  grass- 
green  colour.  Others,  again,  say,  that  it  has  a  rather  reddish 
leaf,  like  that  of  the  mastich,  and  others,  that  it  is  a  kind  of 
terebinth,98  and  that  King  Antigonus,  to  whom  a  branch  of  it 
was  brought,  was  of  that  opinion.  King  Juba,  in  the  work 
which-  he  wrote  and  dedicated  to  Caius  Caesar,  the  son  of 
Augustus,  who  was  inflamed  by  the  wide-spread  renown  of 
Arabia,  states,  that  the  tree  has  a  spiral  stem,  and  that  the 
branches  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Pontic 
maple,  while  it  secretes  a  sort  of  juice  very  similar  to  that  of 

9"  See  B.  vi.  cc.  31  and  32.    He  was  the  son  cf  Agrippa  and  Julia,  the 

daughter  of  Augustus,  bv  whom  he  was  adopted. 

as3  This  seems  the  most  probable  among  these  various  surmises  and  con- 
jectures. 


126  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

the  almond-tree.  Such,  he  says,  is  the  appearance  of  the  tree 
as  seen  in  Carmania  and  Egypt,  where  it  was  introduced  and 
planted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Ptolemies  when  reigning 
there.  It  is  well  known  that  it  has  a  bark  not  unlike  that  of 
the  laurel,  and,  indeed,  some  persons  have  asserted  that  their 
leaves  are  similar.  At  all  events,  such  was  the  case  with  the 
tree  as  it  grew  at  Sardes :  for  the  kings  of  Asia  also  took  con- 
siderable care  to  have  it  planted  there.  The  ambassadors 
who  in  my  time  have  come  to  Eome  from  Arabia,  have  made 
all  these  matters  more  uncertain,  even,  than  they  were  before ; 
a  thing  at  which  we  may  justly  be  surprised,  seeing  that 
some  sprigs  even  of  the  incense-tree  have  been  brought  among 
us,  from  which  we  have  some  reason  to  conclude  that  the 
parent  tree  is  round  and  tapering,  and  that  it  puts  forth  its 
shoots  from  a  trunk  that  is  entirely  free  from  knots. 

CHAP.  32. VARIOUS    KINDS    OF    FRANKINCENSE. 

In  former  times,  when  they  had  fewer  opportunities  of 
selling  it,  they  used  to  gather  the  frankincense  only  once  a 
year ;  but  at  the  present  day,  as  there  is  a  much  greater  de- 
mand for  it,  there  is  a  second  crop  as  well.  The  first,  and 
what  we  may  call  the  natural,  vintage,  takes  place  about  the 
rising  of  the  Dog-star,  a  period  when  the  heat  is  most  intense  ; 
on  which  occasion  they  cut  the  tree  where  the  bark  appears 
to  be  the  fullest  of  juice,  and  extremely  thin,  from  being  dis- 
tended to  the  greatest  extent.  The  incision  thus  made  is  gra- 
dually extended,  but  nothing  is  removed  ;  the  consequence  of 
which  is,  that  an  unctuous  foam  oozes  forth,  which  gradually 
coagulates  and  thickens.  When  the  nature  of  the  locality  re- 
quires it,  this  juice  is  received  upon  mats  of  palm -leaves,  though 
in  some  places  the  space  around  the  tree  is  made  hard  by  being 
well  rammed  down  for  the  purpose.  The  frankincense  that 
is  gathered  after  the  former  method,  is  in  the  purest  state, 
though  that  which  falls  on  the  ground  is  the  heaviest  in 
weight :  that  which  adheres  to  the  tree  is  pared  off  with  an 
iron  instrument,  which  accounts  for  its  being  found  mingled 
with  pieces  of  bark. 

The  forest  is  allotted  in  certain  portions,  and  such  is  the 
mutual  probity  of  the  owners,  that  it  is  quite  safe  from  all 
depredation ;  indeed,  there  is  no  one  left  to  watch  the  trees 
after  the  incisions  are  made,  and  yet  no  one  is  ever  known  to 


Chap.  32.]  VAEIOUS   KINDS   OF   FRANKINCENSE.  1  2/ 

plunder  his  neighbour.  But,  by  Hercules !  at  Alexandria, 
where  the  incense  is  dressed  for  sale,  the  workshops  can  never 
be  guarded  with  sufficient  care  ;  a  seal  is  even  placed  upon  the 
workmen's  aprons,  and  a  mask  put  upon  the  head,  or  else  a 
net  with  very  close  meshes,  while  the  people  are  stripped 
naked  before  they  are  allowed  to  leave  work.  So  true  it  is 
that  punishments  afford  less  security  among  us  than  is  to  be 
found  by  these  Arabians  amid  their  woods  and  forests  !  The 
incense  which  has  accumulated  during  the  summer  is  gathered 
in  the  autumn  :  it  is  the  purest  of  all,  and  is  of  a  white  colour. 
The  second  gathering  takes  place  in  spring,  incisions  being 
made  in  the  bark  for  that  purpose  during  the  winter :  this, 
however,  is  of  a  red  colour,  and  not  to  be  compared  with  the 
other  incense.  The  first,  or  superior  kind  of  incense,  is  known 
as  carnathum,"  the  latter  is  called  dathiathum.  It  is  thought, 
also,  that  the  incense  which  is  gathered  from  the  tree  while 
young  is  the  whitest,  though  the  produce  of  the  old  trees  has 
the  most  powerful  smell ;  some  persons,  too,  have  an  impres- 
sion that  the  best  incense  is  found  in  the  islands,  but  Juba 
asserts  that  no  incense  at  all  is  grown  there. 

That  incense  which  has  hung  suspended  in  globular  drops  is 
known  to  us  as  "male"  frankincense,  although  it  is  mostly 
the  case  that  we  do  not  use  the  term  "  male"  except  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  word  "female:"  it  has  been  attributed, 
however,  to  religious  scruples,  that  the  name  of  the  other  sex 
was  not  employed  as  a  denomination  for  this  substance.  Some 
persons,  again,  are  of  opinion  that  the  male  frankincense  has 
been  so  called  from  its  resemblance1  to  the  testes  of  the  male. 
The  incense,  however,  that  is  the  most  esteemed  of  all  is  that 
which  is  mammose,  or  breast-shaped,  and  is  produced  when 
one  drop  has  stopped  short,  and  another,  following  close  upon 
it,  has  adhered,  and  united  with  it.  I  find  it  stated  that  one 
of  these  lumps  used  to  make  quite  a  handful,  at  a  time  when 
men  displayed  less  eagerness  to  gather  it,  and  it  was  allowed 
more  time  to  accumulate.     The  Greeks  call  such  lumps  as 

99  These  words  are  said  by  some  to  be  derived  from  the  Greek,  Kaptybg, 
"  a  hollow  stalk,"  on  account  of  its  lightness,  and  SpSiov,  "  a  torch,"  on 
account  of  its  resinous  and  inflammable  qualities.  It  is,  however,  much 
more  probable  that  they  were  derived  from  the  Arabic,  and  not  from  the 
Celto-Scythic,  as  Poinsinet  conjectures. 

1  Fee  is  probably  right  in  his  conjecture,  that  it  was  so  called  solely  in 
consequence  of  its  superior  strength. 


128  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

these  by  the  name  of  stagonia2  and  atomus,3  while  the  smaller 
pieces  are  called  orobia.4  The  fragments  which  are  broken  off 
by  shaking  the  tree  are  known  to  us  as  manna.5  Even  at  the 
present  day,  however,  there  are  drops  found  which  weigh  one- 
third  of  a  mina,  or,  in  other  words,  twenty-eight  denarii. 
..Alexander  the  Great,  when  a  boy,  was  on  one  occasion  loading 
the  altars  with  frankincense  with  the  greatest  prodigality, 
upon  which  his  tutor  Leonides6  remarked  to  him  that  it 
would  be  time  to  worship  the  gods  in  such  a  lavish  manner 
as  that,  when  he  had  conquered  the  countries  that  produced 
the  frankincense.  After  Alexandria  had  conquered  Arabia, 
he  despatched  to  Leonides  a  ship  freighted  with  frankincense, 
and  sent  him  word,  requesting  that  he  would  now  worship  the 
gods  without  stint  or  limit. 

The  incense,  after  being  collected,  is  carried  on  camels' 
backs  to  Sabota,7  at  which  place  a  single  gate  is  left  open  for 
its  admission.  To  deviate  from  the  high  road  while  convey- 
ing it,  the  laws  have  made  a  capital  offence.  At  this  place  the 
priests  take  by  measure,  and  not  by  weight,  a  tenth  part  in 
honour  of  their  god,  whom  they  call  Sabis  ;  indeed,  it  is  not 
allowable  to  dispose  of  it  before  this  has  been  done :  out  of 
this  tenth  the  public  expenses  are  defrayed,  for  the  divinity 
generously  entertains  all  those  strangers  who  have  made  a  cer- 
tain number  of  days'  journey  in  coming  thither.  The  incense 
can  only  be  exported  through  the  country  of  the  Gebanitae, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  that  a  certain  tax  is  paid  to  their 
king  as  well.  Thomna,9  which  is  their  capital,  is  distant 
from  Gaza,  a  city  of  Judsea,   on  the  shores  of  our  sea,  4436 10 

2  Meaning  "drop"  incense.  3  "Undivided"  incense. 

4  From  their  being  the  size  of  an  opofioQ,  or  "chick-pea." 

5  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  correctness  of  this  reading.  The  "manna" 
here  mentioned  is  quite  a  different  substance  to  the  manna  of  modern  com- 
merce, obtained  from  the  Fraxinus  ornus  of  naturalists. 

6  He  was  a  kinsman  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  and  a  man 
of  very  austere  habits.  Plutarch  says,  that  on  this  occasion  Alexander 
sent  to  Leonidas  600  talents'  weight  of  incense  and  myrrh. 

7  See  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

8  Probably  the  same  as  the  deity,  Assabinus,  mentioned  by  Pliny  in  c. 
42  of  the  present  Book.  Theophrastus  mentions  him  as  identical  with  the 
sun,  others,  again,  with  Jupiter.  Theophrastus  says  that  the  god  received 
not  a  tenth  part,  but  a  third. 

9  As  to  this  place  and  the  Gebanitae,  see  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

10  There  must  surely  be  some  mistake  in  these  numbers. 


Chap.  33.]  MYElttl.  129 

miles,  the  distance  being  divided  into  sixty-five  days'  jonrney 
by  camel.  There  are  certain  portions  also  of  the  frankincense 
which  are  given  to  the  priests  and  the  king's  secretaries :  and 
in  addition  to  these,  the  keepers  of  it,  as  well  as  the  soldiers 
who  guard  it,  the  gate-keepers,  and  various  other  employes, 
have  their  share  as  well.  And  then  besides,  all  along  the 
route,  there  is  at  one  place  water  to  pay  for,  at  another  fodder, 
lodging  at  the  stations,  and  various  taxes  and  imposts  besides ; 
the  consequence  of  which  is,  that  the  expense  for  each  camel 
before  it  arrives  at  the  shores  of  our11  sea  is  six  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  denarii ;  after  all  this,  too,  there  are  certain  pay- 
ments still  to  be  made  to  the  farmers  of  the  revenue  of  our 
empire.  Hence  it  is  that  a  pound  of  the  best  frankincense 
sells  at  six  denarii,  the  second  quality  five,  and  the  third 
three.  Among  us,  it  is  adulterated  with  drops  of  white  resin, 
a  substance  which  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  it :  but  the 
fraud  may  be  easily  detected  by  the  methods  which  have 
been  already  mentioned.13  It  is  tested  by  the  following  qua- 
lities ;  its  whiteness,  size,  brittleness,  and  the  readiness  with 
which  it  takes  fire  when  placed  on  heated  coals ;  in  addition 
to  which,  it  should  not  give  to  the  pressure  of  the  teeth,  but 
from  its  natural  brittleness  crumble  all  to  pieces. 

CHAP.  33.  (15.) HYEEH. 

According  to  some  authors,  myrrh13  is  the  produce  of  a  tree 
that  grows  in  the  same  forests  as  the  incense- tree,  though 
most  say  that  they  grow  in  different  places  :  but  the  fact  is 
that  myrrh  grows  in  many  parts  of  Arabia,  as  will  be  seen 
when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  several  varieties  of  it.  A  sort 
that  is  highly  esteemed  is  brought  from  the  islands u  also,  and 
the  Sabaei  even  cross  the  sea  to  procure  it  in  the  country  of 
the  Troglodytaa.  It  is  grown  also  by  being  transplanted,  and 
when  thus  cultivated  is  greatly  preferred  to  that  which  is 
grown  in  the  forests.    The  plant  is  greatly  improved  by  raking 

11  The  Mediterranean.  12  In  c.  19  of  the  present  Book. 

13  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  product  of  an  arayris,  but  is  not  now  esteemed 
as  a  perfume;  but  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic.  Forskhal  has  attributed 
to  the  Amyris  kataf,  or  kafal,  the  production  of  myrrh.  According  to 
Ehrenberg,  a  very  similar  tree,  though  constituting  a  different  species,  the 
Balsamodendrum  myrrha,  also  produces  this  substance.  It  is  imported 
into  Europe  from  both  Abyssinia  and  Arabia.  It  was  much  used  by  the 
ancients,  to  flavour  their  wines. 

j4  See  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

VOL.   in.  K 


130  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XII. 

and  baring  the  roots ;  indeed,  the  cooler  the  roots  are  kept,  the 
better  it  is. 

CHAP.  34. THE  TEEES  WHICH  PRODUCE  MYRRH. 

The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  five  cubits,  and  has  thorns 
upon  it :  the  trunk  is  hard  and  spiral,  and  thicker  than  that 
of  the  incense-tree,  and  much  more  so  at  the  root  than  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  tree.  Some  authors  have  said  that  the  bark 
is  smooth  like  that  of  the  arbute,  others,  that  it  is  rough  and 
covered  with  thorns  :  it  has  the  leaf  of  the  olive,  but  more  wavy, 
with  sharp  points  at  the  edges :  Juba  says,  however,  that  it 
resembles  the  leaf  of  the  olusatrum.  Some  again  say  that  it 
resembles  the  juniper,15  only  that  it  is  rougher  and  bristling 
with  thorns,  and  that  the  leaves  are  of  a  rounder  shape,  though 
they  have  exactly  the  taste  of  the  juniper.  There  have  been 
some  writers  who  have  incorrectly  asserted  that  both  myrrh 
and  frankincense  are  the  product  of  the  same  tree. 

CHAP.  35. THE  NATURE  AND  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  MYRRH. 

Incisions  are  made  in  the  myrrh-tree  also  twice  a  year,  and  at 
the  same  season  as  in  the  incense- tree  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the 
myrrh- tree  they  are  all  made  the  way  up  from  the  root  as  far  as 
the  branches  which  are  able  to  bear  it.  The  tree  spontaneously 
exudes,  before  the  incision  is  made,  a  liquid  which  bears  the 
name  of  stacte,16  and  to  which  there  is  no  rnyrrh  that  is  supe- 
rior. Second  only  in  quality  to  this  is  the  cultivated  myrrh  : 
of  the  wild  or  forest  kind,  the  best  is  that  which  is  gathered  in 
summer.  They  give  no  tithes  of  myrrh  to  the  god,  because  it 
is  the  produce  of  other  countries  as  well ;  but  the  growers  pay 
the  fourth  part  of  it  to  the  king  of  the  Gebanitae.  Myrrh  is 
bought  up  indiscriminately  by  the  common  people,  and  then 
packed  into  bags ;  but  our  perfumers  separate  it  without  any 
difficulty,  the  principal  tests  of  its  goodness  being  its  unctuous- 
ness  and  its  aromatic  smell.     (16.)  There  are  several17  kinds 

15  Theophrastus  says  the  terebinth. 

16  From  the  Greek  (rra£w,  "  to  drop."  Fee  observes,  that  the  moderns 
know  nothing  positive  as  to  the  mode  of  extracting  myrrh  from  the  tree. 
See  the  account  given  by  Ovid,  Met.  B.  x.  1.  500  et  seq.  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  Myrrha  into  this  tree, — "  The  warm  drops  fall  from  the  tree.  The 
tears,  even,  have  their  own  honour ;  and  the  myrrh  that  distils  from  the 
bark  bears  the  name  of  its  mistress,  and  in  no  age  will  remain  unknown." 

17  Fee  remarks,  that  at  the  present  day  we  are  acquainted  only  with  one 
kind  of  myrrh ;  the  fragments  which  bear  an  impression  like  those  of  nails 


Chap.  35.]  MYERH.  131 

of  myrrh;  the  first  among  the  wild  myrrhs  is  the  Troglo- 
dytic;  and  the  next  are  the  Minaean,  which  includes  the 
Atramitic,  and  that  of  Ausaritis,  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Geba- 
nitae.  A  third  kind  is  the  Dianitic,18  and  a  fourth  is  the 
mixed  myrrh,  or  "  all-sorts  ;"19  a  fifth,  again,  is  the  Sambra- 
cenian,  which  is  brought  from  a  city  in  the  kingdom  of  the 
Sabaei,  near  the  sea ;  and  a  sixth  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Dusaritic.  There  is  a  white  myrrh  also,  which  is  produced  in 
only  one  spot,  and  is  carried  for  sale  to  the  city  of  Messalum. 
The  Troglodytic  myrrh  is  tested  by  its  unctuousness,  and  its 
peculiarly  dry  appearance :  it  has  also  a  dirty,  rough  look 
with  it,  but  is  more  acrid  than  the  other  kinds.  The  Sanibra- 
cenian  myrrh  has  none  of  these  faults,  and  is  more  sightly  in 
appearance  than  any  of  them,  though  it  is  far  from  being 
so  powerful.  In  general,  however,  the  proof  of  its  goodness 
consists  in  its  being  separated  in  little  pieces  of  uneven  shape, 
formed  by  the  concretion  of  a  whitish  juice,  which  dries  up 
little  by  little.  When  broken  it  ought  to  exhibit  white  marks 
like  the  finger-nails,  and  to  be  slightly  bitter  to  the  taste. 
That  of  second  quality  is  of  a  mottled  appearance  within  ; 
while  of  worse  quality  is  that  which  is  of  a  black  colour 
within ;  the  very  worst  of  all  is  that  which  is  black  on  the 
outside  as  well. 

The  price  of  myrrh  varies  according  to  the  number  of  pur- 
chasers. Stacte  is  sold  at  prices  which  vary  from  three  de- 
narii to  forty  per  pound,  while  the  very  highest  price  of  the 
cultivated  myrrh  is  eleven  denarii.  Erythraean  myrrh,  the 
same,  it  is  pretended,  as  Arabian  myrrh,  is  sixteen  denarii  per 
pound,  Troglodytic  also,  is  sixteen  denarii ;  and  that  known  as 
odoraria,  or  odoriferous  myrrh,  sells  at  fourteen.  Myrrh  is 
adulterated  with  pieces  of  mastich,  and  other  gums ;  it  is  also 
drugged  with  the  juice  of  wild  cucumber,  in  order  to  produce 
a  certain  bitterness,  and  with  litharge  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
creasing its  weight.  Other  sophistications  may  be  discovered 
on  tasting  it,  and  the  gum  will  adhere  to  the  teeth.     But  the 

being  not  a  distinct  kind,  but  a  simple  variety  in  appearance  only.  He 
thinks,  also,  that  Pliny  may  very  possibly  be  describing  several  distinct 
resinous  products,  under  the  one  name  of  myrrh.  An  account  of  tbese 
various  districts  will  be  found  in  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

18  Hardouin  suggests  that  it  may  be  so  called  from  the  island  of  Dia, 
mentioned  by  Strabo,  B.  xvi. 

19  "  Collatitia."     The  reading,  however,  is  very  doubtful. 

E   2 


132  ploy's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

cleverest  mode  of.  adulterating  it  is  with  Indian  myrrh,5®  a 
substance  which  is  gathered  from  a  certain  prickly  shrub  which 
grows  there.  This  is  the  only  thing  that  India  produces  of 
worse  quality  than  the  corresponding  produce  _  of  other  coun- 
tries :  they  may,  however,  be  very  easily  distinguished,  that 
of  India  being  so  very  much  inferior. 

CHAP.  36.   (17.) MASTICH. 

The  transition,  therefore,21  is  very  easy  to  mastich,  which 
grows  upon  another  prickly  shrub  of  India  and  Arabia,  known 
by  the  name  of  laina.  Of  mastich  as  well  there  are  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  ;  for  in  Asia  and  Greece  there  is  also  found  a  herb 
which  puts  forth  leaves  from  the  root,  and  bears  a  thistly 
head,  resembling  an  apple,  and  full  of  seeds.  Upon  an  inci- 
sion being  made  in  the  upper  part  of  this  plant  drops  distil 
from  it,  which  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  genuine 
mastich.  There  is,  again,  a  third  sort,22  found  in  Pontus,  but 
more  like  bitumen  than  anything  else.  The  most  esteemed, 
however,  of  all  these,  is  the  white  mastich  of  Chios,  the  price 
of  which  is  twenty  denarii  per  pound,  while  the  black  mastich 
sells  at  twelve.  It  is  said  that  the  mastich  of  Chios  exudes 
from  the  lentisk  in  the  form  of  a  sort  of  gum :  like  frank- 
incense, it  is  adulterated  with  resin. 

CHAP.  37. LADAXTJM    AND    STOBOLON. 

Arabia,  too,  still  boasts  of  her  ladanum.23     Many  writers 

20  What  this  was  is  now  unknown.  Fee  suggests  that  it  may  have  been 
bdellium,  which  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  myrrh  that  is 
imported  at  the  present  day. 

2i  This  is  most  probably  the  meaning  of  Pliny's  expression—"  Ergo 
transit  in  mastichen ;"  though  Hardouin  reads  it  as  meaning  that  myrrh 
sometimes  degenerates  to  mastich  :  and  Fee,  understanding  the  passage  in 
the  same  sense,  remarks  that  the  statement  is  purely  fabulous.  Mastich, 
he  says,  is  the  produce  of  the  Pistacia  lentiscus  of  Linnaeus,  which  abounds 
in  Greece  and  the  other  parts  of  southern  Europe.  ,  The  greater  part  of 
the  mastich  of  commerce  comes  from  the  island  of  Chio.  It  is  impossible 
to  conjecture  to  what  plant  Pliny  here  alludes,  with  the  head  of  a  thistle. 

23  This  kind,  Fee  says,  is  quite  unknown  to  the  moderns. 

23  This  substance  is  still  gathered  from  the  Cistus  creticus  of  Linna?us, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  plant  leda,  mentioned  by  Pliny. 
It  is  also  most  probably  the  same  as  the  Cisthon,  mentioned  by  Pliny  in 
B.  xxiv.  c.  48.  It  is  very  commonly  found  in  Spain.  The  substance  is 
gathered  from  off  the  leaves,  not  by  the  aid  of  goats,  but  with  whips  fur- 
nished with  several  thongs,  with  which  the  shrubs  are  beaten.  There  are 
two  sorts  of  ladanum  known  in  commerce ;  the  one  friable,  and  mixed  with 
earthy  substances,  and  known  as  "  ladanum  in  tortis ;"  the  other  black,  and 


Chap.  37.]  LADANUM  AND    STOBOLON.  133 

have  stated  that  this  substance  is  the  fortuitous  result  of  an  ac- 
cidental injury  inflicted  upon  a  certain  odoriferous  plant,  under 
the  following  circumstances :  the  goat,  they  say,  which  is  in 
general  an  animal  that  is  extremely  mischievous  to  foliage,  is 
particularly  fond  of  the  shrubs  that  are  odoriferous,  as  if,  in- 
deed, it  were  really  sensible  of  the  value  that  is  set  upon 
them.  Hence  it  is  that  as  the  animal  crops  the  sprouting 
shoots  of  the  branches  which  are  swollen  with  a  liquid  juice 
of  remarkable  sweetness,  these  juices  drop  and  become  min- 
gled together,  and  are  then  wiped  up  by  the  shaggy  hairs  of 
its  unlucky  beard.  Being  there  mingled  with  the  dust,  these 
juices  form  knots  and  tufts,  and  are  then  dried  by  the  sun ; 
and  hence  the  circumstance  is  accounted  for  that  in  the  lada- 
num  which  is  imported  by  us  we  find  goats'  hairs.  This, 
however,  we  are  told,  occurs  nowhere  but  among  the  Naba- 
tsei,24  a  people  of  Arabia,  who  border  upon  Syria.  The  more 
recent  writers  call  this  substance  by  the  name  of  stobolon,  and 
state  that  in  the  forests  of  Arabia  the  trees  are  broken  by  the 
goats  while  browzing,  and  that  the  juices  in  consequence  ad- 
here to  their  shaggy  hair ;  but  the  genuine  ladanum,  they 
assure  us,  comes  from  the  island  of  Cyprus.  I  make  mention  of 
this  in  order  that  every  kind  of  odoriferous  plant  may  be  taken 
some  notice  of,  even  though  incidentally  and  not  in  the  order 
of  their  respetive  localities.  They  say  also  that  this  Cyprian 
ladanum  is  collected  in  the  same  manner  as  the  other,  and 
that  it  forms  a  kind  of  greasy  substance  or  oesypum,25  which 
adheres  to  the  beards  and  shaggy  legs  of  the  goats  ;  but  that 
it  is  produced  from  the  flowers  of  the  ground-ivy,  which  they 
have  nibbled  when  in  quest  of  their  morning  food,  a  time  at 
which  the  whole  island  is  covered  with  dew.  After  this,  they 
say,  when  the  fogs  are  dispersed  by  the  sun,  the  dust  adheres 
to  their  wet  coats,  and  the  ladanum  is  formed,  which  is  after- 
wards taken  off  of  them  with  a  comb. 

There  are  some  authors  who  give  to  the  plant  of  Cyprus, 
from  which  it  is  made,  the  name  of  leda ;  and  hence  it  is  that 

soft  to  the  fingers,  the  only  adventitious  substances  in  which  are  a  little 
sand  and  a  few  hairs. 

24  See  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

23  For  some  further  account  of  this  substance,  see  B.  xxix.  c.  10.  Filthy 
as  it  was,  the  oesypum,  or  sweat  and  grease  of  sheep,  was  used  by  the 
Roman  ladies  as  one  of  their  most  choice  cosmetics.  Ovid,  in  his  "Art  of 
Love,"  more  than  once  inveighs  against  the  use  of  it. 


134  PLINY  S   NATUKAL   HISTOET.  [Book  XIX. 

we  find  it  also  called  ledanum.  They  say,  also,  that  a  viscous 
substance  settles  upon  this  plant,  and,  that,  by  the  aid  of 
strings  wound  around  it,  its  leaves  are  rolled  into  balls,  from 
which  a  kind  of  cake  is  made.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  Cyprus,  as 
well  as  in  Arabia,  there  are  two  kinds  of  ladanum ;  the  one 
natural,  and  mingled  with  earth,  and  the  other  artificial :  the 
former  is  friable,  while  the  latter  is  of  a  viscous  nature. 

It  is  stated,  also,  that  this  substance  is  the  produce  of  a 
shrub  originally  found  in  Carmania,  and  propagated  by  plants, 
by  order  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  the  parts  beyond  Egypt ;  while 
other  authorities  are  found,  which  say  that  it  grows  on  the 
incense  tree,  and  is  gathered  like  gum,  from  incisions  made  in 
the  bark,  after  which  it  is  collected  in  bags  of  goat- skin.  That 
of  the  most  approved  quality,  sells  at  the  rate  of  forty  asses 
per  pound.  Ladanum  is  adulterated  with  myrtle  berries,  and 
filth  taken  from  the  fleeces  of  other  animals  besides  the  goat. 
If  genuine,  it  ought  to  have  a  wild  and  acrid  smell,  in  some 
measure  redolent  of  the  desert  places  where  it  is  produced :  it 
is  dry  and  parched  in  appearance,  but  becomes  soft  the  moment 
it  is  touched.  "When  ignited,  it  gives  a  brilliant  flame,  and 
emits  a  powerful  but  pleasant  odour ;  if  mixed  with  myrtle 
berries,  its  spurious  quality  is  immediately  discovered  by  their 
crackling  in  the  fire.  In  addition  to  this,  the  genuine  lada- 
num has  more  grits,  or  stony  particles,  adhering  to  it,  than 
dust. 

CHAP.  38. ENHJEMOtf. 

In  Arabia,  too,  the  olive-tree  distils  a  sort  of  tear,  with 
which  the  Indians  make  a  medicament,  known  by  the  Greeks 
as  enhsemon ; 26 '  it  is  said  to  be  of  wonderful  efficacy  in  con- 
tracting and  healing  wounds  and  sores.  These  trees,27  situate 
on  the  coasts  there,  are  covered  by  the  sea  at  high  water, 
without  the  berries  suffering  the  slightest  injury,  although  it 
is  a  well-known  fact,  that  the  salt  collects  upon  the  leaves. 

26  From  the  Greek  tvaifjiov,  "styptic,"  or  "blood-stopping."  It  is  at 
the  present  day  called  gam  "  de  lecce"  in  Italy.  Fee  says  that  it  is  nut 
often  procured  from  the  olive-trees  of  France,  though  it  is  found  very  com- 
monly on  those  of  Naples  and  Calabria.  It  has  no  active  powers,  he  says, 
as  a  medicine. 

27  Hardouin  suggests  that  they  may  be  the  pelagic,  mentioned  again  in 
B.  xiii.  c.  51. 


Chap.  40.-]  STOBEUM.  135 

All  these  trees  are  peculiar  to  Arabia,  but  it  has  some  few 
besides,  in  common  with  other  countries,  of  which  we  shall 
make  mention  elsewhere,  the  kinds  growing  in  Arabia  being 
of  inferior  quality.  The  people  of  that  country  have  a  won- 
derful regard  for  the  perfumes  of  foreign  parts,  and  import 
them  from  places  at  a  considerable  distance ;  so  soon  are  men 
sated  with  what  they  have  of  their  own,  and  so  covetous  are 
they  of  what  belongs  to  others. 

CHAP.  39. THE  TEEE  CALLED  BEATES. 

Hence  it  is,  that  they  import  from  the  country  of  the 
Elymaei 2S  the  wood  of  a  tree  called  bratus,29  which  is  similar  in 
appearance  to  a  spreading  cypress.  Its  branches  are  of  a 
whitish  colour,  and  the  wood,  while  burning,  emits  a  pleasant 
odour;  it  is  highly  spoken  of  by  Claudius  Csesar,  in  his 
History,30  for  its  marvellous  properties.  He  states  that  the 
Parthians  sprinkle  the  leaves  of  it  in  their  drink,  that  its  smell 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  cedar,  and  that  the  smoke  of  it  is 
efficacious  in  counteracting  the  effects  of  smoke  emitted  by 
other  wood.  This  tree  grows  in  the  countries  that  lie  beyond 
the  Pasitigris,31  in  the  territory  of  the  city  of  Sittaca,  upon 
Mount  Zagrus. 

CHAP.  40. THE  TEEE  CALLED    STOBEEM. 

The  Arabians  import  from  Carmania  also  the  wood  of  a 
tree  called  stobrum,32  which  they  employ  in  fumigations,  by 
steeping  it  in  palm  wine,  and  then  setting  fire  to  it.  The 
odour  first  ascends  to  the  ceiling,  and  then  descends  in  volumes 

2S  See  B.  vi.  c.  31. 

29  Although  the  savin  shrub,  the  Juniperus  Sabina  of  Linnaeus,  bears 
this  name  in  Greek,  it  is  evident,  as  Fee  says,  that  Pliny  does  not  allude 
to  it,  but  to  a  coniferous  tree,  as  it  is  that  family  which"  produces  a  resinous 
wood  with  a  balsamic  odour  when  ignited.  JBauhin  and  others  would 
make  the  tree  meant  to  be  the  Thuya  occidentalis  of  Linnaeus ;  but,  as  Fee 
observes,  that  tree  is  in  reality  a  native  originally  of  Canada,  while  the 
Thuya  orientalis  is  a  native  of  Japan.  He  suggests,  however,  that  the 
Thuya  articulata  of  Mount  Atlas  may  have  possibly  been  the  citrus  of 
Pliny. 

30  See  end  of  B.  v. 

31  All  these  are  mentioned  in  B.  vi.  c.  31. 

32  It  is  not  known  what  wood  is  meant  under  this  name.  Aloe,  and 
some  other  woods,  when  ignited  are  slightly  narcotic. 


136  PLINY'S   NATUBAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XII. 

to  the  floor ;  it  is  very  agreeable,  but  is  apt  to  cause  an 
oppression  of  the  head,  though  unattended  with  pain ;  it  is 
used  for  promoting  sleep  in  persons  when  ill.  For  these 
branches  of  commerce,  they  have  opened  the  city  of  Carrse,33 
which  serves  as  an  entrepot,  and  from  which  place  they  were 
formerly  in  the  habit  of  proceeding  to  Gabba,  at  a  distance  of 
twenty  days'  journey,  and  thence  to  Palsestina,  in  Syria.  But 
at  a  later  period,  as  Juba  informs  us,  they  began  to  take  the 
road,  for  the  purposes  of  this  traffic,  to  Charax34  and  the 
kingdom  of  the  Parthians.  For  my  own  part,  it  would  appear 
to  me  that  they  were  in  the  habit  of  importing  these  commo- 
dities among  the  Persians,  even  before  they  began  to  convey 
them  to  Syria  or  Egypt ;  at  least  Herodotus  bears  testimony  to 
that  effect,  when  he  states  that  the  Arabians  paid  a  yearly 
tribute  of  one  thousand  talents,  in  frankincense,  to  the  kings 
of  Persia. 

From  Syria  they  bring  back  storax,35  which,  burnt  upon 
the  hearth,  by  its  powerful  smell  dispels  that  loathing  of  their 
own  perfumes  with  which  these  people  are  affected.  For  in 
general  there  are  no  kinds  of  wood  in  use  among  them,  except 
those  which  are  odoriferous;  indeed,  the  Sabsei  are  in  the 
habit  of  cooking  their  food  with  incense  wood,  while  others, 
again,  employ  that  of  the  myrrh  tree ;  and  hence,  the  smoke 
and  smells  that  pervade  their  cities  and  villages  are  no  other 
than  the  very  same  which,  with  us,  proceed  from  the  altars. 
For  the  purpose  of  qualifying  this  powerful  smell,  they  burn 
storax  in  goat-skins,  and  so  fumigate  their  dwellings.  So  true 
it  is,  that  there  is  no  pleasure  to  be  found,  but  what  the  con- 
tinual enjoyment  of  it  begets  loathing.  They  also  burn  this 
substance  to  drive  away  the  serpents,  which  are  extremely 
numerous  in  the  forests  which  bear  the  odoriferous  trees. 

CHAP.  41.  (18.) WHY  AKABIA  WAS  CALLED  "  HAPPY." 

Arabia  produces  neither  cinnamon  nor  cassia;  and  this  is 
the  country  styled  "  Happy"  Arabia!  False  and  ungrateful 
does  she  prove  herself  in  the  adoption  of  this  surname,  which 
she  would  imply  to  have  been  received  from  the  gods  above ; 
whereas,  in  reality,  she  is  indebted  for  it  far  more  to  the  gods 

33  See  B.  v.  c.  21.  3i  See  B.  vi.  c.  30. 

85  See  c.  55  of  the  present  Book. 


Chap.  42.]  CINNAMOMUAI.  137 

below.36  It  is  the  luxury  which  is  displayed  by  man,  even  in 
the  paraphernalia  of  death,  that  has  rendered  Arabia  thus 
"happy;"  and  which  prompts  him  to  burn  with  the  dead 
what  was  originally  understood  to  have  been  produced  for  the 
service  of  the  gods.  Those  who  are  likely  to  be  the  best 
acquainted  with  the  matter,  assert  that  this  country  does  not 
produce,  in  a  whole  year,  so  large  a  quantity  of  perfumes  as 
was  burnt  by  the  Emperor  Nero  at  the  funeral  obsequies  of 
his  wife  Poppeea.  And  then  let  us  only  take  into  account 
the  vast  number  of  funerals  that  are  celebrated  throughout  the 
whole  world  each  year,  and  the  heaps  of  odours  that  are 
piled  up  in  honour  of  the  bodies  of  the  dead ;  the  vast  quanti- 
ties, too,  that  are  offered  to  the  gods  in  single  grains ;  and  yet, 
when  men  were  in  the  habit  of  offering  up  to  them  the  salted 
cake,  they  did  not  show  themselves  any  the  less  propitious ; 
nay,  rather,  as  the  facts  themselves  prove,  they  were  even 
more  favourable  to  us  than  they  are  now.  But  it  is  the  sea  of 
Arabia  that  has  even  a  still  greater  right  to  be  called  "  happy," 
for  it  is  this  that  furnishes  us  with  pearls.  At  the  very  lowest 
computation,  India,  the  Seres,  and  the  Arabian  Peninsula, 
withdraw  from  our  empire  one  hundred  millions  of  sesterces 
every  year — so  dearly  do  we  pay  for  our  luxury  and  our 
women.  How  large  a  portion,  too,  I  should  like  to  know,  of 
all  these  perfumes,  really  comes  to  the  gods  of  heaven,  and  the 
deities  of  the  shades  below  ? 

CHAP.  42.  (19.) — CINNAMOMUai.37       XYLOCINNAHTJM. 

Fabulous  antiquity,  and  Herodotus38  more  particularly,  have 
related  that  cinnamomum  and  cassia  are  found  in  the  nests  of 
certain  birds,  and  principally  that  of  the  phoenix,  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  Father  Liber  was  brought  up  ;  and  that  these  sub- 
stances either  fall  from  the  inaccessible  rocks  and  trees  in 
which  the  nests  are  built,  in  consequence  of  the  weight  of  the 
pieces  of  flesh  which  the  birds  carry  up,  or  else  are  brought 
down  by  the  aid  of  arrows  loaded  with  lead.     It  is  said,  also, 

36  Because  its  perfumes  were  held  in  such  high  esteem,  for  burning  on 
the  piles  of  the  dead.  This,  of  course,  was  doue  primarily  to  avoid  the 
offensive  smell. 

37  The  hark  of  the  Cinnamomum  Zeylanicum  of  the  modern  naturalists, 
the  cinnamon-tree  of  Ceylon. 

38  B.  hi. 


138  plist's  natural  histoet.  [Book  XII. 

that  cassia  grows  around  certain  marshes,  but  is  protected  by 
a  frightful  kind  of  bat  armed  with  claws,  and  by  winged  ser- 
pents as  well.     All  these  tales,   however,  have  been  evidently 
invented  for  the  purpose  of  enhancing  the  prices  of  these 
commodities.     Another  story,  too,  bears  them  company,  to  the 
effect  that  under  the  rays  of   the   noon-day  sun,  the  entire 
peninsula  exhales  a  certain  indescribable  perfume  composed  of 
its  numerous  odours ;  that  the  breezes,  as  they  blow  from  it, 
are  impregnated  with  these  odours,  and,  indeed,  were  the  first 
to  announce  the  vicinity  of  Arabia  to  the  fleets  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  while  still  far  out  at   sea.     All  this,  however,  is 
false  ;  for  cinnamomum,  or  cinnamum,  which  is  the  same  thing, 
grows  in  the  country  of  the  ^Ethiopians,39  who  are  united  by 
intermarriages  with  the  Troglodytse.     These  last,  after  buying 
it  of  their  neighbours,  carry  it  over  vast  tracts  of  sea,  upon 
rafts,  which  are  neither  steered  by   rudder,   nor  drawn   or 
impelled  by  oars  or  sails.   Nor  yet  are  they  aided  by  any  of  the 
resources  of  art,  man  alone,  and  his  daring  boldness,  standing 
in  place  of  all  these ;    in  addition  to  which,  they  choose  the 
winter  season,  about  the  time  of  the  equinox,  for  their  voyage, 
for  then  a  south  easterly  wind  is  blowing ;  these  winds  guide 
them  in  a  straight  course  from  gulf  to  gulf,  and  after  they 
have  doubled  the  promonotory  of  Arabia,  the  north  east  wind 
carries  them  to  a  port  of  the  Gebanitae,  known  by  the  name  of 
Ocilia.40     Hence  it  is  that  they  steer  for  this  port  in  preference  ; 
and  they   say  that  it  is  almost  five  years  before   the   mer- 
chants are  able  to  effect  their  return,  while  many  perish  on 
the  voyage.     In  return  for  their  wares,  they  bring  back  arti- 
cles of  glass  and  copper,  cloths,  buckles,  bracelets,  and  neck- 
laces ;  hence  it  is  that  this  traffic  depends  more  particularly 
upon  the  capricious  tastes  and  inclinations  of  the  female  sex. 

The  cinnamon  shrub41  is  only  two  cubits  in  height,  at  the 
most,  the  lowest  being  no  more  than  a  palm  in  height.  It  is 
about  four  fingers  in  breadth,  and  hardly  has  it  risen  six 
fingers  from  the  ground,  before  it  begins  to  put  forth  shoots  and 

39  See  B.  vi.  c.  34.  4°  See  B.  vi.  c.  26. 

41  As  Fee  observes,  this  description  does  not  at  all  resemble  that  of  the 
cinnamon-tree  of  Ceylon,  as  known  to  us.  M.  Bonastre  is  of  opinion  that 
the  nutmeg-tree  was  known  to  the  ancients  under  this  name ;  but,  as  Fee 
observes,  the  nutmeg  could  never  have  been  taken  for  a  bark,  and  cinnamon 
is  described  as  such  in  the  ancient  writers.  He  inclines  to  think  that  their 
cinnamon  was  really  the  bark  of  a  species  of  amyris. 


Chap.  42.]  CINNAMOMTJM.  139 

suckers.  It  has  then  all  the  appearance  of  being  dry  and 
withered,  and  while  it  is  green  it  has  no  odour  at  all.  The  leaf  is 
like  that  of  wild  marjoram,  and  it  thrives  best  in  dry  localities, 
being  not  so  prolific  in  rainy  weather ;  it  requires,  also,  to  be 
kept  constantly  clipped.  Though  it  grows  on  level  ground,  it 
thrives  best  among  tangled  brakes  and  brambles,  and  hence 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  be  gathered.  It  is  never  gathered 
unless  with  the  permission  of  the  god,  by  whom  some  suppose 
Jupiter  to  be  meant;  the  ^Ethiopians,  however,  call  him 
Assabinus.42  They  offer  the  entrails  of  forty-four  oxen,  goats, 
and  rams,  when  they  implore  his  permission  to  do  so,  but  after 
all,  they  are  not  allowed  to  work  at  it  before  sunrise  or  after 
sunset.  A  priest  divides  the  branches  with  a  spear,  and  sets 
aside  one  portion  of  them  for  the  god ;  after  which,  the  dealer 
stores  away  the  rest  in  lumps.  There  is  another  account  given, 
which  states  that  a  division  is  made  between  the  gatherers  and 
the  sun,  and  that  it  is  divided  into  three  portions,  after  which 
lots  are  twice  drawn,  and  the  share  which  falls  to  the  sun  is 
left  there,  and  forthwith  ignites  spontaneously. 

The  thinnest  parts  in  the  sticks,  for  about  a  palm  in  length, 
are  looked  upon  as  producing  the  finest  cinnamon ;  the  part 
that  comes  next,  though  not  quite  so  long,  is  the  next  best, 
and  so  on  downwards.  The  worst  of  all  is  that  which  is 
nearest  the  roots,  from  the  circumstance  that  in  that  part 
there  is  the  least  bark,  the  portion  that  is  the  most  esteemed : 
hence  it  is  that  the  upper  part  of  the  tree  is  preferred,  there 
being  the  greatest  proportion  of  bark  there.  As  for  the  wood, 
it  is  held  in  no  esteem  at  all,  on  account  of  the  acrid  taste 
which  it  has,  like  that  of  wild  marjoram ;  it  is  known  as 
xylocinnamum.43  The  price  of  cinnamomum  is  ten  denarii  per 
pound.  Some  writers  make  mention  of  two  kinds  of  cinna- 
mon, the  white  and  the  black :  the  white  was  the  one  that  was 
formerly  preferred,  but  now,  on  the  contrary,  the  black  is  held 
in  the  highest  estimation,  and  the  mottled,  even,  is  preferred  to 
the  white.  The  most  certain  test,  however,  of  the  goodness  ot 
cinnamon  is  its  not  being  rough,  and  the  fact  that  the  pieces 
when  rubbed  together  do  not  readily  crumble  to  powder.  That 
which  is  soft  is  more  particularly  rejected,  which  is  the  case, 
also,  when  the  outer  bark  too  readily  falls  off. 

i2  See  c.  33  of  the  present  Book,  and  the  Note. 
43  Or  "  wood  of  cinnamon." 


140  plot's  natural  HISTOItY.  [Book.  XII. 

The  right  of  regulating  the  sale  of  the  cinnamon  belongs 
solely  to  the  king  of  the  Gebanitse,  who  opens  the  market  for  it 
by  public  proclamation.  The  price  of  it  was  formerly  as  much 
as  athousand  denarii  per  pound;  which  was  afterwards  increased 
to  half  as  much  again,  in  consequence,  it  is  said,  of  the  forests 
having  been  set  on  fire  by  the  barbarians,  from  motives  of 
resentment ;  whether  this  took  place  through  any  injustice 
exercised  by  those  in  power,  or  only  by  accident,  has  not  been 
hitherto  exactly  ascertained.  Indeed,  we  find  it  stated  by 
some  authors,  that  the  south  winds  that  prevail  in  these  parts 
are  sometimes  so  hot  as  to  set  the  forests  on  fire.  The  Em- 
peror Yespasianus  Augustus  was  the  first  to  dedicate  in  the 
temples  of  the  Capitol  and  the  goddess  Peace  chaplets  of  cin- 
namon inserted  in  embossed44  gold.  I,  myself,  once  saw  in  the 
temple  of  the  Palatium,  which  his  wife  Augusta45  dedicated  to 
her  husband  the  late  emperor  Augustus,  a  root  of  cinnamon 
of  great  weight,  placed  in  a  patera  of  gold :  from  it  drops  used 
to  distil  every  year,  which  congealed  in  hard  grains.  It  re- 
mained there  until  the  temple  was  accidentally  destroyed  by  fire. 

chap.  43. — CASSIA. 

Cassia46  is  a  shrub  also,  which  grows  not  far  from  the  plains 
where  cinnamon  is  produced,  but  in  the  mountainous  locali- 
ties ;  the  branches  of  it  are,  however,  considerably  thicker-  than 
those  of  cinnamon.  It  is  covered  with  a  thin  skin  rather  than 
a  bark,  and,  contrary  to  what  is  the  case  with  cinnamon,  it 
is  looked  upon  as  the  most  valuable  when  the  bark  falls  off 
and  crumbles  into  small  pieces.  The  shrub  is  three  cubits  in 
height,  and  the  colours  which  it  assumes  are  threefold :  when 
it  first  shoots  from  the  ground,  for  the  length  of  a  foot,  it  is 
white;  after  it  has  attained  that  height,  it  is  red  for  half  a 
foot,  and  beyond  that  it  is  black.  This  last  is  the  part  that 
is  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  next  to  it  the  portion  that 
comes  next,  the  white  part  being  the  least  valued  of  all.  They 
cut  the  ends  of  the  branches  to  the  length  of  two  fingers,  and 

44  "  Interrasili."  Gold  partly  embossed,  and  partly  left  plain,  was  thus 
called. 

45  The  Empress  Livia. 

46  There  has  been  considerable  doubt  what  plant  it  was  that  produced 
the  cassia  of  the  ancients.  Fee,  after  diligently  enquiring  into  the  subject, 
inclines  to  think  that  it  was  the  Laurus  cassia  of  Linnaeus,  the  same  tree 
tbat  produces  the  cassia  of  the  present  day. 


Chap.  43.] 


CASSIA.  141 


then  sew  them  in  the  fresh  skins  of  cattle  that  have  been 
killed  expressly  for  the  purpose ;  the  object  being  that  the 
skins  may  putrefy,  and  the  maggots  generated  thereby  may 
eat  away  the  woody  parts,  and  so  excavate47  the  bark;  which 
is  so  intensely  bitter,  that  it  is  quite  safe  from  their  attacks. 
That  which  is  the  freshest  is  the  most  highly  esteemed ;  it 
has  a  very  delicate  smell,  and  is  so  extremely  hot  to  the  taste, 
that  it  may  be  said  to  burn  the  tongue,  rather  than  gradually 
warm  the  mouth.  It  is  of  a  purple  colour,  and  though  of 
considerable  volume,  weighs  but  very  little  in  comparison  ;  the 
outer  coat  forms  into  short  tubes  which  are  by  no  means  easily 
broken  :  this  choice  kind  of  cassia,  the  barbarians  call  by  the 
name  of  lada.  There  is  another  sort,  again,  which  is  called 
balsamodes,43  because  it  has  a  smell  like  that  of  balsam,  but  it 
is  bitter ;  for  which  reason  it  is  more  employed  for  medicinal 
purposes,  just  as  the  black  cassia  is  used  for  unguents.  There 
is  no  substance  known  that  is  subject  to  greater  variations  in 
price  :  the  best  qualities  sell  at  fifty  denarii  per  pound,  others, 
again,  at  five. 

(20.)  To  these  varieties  the  dealers  have  added  another, 
which  they  call  daphnoides,49  and  give  it  the  surname  of  isocin- 
namon;60  the  price  at  which  it  sells  is  three  hundred 
denarii  per  pound.  It  is  adulterated  with  storax,  and,  in 
consequence  of  the  resemblance  of  the  bark,  with  very  small 
sprigs  of  laurel.  Cassia  is  also  planted  in  our 51  part  of  the 
world,  and,  indeed,  at  the  extreme  verge  of  the  Empire,  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Ehenus,  where  it  flourishes  when  planted 
in  the  vicinity  of  hives  of  bees.  It  has  not,  however,  that 
scorched  colour  which  is  produced  by  the  excessive  heat  of  the 
sun ;  nor  has  it,  for  the  same  reason,  a  similar  smell  to  that 
which  comes  from  the  south. 

CHAP.  44. CANCAMUM  AND  TARTJM. 

From  the  confines  of  the  country  which  produces  cinnamon 

47  There  is  little  doubt  that  all  this  is  fabulous. 

48  Or,  "smelling  like  balsam." 

49  "  Looking  like  laurel." 

50  "  Equal  to  cinnamon."  Fee  thinks  that  it  is  a  variety  of  the  Laurus 
cassia.  .  * 

31  He  probably  alludes  to  the  Daphne  Cnidium  of  Linnaeus,  which,  as 
Fee  remarks,  is  altogether  different  from  the  Laurus  cassia,  or  genuine 
cassia. 


142  pltnt's  natueal  histoey.  [Book  XII. 

and  cassia,  cancamum52  and  tarum 53  are  imported ;  but  these 
substances  are  brought  by  way  of  the  jSTabatsean  Troglodytse, 
a  colony  of  the  Nabatsei. 

CHAP.  45.  (21.) — SEEICHATUM  AND  GABALITJM. 

Thither,  too,  are  carried  serichatum54  and  gabalium,  aroma, 
tics  which  the  Arabians  rear  for  their  own  consumption,  and 
which  are  only  known  by  name  in  our  part  of  the  world, 
though  they  grow  in  the  same  country  as  cinnamon  and  cassia. 
Still,  however,  serichatum  does  reach  us  occasionally,  and  is 
employed  by  some  persons  in  the  manufacture  of  unguents.  It 
is  purchased  at  the  rate  of  six  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.  46. MYE0BALANT7M. 

In  the  country  of  the  Troglodytae,  the  Thebais,  and  the  parts 
of  Arabia  which  separate  Judaea  from  Egypt,  myrobalanum55  is 
commonly  found ;  it  is  provided  by  Nature  for  unguents,  as 
from  its  very  name  would  appear.  From  its  name,  also,  it  is 
evident  that  it  is  the  nut  of  a  tree,  with  a  leaf  similar  to  that 
of  the  heliotropium,  which  we  shall  have  to  mention  when 
speaking  of  the  herbs.  The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  about  the  size 
of  a  filbert.  The  kind  that  grows  in  Arabia  is  known  as 
Syriaca,  and  is  white,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  that  which 
grows  in  the  Thebais  is  black :  the  former  is  preferred  for  the 
quality  of  the  oil  extracted  from  it,  though  that  which  is  pro- 

52  A  gum  resin  of  some  unknown  species,  but  not  improbably,  Fee 
thinks,  the  produce  of  some  of  the  Amyrides.  Sprengel  thinks  that  it  was 
produced  from  the  Gardenia  gummifera. 

53  Aloe-wood. 

54  According  to  Poinsinet,  these  Arabic  words  derive  their  origin  from 
the  Slavonic;  the  first  signifying  a  "cordial  drug,"  or  " alexipharmic,"  and 
the  other  a  drug  "which  divides  itself  into  tablets."  It  is  impossible  to 
divine  what  drugs  are  meant  by  these  names. 

55  Signifying  the  "unguent  acorn,"  or  "nut."  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  behen  or  ben  nut  of  the  Arabians  is  meant,  of  Avhich  there  are 
several  sorts.  It  is  used  by  the  Hindoos  for  calico  printing  and  pharmacy, 
and  was  formerly  employed  in  Europe  in  the  arts,  and  for  medical  pur- 
poses. It  is  no  longer  used  as  a  perfume.  The  "  oil  of  ben  "  used  in 
commerce  is  extracted  from  the  fruit  of  the  Moringa  oleifera  of  naturalists. 
It  is  inodorous  ;  for  which  reason,  Fee  is  of  opinion  that  the  name  signifies 
"the  oily  nut,"  and  quotes  Dioscorides,  who  says,  B.  iv.,  that  an  oil  is  ex- 
tracted from  this  balanus,  which  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  unguents,  in 
place  of  other  oils.  Fee  also  says  that  at  the  present  day  it  is  used  by  per- 
fumers, to  fix  or  arrest  the  evanescent  odours  of  such  flowers  as  the  jasmine 
and  the  lily. 


Chap.  47.] 


PHXE^ICOBALANUS.  143 


duced  in  the  Thebais  yields  it  in  larger  quantities.  Among 
these  various  kinds,  that  which  is  sent  from  the  country  of  the 
Troglodyte  is  the  worst  of  all.  There  are  some  persons  who 
prefer  that  of  Ethiopia56  to  all  of  these,  the  nut  of  which  is 
black,  and  not  oleaginous  ;  it  has  only  a  very  small  kernel,  but 
the  liquid  which  is  extracted  from  it  is  more  odoriferous  than 
that  of  the  other  kinds ;  it  grows,  too,  in  a  champaign,  open 
country.  It  is  said  that  the  Egyptian  nut  is  even  more  olea- 
ginous, being  of  a  reddish  colour  with  a  thicker  shell,  and 
that  the  plant,  although  it  grows  in  wet,  marshy  spots,  is 
shorter  and  drier  than  the  other  kinds.  The  Arabian  nut, 
again,  is  said  to  be  of  a  green  colour  and  of  smaller  size,  but 
harder  and  more  compact,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  grows 
in  mountainous  districts.  The  best  of  all,  however,  is  that  of 
Petra,  which  comes  from  a  city  mentioned56*  on  a  previous 
occasion ;  it  has  a  black  shell,  but  the  kernel  is  white.  The 
perfumers,  however,  only  extract  the  juices  from  the  shells  ; 
but  medical  men  pound  the  kernels,  pouring  warm  water  on 
them,  little  by  little,  as  they  do  it. 

CHAP.  47.  (22.) PHCENICOBAIiANUS. 

The  fruit  of  the  palm  in  Egypt,  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  adipsos,57  is  put  to  a  similar  use  in  unguents,  and  is 
held  next  in  esteem  after  the  myrobalanum.  It  is  of  a  green 
colour,  has  exactly  the  smell  of  a  quince,  and  has  no  stone  or 
nut  within.  It  is  gathered  a  little  before  it  begins  to  ripen. 
That  which  is  left  ungathered  is  known  as  phoenicobalanus  ;58 
it  turns  black,  and  has  a  tendency  to  inebriate  the  person  who 
eats  of  it.  The  price  of  myrobalanum  is  two  denarii  per  pound. 
The  shop-keepers  give  this  name  also  to  the  dregs  of  the 
unguent  that  is  made  with  it. 

56  This  Ethiopian  variety  is  quite  unknown,  and  is,  as  Fee  remarks, 
most  probably  of  a  different  species  from  the  genuine  myrobalanus. 

56*  See  B.  vi.  c.  32. 

57  "  Curing  thirst."  Dioscorides,  B.  i.  c.  148,  says  that  it  was  so  called 
from  being  full  of  juice,  which  quenched  thirst  like  water. 

m  "  Palm-nut."  Fee  thinks  it  not  improbable  that  one  of  the  date- 
palms  is  meant,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  name.  He  suggests  that  possi- 
bly the  Elais  or  avoira  of 'Guinea,  the  Elais  Gumeeiisis,  which  is  found  as 
far  as  Upper  Eoypt,  and  which  produces  a  fine  oil  known  as  palm-oil,  is 
meant,  or  possiblv  the  Douma  Thebaica,  a  palm-tree  frequently  met  with 
in  Egypt.  On  fermentation,  a  vinous  drink  is  extracted  from  the  last, 
which 'is  capable  of  producing  intoxication. 


144  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XII. 

CHAP.  48. THE  SWEET-SCENTED  CALAMUS;59    THE  SAVEET- SCENTED 

RUSH. 

Scented  calamus  also,  which  grows  in  Arabia,  is  common  to 
both  India  and  Syria,  that  which  grows  in  the  last  country 
being  superior  to  all  the  rest.  At  a  distance  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  stadia  from  the  Mediterranean,  between  Mount 
Libanus  and  another  mountain  of  no  note  (and  not,  as  some 
have  supposed,  Antilibanus),  there  is  a  valley  of  moderate 
size,  situate  in  the  vicinity  of  a  lake,  the  marshy  swamps  of 
which  are  dried  up  every  summer.  At  a  distance  of  thirty 
stadia  from  this  lake  grow  the  sweet-scented  calamus  and 
rush.  We  shall  here  make  some  further  mention  of  this  rush 
as  well,  although  we  have  set  apart  another  Book  for  plants 
of  that  description,  seeing  that  it  is  our  object  here  to  de- 
scribe all  the  different  materials  used  for  unguents.  These 
plants  differ  in  appearance  in  no  respect  from  others  of  their 
kind ;  but  the  calamus,  which  has  the  more  agreeable  smell  of 
the  two,  attracts  by  its  odour  at  a  considerable  distance,  and 
is  softer  to  the  touch  than  the  other.  The  best  is  the  kind 
which  is  not  so  brittle,  but  breaks  into  long  flakes,  and  not 
short,  like  a  radish.  In  the  hollow  stalk  there  is  a  substance 
like  a  cobweb,  which  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the 
"  flower:"  those  plants  which  contain  the  most  of  it  are 
esteemed  the  best.  The  other  tests  of  its  goodness  are  its 
being  of  a  black  colour— those  which  are  white  not  being 
esteemed ;  besides  which,  to  be  of  the  very  best  quality  it 
should  be  short,  thick,  and  pliant  when  broken.  The  price  of 
the  scented  calamus  is  eleven,  and  of  the  rush  fifteen  denarii 
per  pound.  It  is  said  that  the  sweet-scented  rush  is  to  be  met 
with  also  in  Campania. 

CHAP.  49. HAMMONIACUM. 

"We  have  now  departed  from  the  lands  which  look  towards 
59  Fee  remarks,  that  this  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Calamus 
aromaticus  of  the  moderns,  of  which  Pliny  speaks  in  B.  xxv.  c.  100,  with 
sufficient  accuracy  to  enable  us  to  identify  it  with  the  Acorus  calamus  of 
Linnaeus.  It  is  not  ascertained  by  naturalists  what  plant  is  meant  by 
Pliny  in  the  present  instance,  though  Fee  is  of  opinion  that  a  gramineous 
plant  of  the  genus  Andropogon  is  meant.  M.  Guibourt  has  suggested  that 
the  Indian  Gentiana  chirayta  is  the  plant.  From  what  Pliny  says  in  B. 
xiii.  c.  21,  it  appears  that  this  calamus  grew  in  Syria,  which  is  also  the 
native  country  of  the  Andropogon  schcenanthus. 


Chap.  50.]  SPHAGNOS.  145 

the  ocean  to  enter  upon  those  which  have  an  aspect  towards 
our  seas.  (23.)  Africa,  which  lies  below  ^Ethiopia,  distils 
a  tear-like  gum  in  its  sands,  called  hammoniacum,60  the  name  of 
which  has  passed  to  the  oracle  of  Hammon,  situate  near  the  tree 
which  produces  it.  This  substance,  which  is  also  called  meto- 
pion,61  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  resin  or  a  gum.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  ammoniacum ;  that  to  which  the  name  is 
given  of  thrauston,  and  which  bears  a  resemblance  to  male 
frankincense,  being  the  kind  that  is  the  most  esteemed,  and 
that  which  is  known  as  phyrama,  being  of  an  unctuous  and 
resinous  nature.  This  substance  is  adulterated  by  means  of 
sand,  which  has  all  the  appearance  of  having  adhered  to  it 
during  its  growth:  hence  it  is  greatly  preferred  when  the 
pieces  are  extremely  small,  and  in  the  purest  state  possible. 
The  price  of  hammoniacum  of  the  best  quality  is  forty  asses 
per  pound. 

CHAP.  50. SPHAGNOS. 

Below  these  countries,  and  in  the  province  of  Cyrenaica,  the 
perfume  called  sphagnos62  is  found  in  the  highest  state  of  per- 
fection :  there  are  some  who  call  it  by  the  name  of  bryon. 
The  sphagnos  of  Cyprus  holds  the  second  rank,  and  that  of 
Phoenicia  the  third.  It  is  said  that  this  plant  is  produced  in 
Egypt  also,  and  in  Gaul  as  well,  and  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  such  is  the  fact,  for  this  name  is  given  to  certain  white 

60  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  14.  The  gum  resin  ammoniacum  is  still  imported 
into  Europe  from  Africa  and  the  East,  in  the  form  of  drops  or  cakes. 
It  is  a  mildly  stimulating  expectorant,  and  is  said  to  be  the  produce  of  the 
Dorenia  ammoniacum.  There  are  still  two  sox-ts  in  commerce :  the  first 
in  large  masses  of  a  yellow,  dirty  colour,  mingled  with  heterogeneous  sub- 
stances, and  of  a  plastic  consistency.  This  is  the  phyrama  of  Pliny,  or 
mixed  ammoniac.  The  other  is  in  tears,  of  irregular  form  and  a  whitish 
colour,  brittle  and  vitreous  when  broken.  This  is  the  thrauston,  or 
"friable"  ammoniac  of  Pliny.  Jackson  says,  that  the  plant  which  pro- 
duces it  is  common  in  Morocco,  and  is  called  feskouk,  resembling  a  large 
stalk  of  fennel  The  ammoniac  of  Morocco  is  not,  however,  imported  into 
this  country,  being  too  much  impregnated  with  sand,  in  consequence  of 
not  being  gathered  till  it  falls  to  the  ground. 

61  Solinus  tells  us,  that  the  tree  itself  is  called  Metops. 

62  It  is  clear  that,  under  this  name,  certain  lichens  of  a  hairy  or  fila- 
mentary nature  are  meant.  They  adhere,  Dioscorides  tells  us,  to  the 
cedar,  the  white  poplar,  and  the  oak.  The  white  ones  belong,  probably, 
to  the  Usnea  fiorida  of  Linnaeus,  the  red  ones  to  the  Usnea  barbata,  and 
the  black  ones  to  the  Alectoria  jubata,  an  almost  inodorous  lichen. 

VOL.    III.  L 


146  pliny's  natueal  histoet.  [Book  XII. 

shaggy  tufts  upon  trees,  such  as  we  often  see  upon  the  quercus  : 
those,  however,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  emit  a  most  ex- 
quisite odour.  The  most  esteemed  of  all  are  the  whitest,  and 
those  situate  at  the  greatest  height  upon  the  tree.  Those  of 
second  quality  are  red,  while  those  which  are  hlack  are  not  of 
the  slightest  value.  The  sphagnos,  too,  that  is  produced  on 
islands  and  among  rocks,63  is  held  in  no  esteem,  as  well  as  all 
those  varieties  which  have  the  odour  of  the  palm-tree,  and  not 
that  which  is  so  peculiarly  their  own. 

CHAP.  51. CYPEOS. 

The  Cyprus64  is  a  tree  of  Egypt,  with  the  leaves  of  the  zizi- 
phus,65  and  seeds  like  coriander,66  white  and  odoriferous. 
These  seeds  are  boiled  in  olive  oil,  and  then  subjected  to 
pressure ;  the  product  is  known  to  us  as  cypros.  The  price  of 
it  is  five  denarii  per  pound.  The  best  is  that  produced  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  near  Canopus,  that  of  second  quality  coming 
from  Ascalon  in  Judaea,  and  the  third  in  estimation  for  the 
sweetness  of  its  odour,  from  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Some  people 
will  have  it  that  this  is  the  same  as  the  tree  which  in  Italy  we 
call  ligustrum.67 

CHAP.   52. ASPALATHOS,    OE    EEYSISCEPTETJM. 

In  the  same  country,68  too,  grows  aspalathos,69  a  white, 
thorny  shrub,  the  size  of  a  moderate  tree,  and  with  flowers 
like  the  rose,  the  root  of  which  is  in  great  request  for  un- 
guents. It  is  said  that  every  shrub  over  which  the  rainbow 
is  extended  is  possessed  of  the  sweet  odour  that  belongs  to 
the  aspalathos,  but  that  if  the  aspalathos  is  one  of  them,  its 

63  Probably  tbe  Roccella  tinctoria  of  Linnaeus,  a  lichen  most  commonly- 
found  upon  rocks. 

64  The  henue,  the  Lawsonia  inermis  of  the  modern  naturalists,  a  shrub 
found  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Barbary.  From  this  tree  the  henna  is  made 
with  which  the  women  of  the  East  stain  the  skin  of  their  hands  and  feet. 

65  The  jujube-tree.     See  B.  xv.  c.  14. 

66  See  B.  xx.  c.  82. 

67  Or  privet. 

^  But  in  B.  xxiv.  c.  68,  he  says  that  this  plant  grows  in  the  island  of 
Rhodes. 

69  According  to  Fee,  this  is  the  same  as  the  Lignum  Rhodianum,  or 
wood  of  Rhodes,  of  commerce,  sometimes  also  called,  but  incorrectly,  wood 
of  roses.  It  is,  probably,  the  same  as  the  Convolvulus  scoparius  of  Lin- 
naeus. 


Chap.  54.]  BALSAIITTM.  147 

scent  is  something  quite  indescribable.  Some  persons  call  this 
plant  erysisceptruni,70  and  others,  again,  sceptrum.  The  proof 
of  its  genuineness  is  its  red  or  fiery  colour ;  it  is  also  compact 
to  the  touch,  and  has  the  smell  of  castoreum : 71  it  is  sold  at 
the  rate  of  five  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.  53. — MASON. 

In  Egypt,  too,  grows  marum,72  though  of  inferior  quality 
to  that  of  Lydia,  which  last  has  larger  leaves,  covered  with 
spots.  Those  of  the  other  are  shorter  and  smaller,  and  give 
out  a  powerful  scent. 

ceap.  54.  (25.) — balsamum;  opobalsamttm  ;  and  xylobal-' 

SAMTJM. 

But  to  all  other  odours  that  of  balsamum73  is  considered' 
preferable,  a  plant  that  has  been  only  bestowed  by  Nature 
upon  the  land  of  Judaea.  In  former  times  it  was  cultivated  in 
two  gardens  only,  both  of  which  belonged  to  the  kings  of  that 
country :  one  of  them  was  no  more  than  twenty  jugera  in 
extent,  and  the  other  somewhat  smaller.  The  emperors  Ves- 
pasianus  and  Titus  had  this  shrub  exhibited  at  Borne ;  indeed, 
it  is  worthy  of  signal  remark,  that  since  the  time  of  Pompeius 
Magnus,  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  carrying  trees  even  in 
our  triumphal  processions.  At  the  present  day  this  tree  pays 
us  homage  and  tribute  along  with  its  native  land,  but  it  has 
been  found  to  be  of  altogether  a  different  nature  to  that  which 

70  Or  "red  sceptre,"  probably  so  called  from  the  flowers  clustering  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  branches. 

71  A  liquid  matter  extracted  from  the  beaver. 

72  Generally  regarded  as  identical  with  the  Teucrium  Marum  of  Linnaeus, 
a  sweet-smelling  shrub  found  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  the  East,  by  us 
commonly  known  as  "herb  mastich,"  somewhat  similar  to  marjoram. 
Fee  says  that  the  marum  of  Egypt  is  a  kind  of  sage,  the  Salvia  iEthiopis 
of  Linnaeus. 

73  Balsam  (or  balm  of  Mecca,  as  it  is  sometimes  called)  is  the  produce 
of  two  trees,  probably  varieties  of  one  another,  of  the  terebinth  family, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Amyris.  So  far  from  being  a  native  solely  of 
Judaea,  liruce  assures  us  that  its  original  country  was  that  which  produces 
myrrh,  in  the  vicinity  of  Babelmandel,  and  that  the  inhabitants  use  the 
wood  solely  for  fuel.  In  Judaea  it  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  solely 
in  gardens ;  and  it  was  this  tree  which  produced  the  famous  balm  of  Gilead 
of  Scripture.  The  balsam 'trees  known  to  us  do  not  at  all  correspond  with 
Pliny's  description,  as  they  do  not  resemble  either  the  vine  or  myrtle,  nor 
are  their  leaves  at  all  like  those  of  rue. 


148  pliny's  natubal  history.  [BookXIL 

our  own  as  well  as  foreign  writers  had  attributed  to  it :  for,  in 
fact,  it  bears  a  much  stronger  resemblance  to  the  vine  than  to 
the  myrtle.  This  recent  acquisition  by  conquest  has  learned, 
like  the  vine,  to  be  reproduced  by  mallet74-shoots^  and  it 
covers  declivities  just  like  the  vine,  which  supports  its  own 
weight  without  the  aid  of  stays.  When  it  puts  forth  branches 
it  is  pruned  in  a  similar  manner,  and  it  thrives  by  being  well 
raked  at  the  roots,  growing  with  remarkable  rapidity,  and 
bearing  fruit  at  the  end  of  three  years.  The  leaf  bears  a  very 
considerable  resemblance  to  that  of  rue,  and  it  is  an  ever- 
green. The  Jews  vented  their  rage  upon  this  shrub  just  as 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  doing  against  their  own  lives  and 
persons,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Komans  protected  it :  in- 
deed, combats  have  taken  place  before  now  in  defence  of  a  shrub. 
At  the  present  day  the  reproduction  of  it  has  become  a  duty 
of  the  fiscal  authorities,  and  the  plants  were  never  known  to 
be  more  numerous  or  of  larger  growth ;  they  never  exceed  the 
height,  however,  of  a  couple  of  cubits. 

There  are  three  different  kinds  of  balsamum.  The  first  has 
a  thin  and  hair-like  foliage,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of 
eutheriston.7'  The  second  is  of  a  rugged  appearance,  bending 
downwards,  full  of  branches,  and  more  odoriferous  than  the 
first;  the  name  of  this  is  trachy.  The  third  kind  is  the 
eumeces,  so  called,  because  it  is  taller  than  the  others  ;  it  has 
a  smooth,  even,  bark.  It  is  the  second  in  quality,  the  euthe- 
riston  being  inferior  to  the  trachy.  The  seed  of  this  plant 
has  a  flavour  strongly  resembling  that  of  wine  ;  it  is  of  a 
reddish  colour,  and  not  without  a  certain  amount  of  unctuous- 
ness ;  the  grains  of  inferior  quality  are  lighter  in  weight  and 
of  a  greener  hue :  the  branches  of  the  shrub  are  thicker  than 
those  of  the  myrtle.  Incisions  are  made  in  it  either  with 
glass,  or  else  a  sharp  stone,  or  knives  made  of  bone  :  it  being 
highly  injurious  to  touch  the  vital  parts  with  iron,  for  in  such 
case  it  will  immediately  wither  away  and  die.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  will  allow  of  all  the  superfluous  branches  being  pruned 
away  with   an  instrument  of  iron  even.     The  hand  of  the 

«  "  Malleolis."  So  called  when  the  new  shoot  of  the  tree  springing  from 
a  branch  of  the  former  year,  is  cut  off  for  the  sake  of  planting,  with  a  hit 
of  the  old  wood  on  each  side  of  it,  in  the  form  of  a  mallet. 

«  h  Easily  cut."  This  and  the  other  kinds,  the  names  of  which  mean 
"rough  barked,"  and  "good  length,"  are  probably  only  varieties  of  the 
same  tree,  in  different  states. 


Chap.  51.]  BA.LSAMTJM.  149 

person  who  makes  the  incision  is  generally  balanced  by  an 
artificial  guide,  in  order  that  he  may  not  accidentally  inflict  a 
wound  in  the  wood  beyond  the  bark. 

A  juice  distils  from  the  wound,  which  is  known  to  us 
as  opobalsamum  ;  it  is  of  extraordinary  sweetness,70  but  only 
exudes  in  tiny  drops,  which  are  then  collected  in  wool,  and 
deposited  in  small  horns.  When  taken  from  out  of  these,  the 
substance  is  placed  in  new  earthen  vessels  ;  it  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  a  thick  oil,  and  is  of  a  white  colour  when  fresh. 
It  soon,  however,  turns  red,  and  as  it  hardens  loses  its  trans- 
parency. When  Alexander  the  Great  waged  war  in  those 
parts,  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  fair  summer  day's  work  to  fill  a 
single  concha77  with  this  liquid ;  the  entire  produce  of  the 
larger  garden  being  six  congii,  and  of  the  smaller  one  a  single 
congius;  the  price,  too,  at  which  it  was  sold  was  double  its 
weight  in  silver.  At  the  present  day  the  produce  of  a  single 
tree,  even,  is  larger ;  the  incisions  are  made  three  times  every 
summer,  after  which  the  tree  is  pruned. 

The  cuttings,  too,  form  an  article  of  merchandize  :  the  fifth 
year  after  the  conquest  of  Judaea,  these  cuttings,  with  the 
suckers,  were  sold  for  the  price  of  eight  hundred  thousand 
sesterces.  These  cuttings  are  called  xylobalsamum,78  and  are 
boiled  down  for  mixing  with  unguents,  and  in  the  manufac- 
tories have  been  substituted  for  the  juices  of  the  shrub.  The 
bark  is  also  in  great  request  for  medicinal  purposes,  but  it  is 
the  tears  that  are  so  particularly  valuable ;  the  seed  holding 

76  This  is  said,  probably,  in  allusion  to  the  smell,  and  not  the  taste. 
Fee  remarks,  that  Pliny  speaks  with  a  considerable  degree  of  exaggeration, 
as  its  odour  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  several  balsams  which  contain  ben- 
zoic acid.  The  balsam  obtained  by  incision,  as  mentioned  by  Pliny,  is  not 
brought  to  Europe,  but  only  that  obtained  by  the  process  of  decoction ; 
which  is  known  as  "balm  of  Mecca,"  or  of  Judsea.  It  is. difficult  to  believe, 
according  to  Fee,  that  it  was  adulterated  with  the  substances  here  men- 
tioned by  Pliny ;  oil  of  roses  having  been  always  a  very  precious  com- 
modity, wax  being  likely  to  change  its  nature  entirely,  and  gums  not  being 
of  a  nature  to  combine  with  it.  Its  asserted  effects  upon  milk  he  states  to 
be  entirely  fabulous ;  the  statement  is  derived  from  Dioscorides. 

77  The  concha,  or  u  shell,"  was  a  Greek  and  Roman  liquid  measure,  of 
which  there  were  two  sizes.  The  smaller  was  half  a  cyathns,  .0412  of  an 
English  pint ;  the  larger  was  about  three  times  the  size  of  the  former,  and 
was  known  also  as  the  oxybaphum. 

-8  Qr  «  Wood  of  balsam."  It  is  still  known  in  European  commerce  by 
its  ancient  name.     The  fruit  is  called  Carpobalsamum. 


150  plint's  natukal  history.  [Book  XII. 

the  second  rank  in  estimation,  the  bark  the  third,  and  the 
wood  being  the  least  esteemed  of  all.  Of  the  wood,  that  kind 
which  resembles  boxwood  is  considered  the  best :  it  has  also 
the  strongest  smell.  The  best  seed  is  that  which  is  the  largest 
in  size  and  the  heaviest  in  weight ;  it  has  a  biting  or  rather 
burning  taste  in  the  mouth.  Balsamum  is  adulterated  with 
hypericin78'  from  Petra,  but  the  fraud  is  easily  detected,  from 
the  fact  that  the  grains  of  the  latter  are  larger,  comparatively 
empty,  and  longer  than  those  of  balsamum  ;  they  are  destitute 
also  of  any  pungency  of  smell,  and  have  a  flavour  like  that 

of  pepper.  . 

As  to  the  tears  of  balsamum,  the  test  of  their  goodness  is 
their  being  unctuous  to  the  touch,  small,  of  a  somewhat  reddish 
colour,  and  odoriferous  when  subjected  to  friction.     That  of 
second-rate  quality  is  white  ;  the  green  and  coarse  is  inferior, 
and  the  black  is  the  worst  of  all ;  for,  like  olive-oil,  it  is  apt 
to  turn  rancid  when  old.     Of  all  the  incisions,  the  produce  is 
considered  the  best  of  those  from  which  the  liquid  has  flowed 
before  the  formation  of  the  seed.     In  addition   to  what  has 
been  already  stated,  it  is  often  adulterated  with  the  juice  of 
the  seed,  and  it  is  with  considerable  difficulty  that  the  fraud  is 
detected  by  a  slight  bitterness  in  the  taste,  which  ought  to  be 
delicate  and  without  the  slightest  mixture  of  acidity,  the  only 
pungency  being  that  of  the  smell.     It  is  adulterated  also  with 
oil  of  roses,  of  Cyprus,  of  mastich,  of  balanus,  of  turpentine, 
and  of  myrtle,  as  also  with  resin,  galbanum,  and  Cyprian  wax, 
just  as  occasion  may  serve.     But  the  very  worst  adulteration 
of  all,  is  that  which  is  effected  with  gum,  a  substance  which 
is  dry  when  emptied  into  the  hand,  and  falls  to  the  bottom 
when  placed  in  water ;  both  of  which  are  characteristics  of  the 
genuine  commodity.     Balsamum,  in  a  genuine  state,  should  be 
quite  hard,  but  when  it  is  mixed  with  gum  a  brittle  pellicle 
forms  upon  it.     The  fraud  can  also  be  detected  by  the  taste, 
aud  when  placed  upon  hot  coals  it  may  easily  be  seen  if  there 
has  been  any  adulteration  with  wax  and  resin ;  the  flame  too,  m 
this  case,  burns  with  a  blacker  smoke  than  when  the  balsamum 
is  pure      "When  mixed  with  honey  its  qualities   are  imme- 
diately changed,  for  it  will  attract  flies  even  in  the  hand.     In 
addition  to  these  various  tests,  a  drop  of  pure  balsamum,  if 
placed  in  luke-warm  water  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the 
78*  See  13.  xxvi.  cc.  53,  54. 


Chap  55.] 


STOEAI.  151 


vessel,  whereas,  if  it  is  adulterated,  it  will  float  upon  the  sur- 
face like  oil,  and  if  it  has  been  drugged  with  _  metopion  or 
hammoniacum,  a  white  circle  will  form  around  it.  But  the 
best  test  of  all  is,  that  it  will  cause  milk  to  curdle,  and  leave 
no  stain  upon  cloth.  In  no  commodity  are  there  practised 
more  palpable  frauds  than  in  this,  for  a  sextarius  of  balsamum 
which  is  sold  by  the  fiscal  authorities  at  three  hundred  denarii, 
is  sold  again  for  a  thousand,  so  vast  is  the  profit  to  be  derived 
from  increasing  this  liquid  by  sophistication.  The  price  of 
xylobalsamum  is  six  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.    55. — STOBAX. 

That  part  of  Syria  joining  up  to  Judaea,  and  lying  above 
Phoenicia,  produces  storax,  which  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Gabala  and  Marathus,79  as  also  of  Casius,  a  mountain  of  Se- 
leucia.  The  tree80  bears  the  same  name,  and  has  a  strong 
resemblance  to,  the  quince.  The  tear  has  a  harsh  taste,  with  a 
pleasant  smell ;  in  the  interior  it  has  all  the  appearance  of  a  reed, 
and  is  filled  with  a  liquid  juice.  About  the  rising  of  the  Dog- 
star,  certain  small  winged  worms  hover  about  this  substance 
and  eat  it  away,  for  which  reason  it  is  often  found  in  a  rotten 
state,  with  worm-holes  full  of  dust.  The  storax  next  in  esti- 
mation after  that  already  mentioned,  comes  from  Pisidia, 
Sidon,  Cyprus,  and  Cilicia ;  that  of  Crete  being  considered  the 
very  worst  of  all.  That  which  comes  from  Mount  Amanus, 
in  Syria,  is  highly  esteemed  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  even 
more  so  by  the  perfumers.  From  whatever  country  it  comes, 
that  which  is  of  a  red  colour  is  preferred,  and  it  should  be 
both  unctuous  as  well  as  viscous  to  the  touch  ;  the  worst  kind 
is  that  which  crumbles  like  bran,  and  is  covered  all  over  with 
a  whitish  mould.  This  substance  is  adulterated  with  the  resin 
of  cedar  or  with  gum,  and  sometimes  with  honey  or  bitter  al- 

79  These  localities  are  mentioned  in  B.  v. 

fe0  The  Storax  officinalis  of  Linnaeus,  a  tree  found  in  the  south  of 
Europe  and  the  Levant.  The  variety  found  in  France,  and  known  as  the 
Aliboufier,  produces  no  storax,  or  at  least  a  very  small  proportion.  The 
storax  of  commerce  appears  in  three  states — grain  storax,  with  which  Plmy 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  acquainted ;  amygdalite,  which  is  perhaps 
the  sort  which  he  speaks  of  as  adulterated  with  bitter  almonds;  and  lump 
storax,  of  reddish  brown  colour,  which  is  frequently  mixed  with  wood  dust, 
or  worm  dust,  as  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and  is  but  little  esteemed.  The  tree 
is  also  called  Liquidanibar  styraciflua. 


152  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

monds ;  all  which  sophistications  may,  however,  be  detected  by 
the  taste.  The  price  of  storax  of  the  best  quality  is  seventeen 
denarii  per  pound.  It  conies  also  from  Pamphylia,  but  this 
last  is  more  arid,  and  not  so  full  of  juice. 

CHAP.   56. GALBANUli. 

Syria  produces  galbanum  too,  which  grows  upon  the  same 
mountain  of  Amanus  :  it  exudes  from  a  kind  of  giant-fennel81 
of  the  same  name  as  the  resin,  though  sometimes  it  is  known 
as  stagonitis.  The  kind  that  is  the  most  esteemed  is  cartila- 
ginous, clear  like  hammoniacum,  and  free  from  all  ligneous 
substances.  Still,  however,  it  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
beans,  or  with  sacopenium. 82  If  ignited  in  a  pure  state,  it 
has  the  property  of  driving  away  serpents83  by  its  smoke.  It 
is  sold  at  five  denarii  per  pound,  and  is  only  employed  for 
medicinal  purposes. 

CHAP.  57.   (26.) PANAX. 

Syria,  too,  furnishes  panax,84  an  ingredient  used  in  unguents. 
This  plant  grows  also  at  Psophis  in  Arcadia,  about  the  sources 
of  the  Erymanthus,  in  Africa  also,  and  in  Macedonia.  This  is 
a  peculiar  kind  of  giant-fennel,  which  stands  live  cubits  in 
height :  it  first  throws  out  four  leaves,  and  then  six,  which  lie 
close  to  the  ground,  round,  and  of  very  considerable  size  ;  those, 
however,  which  grow  towards  the  top  resemble  the  leaves  of 
the  olive.  It  bears  its  seed  in  certain  tufts,  which  hang  down, 
just   as  in  the  fennel.     The  juice   is  obtained  by  incisions 

81  A  shrub  of  the  family  of  Ombelliferee,  belonging  to  the  genus  bubon. 
It  is  a  native  of  Asia  Minor  and  Syria. 

82  See  B.  xix.  c.  52,  and  B.  xx.  c.  75. 

83  This  was  a  common  notion  with  the  Romans.  Virgil,  Georg.  B.  iii. 
1.  415,  says  : — 

"Galbaneoque  agitare  graves  nidore  chelydros.'' 
Though  considered  to  produce  a  pleasant  perfume  by  the  ancients,  it  is  no 
longer  held  in  estimation  for  that  quality,  and  is  only  employed  in  some 
slight  degree  for  medical  purposes. 

84  The  produce  of  the  Pastinaca  opopanax  of  Linnaeus,  or  the  Panax 
Copticum  of  Bauhin,  an  umbelliferous  plant  which  abounds  in  the  East, 
and  is  not  uncommon  in  the  south  of  France.  The  gum  called  Opopanax 
was  formerly  used,  and  its  supposed  virtues  are  indicated  by  its  name, 
which  signifies  "  the  juice  which  is  the  universal  remedy." 


Chap.  60.]  OMPHACIUM.  3  53 

made  in  the  stalk  at  harvest-time,  and  in  the  root  in  autumn. 
When  in  a  coagulated  state,  it  is  esteemed  according  to  its 
whiteness.  The  next  in  value  is  that  of  a  pallid  colour,  while 
the  black  is  held  in  no  esteem.  The  price  of  that  of  the  best 
quality  is  two  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.   58. SPONDYLIUM. 

The  difference  between  this  kind  of  giant- fennel  and  that 
known  as  spondylium,86  consists  only  in  the  leaf,  which  is 
smaller,  and  divided  like  that  of  the  plane-tree.  It  grows  in 
shady  places  only.  The  seed  bears  the  same  name  as  the  plant, 
and  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  hart- wort :  it  is  only 
employed  in  medicine. 

CHAP.  59. MALOBATHRTJM. 

Syria  produces  the  malobathrum86  also,  a  tree  which  bears  a 
folded  leaf,  with  just  the  colour  of  a  leaf  when  dried.  From 
this  plant  an  oil  is  extracted  for  unguents.  Egypt  produces  it 
in  still  greater  abundance  ;  but  that  which  is  the  most  esteemed 
of  all  comes  from  India,  where  it  is  said  to  grow  in  the  marshes 
like  the  lentil.  It  has  a  more  powerful  odour  than  saffron, 
and  has  a  black,  rough  appearance,  with  a  sort  of  brackish 
taste.  The  white  is  the  least  approved  of  all,  and  it  very  soon 
turns  musty  when  old.  In  taste  it  ought  to  be  similar  to 
nard,  when  placed  under  the  tongue.  "When  made  hike-warm 
in  wine,  the  odour  which  it  emits  is  superior  to  any  other. 
The  prices  at  which  this  drug  ranges  are  something  quite 
marvellous,  being  from  one  denarius  to  four  hundred  per  pound ; 
as  for  the  leaf^  it  generally  sells  at  sixty  denarii  per  pound. 

chap.  60.  (27.) — OMPHACIUM. 

Omphacium87  is  also  a  kind  of  oil,  which  is  obtained  from 

85  The  umbelliferous  plant  known  as  the  Heracleum  spondylium  of  Lin- 
naeus. It  is  commonly  found  in  France,  where  it  is  called  Berce-branc- 
ursine.  It  received  its  name  from  the  resemblance  of  its  smell  to  that  of 
the  sphondyle,  a  fetid  kind  of  wood-beetle. 

86  Some  suppose  this  tree  to  be  the  Lauras  cassia  of  Linnaeus,  or  wild 
cinnamon ;  others  take  it  for  the  betel,  the  Piper  betel  of  Linnaeus.  Clu- 
sius  thinks  that  the  name  -is  derived  from  the  Indian  Tamalpatra,  the  name 
given  from  time  immemorial  to  the  leaf  of  a  tree  known  by  the  Arabs  as 
the  Cadegi-indi,  possibly  the  same  as  the  Katou-carua  of  the  Malabars. 

87  From  the  Greek  bn<pdiciov,  being  made  of  unripe  grapes.     As  Fee 


154  PLINY'S   NATTTEAL   HI8T0EY.  [Book  XII. 

two  trees,  the  olive  and  the  vine,  by  two  different  methods. 
It  is  produced  from  the  former  by  pressing  the  olive  while  it 
is  still  in  the  white  state.  That  is  of  an  inferior  quality  which 
is  made  from  the  druppa — such  being  the  name  that  is  given 
to  the  olive  before  it  is  ripe  and  fit  for  food,  but  already 
beginning  to  change  its  colour.  The  difference  between  them 
is,  that  the  latter  kind  is  green,  the  former  white.  The  om- 
phacium  that  is  made  from  the  vine  is  extracted  from  either 
the  psythian88  or  the  Aminean  grape,  when  the  grapes  are 
about  the  size  of  a  chick-pea,  just  before  the  rising  of  the  Dog- 
star.  The  grape  is  gathered  when  the  first  bloom  is  appearing 
upon  it,  and  the  verjuice  is  extracted,  after  which  the  residue89 
is  left  to  dry  in  the  sun,  due  precautions  being  taken  against 
the  dews  of  the  night.  The  verjuice,  after  being  collected,  is 
put  into  earthen  vessels,  and  then,  after  that,  stored  in  jars 
of  Cyprian  copper.90  The  best  kind  is  that  which  is  of  a 
reddish  colour,  acrid,  and  dry  to  the  taste.  The  price  at 
which  it  sells  is  six  denarii  per  pound.  Omphacium  is  also 
made  another  way — the  unripe  grape  is  pounded  in  a  mortar, 
after  which  it  is  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  divided  into 
lozenges. 

CHAP.  61.  (28.) BEYON,  (ENANTHE^  AND  MASSAEIS. 

Bryon91  also  bears  an  affinity  to  these  substances,  being  the 
clusters  of  berries  produced  by  the  white  poplar.  The  best 
kinds  grow  in  the  vicinity  of  Cnidos,  or  in  Caria,  in  spots  that 
are  destitute  of  water,  or  else  in  dry  and  rugged  localities.     A 

remarks,  that  made  from  the  olive  is  correctly  described  as  a  kind  of  oil, 
but  that  made  from  the  grape  must  have  been  a  rob,  or  pure  verjuice. 
These  two  liquids  must  have  had  totally  different  qualities,  and  resembled 
each  other  in  nothing  but  the  name.  That  extracted  from  the  olive  is 
mentioned  again  in  B.  xxiii.  c.  4,  in  reference  to  its  medicinal  properties. 

88  These  grapes  are  described  in  B.  xiv.  c.  4  and  c.  11. 

*9  "  Eeliquum  corpus."  It  is  not  clear  what  is  the  meaning  of  this. 
Tbe  passage  is  either  in  a  corrupt  state,  or  defective. 

90  A  singular  metal,  one  would  think,  for  keeping  verjuice  in. 

91  From  the  Greek  /3puov,  "  moss."  He  speaks  again  of  these  .grapes 
of  the  white  poplar  in  B.  xxiv.  c.  34  ;  also  in  c.  51  of  the  present  Book. 
Hardouin  thinks  that  he  is  speaking  of  moss.  Fee  is  of  opinion,  that  the 
blossoms  or  buds  of  the  tree  are  meant,  which  have  a  fragrant  smell.  This 
is  the  more  probable,  as  we  find  Pliny  here  speaking  of  the  oenanthe,  or  vine- 
flower,  by  which  Fee  supposes  that  he  means  the  blossom  of  the  Yitis 
vinifera  of  Linnaeus,  which  exhales  a  delightful  perfume. 


Chap.  63.] 


CINNAMON   OE   COMA  CUM.  155 


bryon  of  second-rate  quality  is  produced  from  the  cedar  of 
Lycia.92  (Enanthe,  too,  bears  an  affinity  to  these  substances, 
being  the  clusters  of  the  wild  vine  :  it  is  gathered  when  it  is 
in  flower,  or,  in  ether  words,  when  it  has  the  finest  smell : 
after  which  it  is  dried  in  the  shade  upon  a  linen  sheet  spread 
beneath  it,  and  then  stored  away  in  casks.  The  best  sort  is 
that  which  comes  from  Parapotamia ; "  the  next  best  kinds  are 
those  made  at  Antiochia  and  Laodicea  in  Syria ;  and  that  of 
third-rate  quality,  comes  from  the  mountainous  parts  of  Media  ; 
this  last,  however,  is  preferable  for  medicinal  purposes.  #  Some 
persons  give  the  preference  over  all  to  that  grown  in  the 
island  of  Cyprus.  As  to  that  which  comes  from  Africa,  it 
is  solely  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  being  known  by  the 
name  of  massaris.94  Whatever  country  it  may  happen  to  be, 
the  white  wild  vine  produces  an  cenanthe  of  superior  quality 
to  the  black. 

CHAP.  62. — ELATE  OE  SPATHE. 

There  is  another  tree95  also,  that  contributes  to  the  manu- 
facture of  unguents,  by  some  persons  known  under  the  name 
of  elate,  but  which  we  call  abies  ;  others  again  call  it  a  palm, 
and  others  give  it  the  name  of  spathe.  That  of  Hammonium 
is  the  most  esteemed,  and  that  of  Egypt  next,  after  which 
comes  the  Syrian  tree.  It  is  only  odoriferous,  however,  in 
places  that  are  destitute  of  water.  The  tears  of  it  are  of  an 
unctuous  nature,  and  are  employed  as  an  ingredient  in  un- 
guents, to  modify  the  harshness  of  the  oil. 

CHAP.  63. — CINNAMON  OE  COMACFM. 

In  Syria,  too,  is  produced  that  kind  of  cinnamon  which  is  also 
known  as  comacum.96     This  is  a  juice  which  is  extracted  from 

92  The  bud,  probably,  of  the  Juniperus  Lycia. 

»3  See  B.  vi.  c.  31.  .  A       a -a 

94  Said  to  have  been  a  surname  given  by  some  nations  to  the  god  Bac- 
chus. ..  , 

95  It  is  generally  supposed  by  the  commentators,  that  Pliny  mates  a 
mistake  here,  and  that  the  elate  or  spathe  was  not  a  tree,  but  the  envelope 
or  capsule,  containing  thjB  flowers  and  fruit  of  a  tree,  which  is  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  really  the  Phoenix  dactylifera,  or  date-palm,  lnere 
can  be  little  doubt  that  he  is  mistaken  in  his  mention  of  the  abies  or  fcr- 
tree  here.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  53. 

96  Bauhin  thinks  that  this  juice  or  oil  was  extracted  from  the  nutmeg, 


156  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XII. 

a  nut,  and  very  different  from  the  extract  of  the  real  cinna- 
niomum,  though  it  somewhat  resembles  it  in  its  agreeable  smell. 
The  price  at  which  it  sells  is  forty  asses  per  pound. 

Summaey. — Remarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
nine  hundred  and  seventy-four. 

Eoman  authors  quoted.— M.  Yarro,1  Mucianus,2  Virgil,8 
Fabianus,4  Sebosus,5  Pomponius  Mela,6  Flavius,7  Procilius,8 
Hyginus,9  Trogus,10  Claudius  Csesar,11  Cornelius  Nepos,12  Sex- 
tus  Niger13  who  wrote  a  Greek  treatise  on  Medicine,  Cassius 
Hemina,14  L.  Piso,15  Tuditanus,18  Antias.17 

Foeeign  authoes  quoted. — Theophrastus,18  Herodotus,19  Cal- 

the  Myristica  moschata  of  Thunberg,  and  Bonastre  is  of  the  same  opinion. 
But,  as  Fee  observes,  the  nutmeg  is  a  native  of  India,  and  Pliny  speaks  of 
the  Comacum  as  coming  from  Syria.  Some  authors,  he  adds,  who  are  of 
this  opinion,  think  also  that  the  other  cinnamomum  mentioned  by  Pliny 
was  no  other  than  the  nutmeg,  which  they  take  to  be  the  same  as  the 
chrysobalanos,  or  "golden  nut,"  of  Galen. 

1  See  end  of  B.  ii.  2  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

3  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

4  Fabianus  Papirius  :  see  end  of  B.  ii. 

5  See  end  of  B.  ii.  6  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

7  The  son  of  a  freedman ;  some  further  particulars  are  given  of  him  by 
Pliny  in  B.  xxxiii.  c.  1.  By  his  talents  and  eloquence,  he  attained  con- 
siderable distinction  at  Rome.  He  was  made  a  senator  by  Appius  Claudius, 
and  was  curule  aedile  b.c.  303.  He  published  a  collection  of  legal  rules, 
entitled  the  "  Jus  Flavianum." 

8  See  end  of  B.  viii.  9  See  end  of  B.  iii. 
10  See  end  of  B.  vii.                        n  See  end  of  B.  v. 

12  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

13  Probably  the  same  as  the  Niger  mentioned  by  Dioscorides  as  a  writer 
on  Materia  Medica.  He  is  also  mentioned  by  Epiphanius  and  Galen ;  but 
Dioscorides  charges  him  with  numerous  blunders  in  his  accounts  of  vege- 
table productions. 

14  A  compiler  of  Roman  history,  who  wrote  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  before  Christ.  He  wrote  Annals  of  Rome  from  the  earliest 
to  his  own  times  :  only  a  few  fragments  of  his  work  have  survived. 

15  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

16  C.  Sempronius  Tuditanus,  consul  of  Rome,  b.c  129.  He  wrote  a 
book  of  historical  Commentaries.  He  was  maternal  grandfather  of  the 
orator  Hortensius. 

17  See  end  of  B.  ii.  18  See  end  of  B.  iii. 
"  See  end  of  B.  ii. 


STJMMAET.  1  b7 

listhenes,20  Isigonus,21  Clitarchns,22  Anaximenes,23  Duris,24 
Nearchus,25  Onesicritus,26  Polycritus,27  Olympiodorus,36  Diog- 
netus,29  Nicobulus,30  Anticlides,31  Chares32  of  Mitylene,  Men- 
sechmus,33  Dorotheus34  of  Athens,  Lycus,35  Anta3us,36  Ephippus,37 
Dion,38  Demodes,39  Ptolemy  Lagus,40  Marsyas41  of  Macedon, 

20  A  native  of  Olynthus.  His  mother,  Hero,  was  a  cousin  of  the  philo- 
sopher Aristotle,  under  whose  tutelage  he  was  educated.  It  is  generally 
supposed  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  order  of  Alexander  the  Great,  hut  in 
what  manner  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  He  wrote  a  History  of  Greece, 
and  numerous  other  learned  works.  Some  MSS.  are  still  extant,  profess- 
ing to  be  his  writings ;  but  they  are  generally  looked  upon  as  spurious. 

21  See  end  of  B.  vii.  22  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

23  A  native  of  Lampsacus,  and  disciple  of  Diogenes  the  Cynic.  He  ac- 
companied Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  expedition.  He  wrote  a 
history  of  the  reigns  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  a  history  of  Greece,  in 
twelve  books.     Only  a  few  fragments  of  his  works  are  left. 

24  See  end  of  B.  vii.  25  See  end  of  B.  vi. 

26  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

27  There  was  a  native  of  Mendae.  in  Sicily,  of  this  name,  who  wrote  a 
history  of  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse.  It  was,  probably,  a  different 
person  of  this  name  who  wrote  a  work  on  the  East ;  if  such  is  the  case, 
Pliny  most  probably  quotes  from  the  work  of  the  latter. 

28  Nothing  seems  to  be  known  of  this  writer  ;  but  it  is  suggested  that 
he  may  have  accompanied  Nearchus  and  Onesicritus  in  the  East. 

g9  See  end  of  B.  vi. 

30  Nothing  is  known  of  him :  but  Hardouin  suggests  that  he  may  have 
accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Eastern  expedition. 

31  See  end  of  B.  iv. 

32  An  officer  at  the  court  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  wrote  a  collection 
of  anecdotes  respecting  the  private  life  and  reign  of  that  emperor,  some 
fragments  of  which  are  preserved  by  Athenseus. 

33  See  end  of  B.  iv. 

34  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  with  the  person  of  that  name 
who  wrote  a  history  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  but  nothing  further  is  known 
of  him.  .        . 

35  A  physician  of  Neapolis,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  early 
part  of  the  first  century  after  Christ. 

36  A  writer  on  medicine,  of  whom  all  further  particulars  have  perished. 
OT  Possibly  Ephippus  of  Olynthus,  a  Greek  historian  of  the  reign  of 

Alexander  the  Great. 

38  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

39  An  ancient  Greek  historian,  mentioned  also  by  Strabo  ;  but  no  further 
particulars  are  known  of  him. 

40  The  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies,  which  ended 
in  Cleopatra,  B.C.  38  :  he  wrote  a  narrative  of  the  wars  of  Alexander,  which 
is  frequently  quoted  by  the  later  writers,  and  served  as  the  groundwork  for 
Arrian's  history. 

41  A  native  of  Pella,  who  wrote  a  history  of  Macedonia  down  to  the 


158  plikt's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XII. 

Zoilus42  of  Macedon,  Democritus,43  Amphilochus,44  Aristo- 
machus,45  Alexander  Polyhistor,46  Juba,47  Apollodorus48  who 
wrote  on  Perfumes,  Heraclides49  the  physician,  Archidemus 
the  physician,  Dionysius51  the  physician,  Democlides52  the 
physician,  Euphron53  the  physician,  Mnesides54  the  physician, 
Diagoras55  the  physician,  Iollas56  the  physician,  Heraclides07 
of  Tarentum,  Xenocrates58  of  Ephesus,  Eratosthenes.59 

wars  of  Alexander  the  Great.  There  was  another  writer  of  the  same  name, 
a  native  of  Philippi,  who  also  wrote  a  treatise,  either  geographical  or  his- 
torical, relative  to  Macedonia. 

43  A  native  of  Amphipolis,  though  some  make  him  to  hare  been  an 
Ephesian.  The  age  in  which  he  lived  is  not  exactly  known.  He  attacked 
the  writings  of  Homer  with  such  uncalled-for  asperity,  that  his  name  has 
heen  proverbial  for  a  snarling,  captious  critic.  He  is  said  to  have  met 
with  a  violent  death.  His  literary  productions  were  numerous,  hut  none 
of  them  have  come  down  to  us. 

«  See  end  of  B.  ii.  44  See  end  of  B.  vm. 

45  See  end  of  B.  xi.  46  See  end  of  B.  in. 

47  See  end  of  B.  v.  48  See  end  of  B.  xi. 

49  A  physician  of  Heraclea,  near  Ephesus.  He  wrote  commentaries  on 
the  works  of  Hippocrates.  , 

50  Nothing  is  known  of  him ;  hat  it  has  heen  suggested  that  he  may 
have  heen  the  author  of  a  few  fragments  on  veterinary  surgery  which  still 

exist 

51  There  were  many  physicians  and  surgeons  of  this  name,  hut  probably 
Dionysius  of  Samos  is  meant,  or  else  Sallustius  Dionysius,  quoted  by  Pliny, 
B.  xxxii.  c.  26.  , 

«  Also  called  Democedes,  a  physician  of  Crotona,  who  practised  at 
JEgina.  He  was  afterwards  physician  to  Polycrates,  the  tyrant  of  bamos, 
and  King  Darius,  whose  foot  he  cured.  His  work  on  medicine  has  pe- 
rished. 

53  Nothing  whatever  is  known  of  this  writer. 

54  Nothing  is  known  relative  to  this  writer. 

55  Nothing  is  known  of  him.  , 

se  Or  Iolaus,  a  native  of  Bithynia,  who  wrote  a  work  on  Materia  Medica. 
He  was  probably  a  contemporary  of  Heraclides  of  Tarentum,  in  the  third 

century  B.C.  ;  ,     _  „ 

57  A  physician  of  Tarentum,  who  belonged  to  the  Empiric  sect.     He 

wrote  several  medical  works,  and  is  highly  commended  by  Galen.     Only  a 

few  fragments  of  his  writings  remain, 
is  An  historical  and  geographical  writer,  frequently  quoted   by  Fliny. 

From  the  mention  made  of  him  in  B.  xxxvii.  c.  2,  it  would  appeal-  that  he 

flourished  during  the  time  of  Pliny,  or  very  shortly  before. 
59  See  end  of  B.  ii. 


159 


BOOK  XIII. 


THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  EXOTIC  TREES,  AND  AN 
ACCOUNT  OF  UNGUENTS. 


CHAP.  1.    (1.) — UNGUENTS — AT   WHAT   PEEIOD    THEY   WERE   FIEST 

INTKODUCEB. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  speaking  of  the  trees  which  are 
valuable  for  the  odours  they  produce,  and  each  of  which  is  a 
subject  for  our  wonder  in  itself.  Luxury,  however,  has 
thought  fit  to  mingle  all  of  these,  and  to  make  a  single  odour 
of  the  whole  ;  hence  it  is  that  unguents  have  been  invented.1 
Who  was  the  first  to  make  unguents  is  a  fact  not  recorded. 
In  the  times  of  the  Trojan  war2  they  did  not  exist,  nor  did 
they  use  incense  when  sacrificing  to  the  gods ;  indeed,  people 
knew  of  no  other  smell,  or  rather  stench,3  I  may  say,  than  that 
of  the  cedar  and  the  citrus,4  shrubs  of  their  own  growth,  as  it 
arose  in  volumes  of  smoke  from  the  sacrifices  ;  still,  however, 
even  then,  the  extract  of  roses  was  known,  for  we  find  it  men- 
tioned as  conferring  additional  value  on  olive-oil. 

We  ought,  by  good  rights,  to  ascribe  the  first  use  of  un- 
guents to  the  Persians,  for  they  quite  soak  themselves  in  it, 
and  so,  by  an  adventitious  recommendation,  counteract  the 
bad  odours  which  are  produced  by  dirt.  The  first  instance  of 
the  use  of  unguents  that  I  have  been  able  to  meet  with  is  that  of 
the  chest5  of  perfumes  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  Alexander, 
with  the  rest  of  the  property  of  King  Darius,  at  the  taking  of  his 

1  Fee  remarks,  that  most  of  the  unguents  aud  perfumes  of  which  Pliny 
here  speaks  would  find  but  little  favour  at  the  present  day. 

2  This  does  not  appear  to  be  exactly  the  case,  for  in  the  twenty-third 
Book  of  the  Iliad,  1. 186,  we  find  "rose-scented"  oil  mentioned,  indeed, 
Pliny  himself  alludes  to  it  a  little  further  on. 

3  "  Nidoi-em."  This  term  was  used  in  reference  to  the  smell  of  burnt  or 
roasted  animal  substances.  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  alludes  to  the 
stench  arising  from  the  burnt  sacrifices. 

4  The  "Thuya  articulata."     See  c.  29  of  the  present  Book. 
'  "  Scrinium."     See  B.  vii.  c.  30. 


160  PLINY's   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

camp.6  Since  those  times  this  luxury  has  been  adopted  by 
our  own  countrymen  as  well,  among  the  most  prized  and,  in- 
deed, the  most  elegant  of  all  the  enjoyments  of  life,  and  has 
begun  even  to  be  admitted  in  the  list  of  honours  paid  to  the 
dead;  for  which  reason  we  shall  have  to  enlarge  further  on 
that  subject.  Those  perfumes  which  are  not  the  produce  of 
shrubs7  will  only  be  mentioned  for  the  present  by  name  :  the 
nature  of  them  will,  however,  be  stated  in  their  appropriate 
places. 

CHAP.  2. THE  VARIOUS    KINDS    OF   UNGUENTS — TWELVE    PRIN- 
CIPAL   COMPOSITIONS. 

The  names  of  unguents  are  due,  some  of  them,  to  the  ori- 
ginal place  of  their  composition,  others,  again,  to  the  extracts 
which  form  their  bases,  others  to  the  trees  from  which  they 
are  derived,  and  others  to  the  peculiar  circumstance  under 
which  they  were  first  made :  and  it  is  as  well,  first  of  all,  to 
know  that  in  this  respect  the  fashion  has  often  changed,  and 
that  the  high  repute  of  peculiar  kinds  has  been  but  transitory. 
In  ancient  times,  the  perfumes  the  most  esteemed  of  all  were 
those  of  the  island  of  Delos,8  and  at  a  later  period  those  of 
Mendes.9  This  degree  of  esteem  is  founded,  not  only  on  the 
mode  of  mixing  them  and  the  relative  proportions,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  favour  or  disfavour  in  which  the  various 
places  which  produce  the  ingredients  are  held,  and  the  compa- 
rative excellence  or  degeneracy  of  the  ingredients  themselves. 
The  perfume  of  iris,10  from  Corinth,  was  long  held  in  the 
highest  esteem,  till  that  of  Cyzicus  came  into  fashion.  It  was 
the  same,  too,  with  the  perfume  of  roses,11  from  Phaselis,12  the 

6  The  use  of  perfumes  more  probably  originated  in  India,  than  among 
the  Persians. 

7  But  of  seeds  or  plants 

8  The  perfumes  of  Delos  themselves  had  nothing  in  particular  to  re- 
commend them ;  but  as  it  was  the  centre  of  the  worship  of  Apollo,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  exquisite  perfumes  formed  a  large  proportion  of  the  offer- 
ings brought  thither  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

9  In  Egypt.  See  B.  v.  c.  11.  The  unguents  of  Mendes  are  again  men- 
tioned in  the  present  Chapter. 

10  Or  flower-de-luce.  This  perfume  was  called  Irinum.  The  Iris  Flo- 
rentina  of  the  botanists,  Fee  says,  has  the  smell  of  the  violet.  For  the 
composition  of  this  perfume,  see  Dioscorides,  B.  i,  c.  67. 

1  Bhodinura.  n  See  B.  v.  c.  26. 


Chnp.  2.]  UNGUENTS. 


161 


repute  of  which  was  afterwards  eclipsed  by  those  of  jSTeapolis, 
Capua,  and  Praeneste.  Oil  of  saffron,13  from  Soli  in  Cilicia, 
was  for  a  long  time  held  in  repute  beyond  any  other,  and  then 
that  from  Rhodes  ;  after  which  perfume  of  oenanthe,14  from  Cy- 
prus, came  into  fashion,  and  then  that  of  Egypt  was  preferred. 
At  a  later  period  that  of  Adramytteum  came  into  vogue,  and 
then  was  supplanted  by  unguent  of  marjoram,15  from  Cos, 
which  in  its  turn  was  superseded  by  quince  blossom16  unguent 
from  the  same  place.  As  to  perfume  of  Cyprus,17  that  from 
the  island  of  Cyprus  was  at  first  preferred,  and  then  that  of 
Egypt ;  when  all  on  a  sudden  the  unguents  of  Mendes^  and 
metopium 18  rose  into  esteem.  In  later  times  Phoenicia  eclipsed 
Egypt  in  the  manufacture  of  these  last  two,  but  left  to  that 
country  the  repute  of  producing  the  best  unguent  of  Cyprus. 

Athens  has  perseveringly  maintained  the  repute  of  her 
panathenaicon.19  There  was  formerly  a  famous  unguent, 
known  as  "pardaliuro,"20  and  made  at  Tarsus;  at  the  present 
day  its  very  composition  and  the  mode  of  mixing  it  are  quite 
unknown  there :  they  have  left  off,  too,  making  unguent  of 
narcissus 21  from  the  flowers  of  that  plant. 

There  are  two  elements  which  enter  into  the  composition  of 
unguents,  the  juices  and  the  solid  parts.  The  former  generally 
consist  of  various  kinds  of  oils,  the  latter  of  odoriferous  sub- 
stances. These  last  are  known  as  hedysmata,  while  the  oils 
are  called  stymmata.22     There  is  a  third  element,  which  occu- 

13  Crocinum ;  made  from  the  Crocus  sativus  of  naturalists. 

14  See  B.  xii.  c.  62.  It  was  made  from  the  flowers  of  the  vine,  mixed 
with  omphaciam.  . 

13  Amaracinum.  The  amaracus  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Origanum 
majoranoides  of  the  moderns.  Dioscorides,  B.  i.  c.  59,  says  that  the  best 
was  made  at  Cyzicus. 

16  Melinum.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  54. 

"  Cyprinum.  See  B.  xii.  c.  51.  The  Cyprus  was -the  modern  Law- 
sonia  inermis. 

18  Made  from  the  oil  of  hitter  almonds.     See  B.  xv.  c.  7. 

19  Or  "  all  Athenian."  Wo  find  in  Athenaeus,  B.  xv.  c.  15,  the  com- 
position of  this  unguent. 

20  From  what  is  said  by  Apollonius  in  the  passage  of  Athenaeus  last 
quoted,  it  has  been  thought  that  this  was  the  same  as  the  unguent  called  nar- 
dinum.     It  is  very  doubtful,  however. 

21  Narcissinum.  See  B.  xxi.  c.  75.  Dioscorides  gives  the  composition 
of  this  unguent,  B.  i.  c.  54. 

2-  Among  the  stymmata,  Dioscorides  ranges  the  sweet-rush,  the  sweet- 


VOL.    III. 


M 


162  PLINY'S   "NATURAL    HISTOET.  [Book  XIII. 

pies  a  place  between  the  two,  but  has  been  much  neglected, 
the  colouring  matter,  namely.  To  produce  a  colour,  however, 
cinnabar23  and  alkanet24  are  often  employed.  If  salt25  is 
sprinkled  in  the  oil,  it  will  aid  it  in  retaining  its  properties ; 
but  if  alkanet  has  been  employed,  salt  is  never  used.  Kesin 
and  gum  are  added  to  fix  the  odour  in  the  solid  perfumes ; 
indeed  it  is  apt  to  die  away  and  disappear  with  the  greatest 
rapidity  if  these  substances  are  not  employed. 

The  unguent  which  is  the  most  readily  prepared  of  all, 
and  indeed,  in  all  probability,  the  very  first  that  was  ever 
made,  is  that  composed  of  bryon26  and  oil  of  balanus,27  sub- 
stances of  which  we  have  made  mention  already.  In  later 
times  the  Mendesian  unguent  was  invented,  a  more  compli- 
cated mixture^  as  resin  and  myrrh  were  added  to  oil  of  ba- 
lanus, and  at  the  present  day  they  even  add  metopion28  as 
well,  an  Egyptian  oil  extracted  from  bitter  almonds ;  to  which 
have  been  added  omphacium,29  cardamum,30  sweet  rush,31  honey,32 
wine,  myrrh,  seed  of  balsamum,33  galbanum,34  and  resin  ot 
terebinth,35  as  so  many  ingredients.  Among  the  most  common 
unguents  at  the  present  day,  and  for  that  reason  supposed  to 
be  the  most  ancient,  is  that  composed  of  oil  of  myrtle,36  cala- 
mus, cypress,37  Cyprus,  mastich,38  and  pomegranate-rind.39  I  am 
scented  calamus  and  xylo-balsamum ;  and  among  the  hedysmata  amomum, 
nard,  myrrh,  balsam,  costus,  and  marjoram.  The  latter  constituted  the 
base  of  unguents,  the  former  were  only  added  occasionally. 

23  Cinnabar  is  never  used  to  colour  cosmetics  at  the  present  day,  from 
its  tendency  to  excoriate  the  skin.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  39. 

24  This  is  still  used  for  colouring  cosmetics  at  the  present  day.  See  B. 
xxii.  c.  23. 

25  Fee  remarks,  that  salt  can  be  of  no  use  ;  but  by  falling  to  the  bottom 
without  dissolving,  would  rather  tend  to  spoil  the  unguent. 

26  See  B.  xii.  c.  60.  The  name  "bryon  "  seems  also  to  have  been  ex- 
tended to  the  buds  of  various  trees  of  the  Conifera  class  and  of  the  white 
poplar.  It  is  probably  to  the  buds  of  the  last  tree  that  Pliny  here 
alludes.  27  Oil  of  ben.     See  B.  xii.  c.  48. 

28  Or  metopium.     See  Note  18  above. 

29  Made  from  olives.     See  B.  xii.  c.  60.  30  See  B.  xii.  c.  29. 
31  The  modern  Andropogon  schoenanthus.     See  B.  xii.  c.  48. 

33  See  B.  xii.  c.  48.  33  Carpobalsamum.     See.  B.  xii,  c.  54. 

3*  See  B.  xii.  c.  56. 

35  Fluid  resin  of  coniferous  trees  of  Europe. 

38  See  B.  xv.  c.  35. 

37  Cupressus  semper-virens.  He  does  not  say  what  part  of  the  tree 
was  employed.  38  See  B.  xii.  c.  36. 

39  See  c.  34  of  the  present  Book. 


Chap.  2.]  UNGUENTS.  1 63 

of  opinion,  however,  that  the  unguents  which  have  been  the 
most  universally  adopted,  are  those  which  are  compounded  of 
the  rose,  a  flower  that  grows  everywhere;  and  hence  for 
a  long  time  the  composition  of  oil  of  roses  was  of  the  most 
simple  nature,  though  more  recently  there  have  been  added 
omphacium,  rose  blossoms,  cinnabar,  calamus,  honey,  sweet- 
rush,  flour  of  salt  or  else  alkanet,40  and  wine.  The  same 
is  the  case,  too,  with  oil  of  saffron,  to  which  have  been  lately 
added  cinnabar,  alkanet,  and  wine ;  and  with  oil  of  sampsuchum,41 
with  which  omphacium  and  calamus  have  been  compounded. 
The  best  comes  from  Cyprus  and  Mitylene,  where  sampsuchum 
abounds  in  large  quantities. 

The  commoner  kinds  of  oil,  too,  are  mixed  with  those  of 
myrrh  and  laurel,  to  which  are  added  sampsuchum,  lilies, 
fenugreek,  n^rrh,  cassia,42  nard,43  sweet-rush,  and  cinnamon.44 
There  is  an  oil,  too,  made  of  the  common  quince  and  the 
sparrow  quince,  called  melinum,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
mention  hereafter ; 45  it  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  unguents, 
mixed  with  omphacium,  oil  of  Cyprus,  oil  of  sesamum,46  balsa- 
mum,47  sweet- rush,  cassia,  and  abrotonum.48  Susinum49  is 
the  most  fluid  of  them  all :  it  is  made  of  lilies,  oil  of  balanus, 
calamus,  honey,  cinnamon,  saffron,50  and  myrrh ;  while,  the 
unguent  of    Cyprus51  is  compounded  of  Cyprus,   omphacium 

40  The  alkanet  and  cinnabar  were  only  used  for  colouring. 

41  "  Sampsuchinum."  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  sampsuchum, 
and  the  amaracus  were  the  same,  the  sweet  marjoram,  or  Origanum  mar- 
jorana  of  Linnaeus.  Fee,  however,  is  of  a  contrary  opinion,  See  B.  xxi. 
c.  35.  In  Dioscorides,  B.  i.  c.  59,  there  is  a  difference  made  between 
sampsuchinum  and  amaracinum,  though  but  a  very  slight  one. 

43  The  bark  of  the  Cassia  lignea  of  the  pharmacopoea,  the  Laurus  cassia 
of  botany.     See  B.  xii.  c.  43. 

43  See  B.  xii.  c.  26.     The  Andropogon  nardus  of  Linngeus. 

44  See  B.  xii.  c.  41. 

45  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  54,  also  B.  xv.  c.  10.  The  Malum  struthium,  or 
"sparrow  quince,"  was  an  oblong  variety  of  the  fruit. 

46  Sesamum  orientale  of  Linnseus.  See  B.  xviii.  c.  22,  and  B.  sxii. 
c.  54. 

47  Balm  of  Gilead.     See  B.  xii.  c.  54. 

48  Southernwood.     The  Artemisia  abrotonum  of  Linnaeus. 

49  Or  lily  unguent,  made  of  the  lily  of  Susa,  which  had  probably  a 
more  powerful  smell  than-tkat  of  Europe.  Dioscorides  gives  its  composi- 
tion, B.  i.  c.  63. 

50  The  Crocus  sativus  of  Linnreus. 

51  Cyprinum.     It  has  been  previously  mentioned  in  this  Chapter. 

m  2 


164  PLINY'S   SA.TURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

and  cardamum,  calamus,  aspalathus,52  and  abrotonum.  There 
are  some  persons  who,  when  making  unguent  of  Cyprus,  em- 
ploy myrrh  also,  and  panax : 53  the  best  is  that  made  at  Sidon, 
and  the  next  best  that  of  Egypt :  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
add  oil  of  sesamum  :  it  will  keep  as  long  as  four  years,  and  its 
odour  is  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  cinnamon.  Telinum54 
is  made  of  fresh  olive- oil,  cypirus,55  calamus,  melilote,56  fenu- 
greek, honey,  marum,57  and  sweet  marjoram.  This  last  was 
the  perfume  most  in  vogue  in  the  time  of  the  Comic  poet 
Menander:  a  considerable  time  after  that  known  as  u  me- 
galium"  took  its  place,  being  so  called  as  holding  the  very 
highest  rank  ; M  it  was  composed  of  oil  of  balanus,  balsamum, 
calamus,  sweet-rush,  xylobalsamum,59  cassia,  and  resin.  One 
peculiar  property  of  this  unguent  is,  that  it  requires  to  be 
constantly  stirred  while  boiling,  until  it  has  lost  all  smell : 
when  it  becomes  cold,  it  recovers  its  odour.60 

There  are  some  single  essences  also  which,  individually, 
afford  unguents  of  very  high  character  :  the  first  rank  is  due 
to  malobathrum,61  and  the  next  to  the  iris  of  Illyricum  and 
the  sweet  marjoram  of  Cyzicus,  both  of  them  herbs.  There 
are  perfumers  who  sometimes  add  some  few  other  ingredients 
to  these :  those  who  use  the  most,  employ  for  the  purpose 
honey,  flour  of  salt,  omphacium,  leaves  of  agnus,62  and  panax, 
all  of  them  foreign  ingredients.63     The  price  of  unguent64  of 

52  See  B.  xii.  c.  52. 

53  The  gum  resin  of  the  Pastinaca  opopanax  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xii. 
c.  57. 

54  Or  unguent  of  fenugreek,  from  the  Greek  TrfKiq,  meaning  that  plant, 
the  Trigonella  fcenum  Graecum  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxiv.  c.  120. 

55  See  B.  ii.  c.  26,  and  B.  xxi.  c.  68—70. 

56  The  Trifolium  melilotus  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxi.  c.  30. 
5;  See  B.  xii.  c.  53. 

58  He  would  imply  that  it  was  so  called  from  the  Greek  ntyag,  *|  great ;" 
but  it  was  more  generally  said  that  it  received  its  name  from  its  inventor, 
Megalus. 

69  See  B.  xii.  c.  5. 

60  Fee  does  not  appear  to  credit  this  statement.  By  the  use  of  the 
word  " ventiletur,"  "fanned"  may  be  possibly  implied. 

«  See  B.  xii.  c.  59. 

63  The  Agnus  castus  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  38.  The  leaves  are 
quite  inodorous,  though  the  fruit  of  this  plant  is  slightly  aromatic. 

06  u  Externa."  The  reading  is  doubtful,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  is 
the  exact  meaning  of  the  word. 

*4  Cinnamomino. 


Chap.  2.]  UNGUENTS.  165 

cinnamon  is  quite  enormous ;  to  cinnamon  there  is  added  oil 
of  balanus,  xylobalsamum,  calamus,  sweet-rush,  seeds  of 
balsamum,  myrrh,  and  perfumed  honey :  it  is  the  thickest  in 
consistency  of  all  the  unguents ;  the  price  at  which  it  sells 
ranges  from  thirty-five  to  three  hundred  denarii  per  pound. 
Unguent  of  nard,66  or  foliatum,  is  composed  of  omphacium  or 
else  oil  of  balanus,  sweet-rush,  costus,67  nard,  amomum,68 
myrrh,  and  balsamum. 

While  speaking  on  this  subject,  it  will  be  as  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  there  are  nine  different  kinds  of  plants  of  a  similar 
kind,  of  which  we  have  already  made  mention 69  as  being  em- 
ployed for  the  purpose  of  imitating  Indian  nard ;  so  abun- 
dant are  the  materials  that  are  afforded  for  adulteration.  All 
these  perfumes  are  rendered  still  more  pungent  by  the  addi- 
tion of  costus  and  amomum,  which  have  a  particularly  power- 
ful effect  on  the  olfactory  organs ;  while  myrrh  gives  them 
greater  consistency  and  additional  sweetness,  and  saffron  makes 
them  better  adapted  for  medicinal  purposes.  They  are  most 
pungent,  however,  when  mixed  with  amomum  alone,  which 
will  often  produce  head-ache  even.  There  are  some  persons  who 
content  themselves  with  sprinkling  the  more  precious  ingre- 
dients upon  the  others  after  boiling  them  down,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  economy ;  but  the  strength  of  the  unguent  is  not  so 
great  as  when  the  ingredients  have  been  boiled  together. 
Myrrh  used  by  itself,  and  without  the  mixture  of  oil,  forms 
an  unguent,  but  it  is  stacte70  only  that  must  be  used,  for  other- 
wise it  will  be  productive  of  too  great  bitterness.  Unguent  of 
Cyprus  turns  other  unguents  green,  while  lily  unguent 71  makes 
them  more  unctuous :  the  unguent  of  Mendes  turns  them 
black,  rose  unguent  makes  them  white,  and  that  of  myrrh 
of  a  pallid  hue. 

Such  are  the  particulars  of  the  ancient  inventions,  and  the 
various  falsifications  of  the  shops  in  later  times ;  we  will  now 
pass  on  to  make  mention  of  what  is  the  very  height  of  refine- 
ment in  these  articles  of  luxury,  indeed,  I  may  say,  the  beau 
ideal72  of  them  all. 

65  Nardinum. 

66  Or  leaf  unguent,  so  called  from  being  made  of  leaves  of  nard.  See 
B.  x.ii.  c.  27. 

«  See  B.  xii.  c.  25.  68  See  B.  xii.  c.  28. 

69  See  B.  xii.  c.  26,  27,  where  the  list  is  given. 

70  See  B.  xii.  c.  35.  ,l  Susiuum.     See  p.  1G3. 
72  Summa  auetoritus  rei. 


166  flint's  natural  histoet.  [Book  XIII. 

(2.)  This  is  what  is  called  the  "regal"  unguent,  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  composed  in  these  proportions  for  the  kings  of 
the  Parthians.  It  consists  of  myrohalanus,73  costus,  amomum, 
cinnamon,  comacum,74  cardamum,  spikenard,  marum,  myrrh, 
cassia,  storax,75ladanum,76  opobalsamum,  Syrian  calamus77  and 
Syrian  sweet-rush, w  cenanthe,  malobathrum,  serichatum,79 
Cyprus,  aspralathus,  panax,  saffron,  cypirus,  sweet  marjoram, 
lotus,80  honey,  and  wine.  Not  one  of  the  ingredients  in  this 
compound  is  produced  either  in  Italy,  that  conqueror  of  the 
■world,  or,  indeed,  in  all  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the 
iris,  which  grows  in  Illyricum,  and  the  nard,  which  is  to  be 
found  in  Gaul :  as  to  the  wine,  the  rose,  the  leaves  of  myr- 
tle, and  the  olive-oil,  they  are  possessed  by  pretty  nearly  all 
countries  in  common. 

CEAP.  3. DIAPASMA,   MAGMA  ;    THE   MODE  OF  TESTING   UNGUENTS. 

Those  unguents  which  are  known  by  the  name  of  "  dia- 
pasma,"81  are  composed  of  dried  perfumes.  The  lees82  of  un- 
guents are  known  by  the  name  of  "magma.83"  In  all  these 
preparations  the  most  powerful  perfume  is  the  one  that  is 
added  the  last  of  all.  Unguents  keep  best  in  boxes  of  ala- 
baster,84 and  perfumes85  when  mixed  with  oil,  which  conduces 
all  the  more  to  their  durability  the  thicker  it  is,  such  as  the 
oil  of  almonds,  for  instance,  tlnguents,  too,  improve  with  age ; 
but  the  sun  is  apt  to  spoil  them,  for  which  reason  they  are 
usually  stowed  away  in  a  shady  place  in  vessels  of  lead. 
When  their  goodness  is  being  tested,  they  are  placed  on  the 
back  of  the  hand,  lest  the  heat  of  the  palm,  which  is  more 
fleshy,  should  have  a  bad  effect  upon  them. 

73  See  B.  xii.  c.  46.  74  See  B.  xii.  c.  53. 

"5  See  B.  xii.  c.  55.  "6  See  B.  xii.  c.  37. 

77  See  B.  xii.  c.  48.  76  See  B.  xii.  c.  48. 

79  See  B.  xii.  c.  45. 

80  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  be  the  Nymphaea  ccerulea  of  Savigny,  a 
plant  that  is  common  in  the  Nile,  and  the  flowers  of  which  exhale  a  sweet 
odour. 

sl  The  diapasmata  were  dry,  odoriferous  powders,  similar  to  those  used 
at  the  present  day  in  sachets  and  scent-hags. 

82  "  Faecem  unguenti." 

83  This  word  is  still  used  in  pharmacy  to  denote  the  husks  or  residuary 
matter  left  after  the  extraction  of  the  juice. 

8i  See  B.  xxxvi.  c.  12.     See  also  Markxiv.  7,  and  John  xii.  3.     Leaden 
boxes  were  also  used  for  a  similar  purpose. 
85  Odores. 


Chap.  4.] 


UNGUENTS.  107 


CHAP.   4.  (3.) THE  EXCESSES  TO  WHICH  LUXURY  HAS  RUN  IN 

UNGUENTS. 

These  perfumes  form  the  objects  of  a  luxury  which  may  be 
looked  upon  as  being  the  most  superfluous  of  any,  for  pearls 
and  jewels,  after  all,  do  pass  to  a  man's  representative,86  and 
garments  have  some  durability;  but  unguents  lose  their 
odour  in  an  instant,  and  die  away  the  very  hour  they  are 
used.  The  very  highest  recommendation  of  them  is,  that 
when  a  female  passes  by,  the  odour  which  proceeds  from  her 
may  possibly  attract  the  attention  of  those  even  Avho  till  then 
are  intent  upon  something  else.  In  price  they  exceed  so  krge 
a  sum  even  as  four  hundred  denarii  per  pound  :  so  vast  isthe 
amount  that  is  paid  for  a  luxury  made  not  for  our  own  enjoy- 
ment, but  for  that  of  others ;  for  the  person  who  carries  the 
perfume  about  him  is  not  the  one,  after  all,  that  smells  it. 

And  yet,  even  here,  there  are  some  points  of  difference  that 
deserve  to  be  remarked.  We  read  in  the  works  of  Cicero,  n 
that  those  unguents  which  smell  of  the  earth  are  preferable  to 
those  which  smell  of  saffron ;  being  a  proof,  that  even  in  a 
matter  which  most  strikingly  bespeaks  our  state  of  extreme 
corruptness,  it  is  thought  as  well  to  temper  the  vice  by  a  little 
show  of  austerity.88  There  are  some  persons  too  who  look  more 
particularly  for  consistency89  in  their  unguents,  to  which  they 
accordingly  give  the  name  of  "  spissum  ;89*  thus  showing  that 
they  love  not  only  to  be  sprinkled,  but  even  to  be  plastered  over, 
with  unguents.  "We  have  known  the  very  soles90  even  of  the 
feet  to  be  sprinkled  with  perfumes ;  a  refinement  which  was 
taught,  it  is  said,  by  M.  Otho 91  to  the  Emperor  Nero.     How, 

86  "  Heres."  The  persorf  was  so  called  who  succeeded  to  the  property, 
whether  real  or  personal,  of  an  intestate. 

87  See  B.  xvii.  c.  3,  where  he  quotes  this  passage  from  Cicero  at  length. 
It  appears  to  be  from  De  Orat.  B.  iii.  c.  69.  Both  Cicero  and  Pliny  pro- 
fess to  find  a  smell  that  arises  from  the  earth  itself,  through  the  agency  of 
the  sun.  But,  as  Fee  remarks,  pure  earth  is  perfectly  inodorous.  He  sug- 
gests, however,  that  this  odour  attributed  by  the  ancients  to  the  earth,  may 
in  reality  have  proceeded  from  the  fibrous  roots  of  thyme  and  other  plants. 
If  such  is  not  the  real  solution,  it  sterns  impossible  to  suggest  any  other. 

b8  jgy  giving  preference  to  the  more  simple  odours. 

83  "Crassitude"  ***  Or  "thick"  unguent. 

so  We  learn  from  Athenaeus,  and  a  passage  in  the  Aulularia  of  Plautus, 
that  this  was  done  long  before  Nero's  time,  among  the  Greeks. 

9i  Who  succeeded  Galba.  He  was  one  of  Nero's  favourite  companions 
in  his  debaucheries. 


168  PLINY'S   NATUBAL   HISTORY.  [Book  X III. 

I  should  like  to  know,  could  a  perfume  be  at  all  perceptible, 
or,  indeed,  productive  of  any  kind  of  pleasure,  when  placed 
on  that  part  of  the  body  ?  AVe  have  heard  also  of  a  private 
person  giving-  orders  for  the  walls  of  the  bath-room  to  be 
sprinkled  with  unguents,  while  the  Emperor  Cains93  had  the 
same  thing  done  to  his  sitting-bath  :93  that  this,  too,  might  not 
be  looked  upon  as  the  peculiar  privilege  of  a  prince,  it  was 
afterwards  done  by  one  of  the  slaves  that  belonged  to  Nero. 

But  the  most  wonderful  thing  of  all  is,  that  this  kind  of 
luxurious  gratification  should  have  made  its  way  into  the  camp 
even  :  at  all  events,  the  eagles  and  the  standards,  dusty  as 
they  are,  and  bristling  with  their  sharpened  points,  are 
anointed  on  festive94  days.  I  only  wish  it  could,  by  any  pos- 
sibility, be  stated  who  it  was  that  first  taught  us  this  practice. 
It  was,  no  doubt,  under  the  corrupting  influence  of  such  temp- 
tations as  these,  that  our  eagles  achieved  the  conquest95  of  the 
world  :  thus  do  we  seek  to  obtain  their  patronage  and  sanc- 
tion for  our  vices,  and  make  them  our  precedent  for  using 
unguents  even  beneath  the  casque.96 

CHAr.   5. WHEN    UNGUENTS  WERE  FIRST  USED  BY  THE  ROMANS. 

I  cannot  exactly  say  at  what  period  the  use  of  unguents 
first  found  its  way  to  Rome.  It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that 
when  King  Antiochus  and  Asia 97  were  subdued,  an  edict  was 
published  in  the  year  of  the  City  565,  in  the  censorship  of  P. 
Licinius  Crassus  and  L.  Julius  Caesar,  forbidding  any  one  to 
sell  exotics  ;9S  for  by  that  name  unguents  were  then  called. 
But,  in  the  name  of  Hercules !  at  the  present  day,  there  are 
some  persons  who  even  go  so  far  as  to  put  them  in  their  drink, 
and  the  bitterness  produced  thereby  is  prized  to  a  high  degree, 
in  order  that  by  their  lavishness  on  these  odours  they  may 
thus  gratify  the  senses  of  two  parts99  of  the  body  at  the  same 
moment.1    It  is  a  well-known  historical  fact,  that  L.  Plotius,2 

9-  Caligula.  93  Solium. 

94  After  victories,  for  instance,  or  when  marching  orders  were  given. 

95  This  is  said  in  bitter  irony.  96  Sub  easside. 
97  Asia  Minor  more  particularly.  9*  Exotica. 

99  The  organs  of  taste  and  of  smell. 

1  We  have  this  fact  alluded  to  in  the  works  of  Plautus,  Juvenal,  Martial, 
and  JElian.  The  Greeks  were  particularly  fond  of  mixing  myrrh  with 
their  wine.     Nard  wine  is  also  mentioned  by  Plautus.  Miles  Gl.  iii.  2,  11. 

-  Or  Lucius  Tlautius  Plancus.     lie  was  proscribed  by  the  triumvirs, 


Chap.  6.]  THE    PALM-TREE.  \C(J 

the  brother  of  L.  Plancus,  who  was  twice  consul  and  censor, 
after  being  proscribed  by  the  Triumvirs,  was  betrayed  in  his 
place  of  concealment  at  Salcrnum  by  the  smell  of  his  un- 
guents, a  disgrace  which  more  than  outweighed  all  the  guilt3 
attending  his  proscription.  For  who  is  there  that  can  be  of 
opinion  that  such  men  as  this  do  not  richly  deserve  to  come  to 
a  violent  end  ? 

CHA?.  6. THE    PALM-TKEE. 

In  other  respects,  Egypt  is  the  country  that  is  the  best  suited 
of  all  for  the  production  of  unguents ;  and  next  to  it,  Cam- 
pania,4 from  its  abundance  of  roses. 

(4.)  Judaea,  too,  is  greatly  renowned  for  its  perfumes,  and 
even  still  more  so  for  its  palm-trees,5  the  nature  of  which  I 
shall  take  this  opportunity  of  enlarging  upon.  There  are  some 
found  in  Europe  also.  They  are  not  uncommon  in  Italy,  but 
are  quite  barren  there. 6  The  palms  on  the  coast  of  Spain  bear 
fruit,  but  it  is  sour.7  The  fruit  of  those  of  Africa  is  sweet, 
but  quickly  becomes  vapid  and  loses  its  flavour;  which,  how- 
ever is  not  the  case  with  the  fruit  of  those  that  grow  in  the 
East.8  Erom  these  trees  a  wine  is  made,  and  bread  by  some 
nations,9  and  they  afford  an  aliment  for  numerous  quadrupeds. 
It  will  be  with  very  fair  reason  then,  that  we  shall  confine  our 
description  to  the  palm-tree  of  foreign  countries.     There  are 

with  the  sanction  of  his  brother.  In  consequence  of  his  use  of  perfumes, 
the  place  of  his  concealment  "  got  wind  ;"  and  in  order  to  save  his  slaves, 
who  were  being  tortured  to  death  because  they  would  not  betray  him,  he 
voluntarily  surrendered  himself. 

3  Attaching  to  the  triumvirate. 

4  Capua,  its  capital,  was  the  great  seat  of  the  unguent  and  perfume 
manufacture  in  Italy. 

5  The  Phoenix  dactylifera  of  Linnaeus.  See  also  B.  xii.  c.  62,  where  he 
seems  also  to  allude  to  this  tree. 

6  At  the  present  day  this  is  not  the  fact.  The  village  of  La  Bordighiera, 
situate  on  an  eminence  of  the  Apennines,  grows  great  quantities  of  date.-, 
of  good  quality.  At  Hieres,  Nice,  San  Bemo,  and  Genoa,  they  are  also 
grown. 

7  This,  too,  is  not  the  fact.  The  dates  of  Valencia,  Seville,  and  other 
provinces  of  Spain,  are  sweet,  and  of  excellent  quality. 

b  Pliny  is  wrong  again  in  this  statement.  The  date  of  Barhary,  Tunis, 
Algiers,  and  Bildulgerid,  the  "land  of  dates,"  is  superior  in  every  respect 
to  that  of  the  East. 

9  The  ^Ethiopians,  as  we  learn  from  Thcophrastus,  B.  ii.  c.  8. 


170  flint's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

none  in  Italy  that  grow  spontaneously, 10  nor,  in  fact,  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the  warm  coun- 
tries :  indeed,  it  is  only  in  the  very  hottest  climates  that  this 
tree  will  bear  fruit. 

CHAP.  7. THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PALM-TEEE. 

The  palm-tree  grows  in  a  light  and  sandy  soil,  and  for  the 
most  part  of  a  nitrous  quality.  It  loves  the  vicinity  of  flowing 
water ;  and  as  it  is  its  nature  to  imbibe  the  whole  of  the  year, 
there  are  some  who  are  of  opinion  that  in  a  year  of  drought 
it  will  receive  injury  from  being  manured  even,  if  the  manure 
is  not  first  mixed  with  running  water  :  this,  at  least,  is  the  idea 
entertained  by  some  of  the  Assyrians. 

The  varieties  of  the  palm  are  numerous.  First  of  all,  there 
are  those  which  do  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  shrub ;  they  are 
mostly  barren,  though  sometimes  they  are  known  to  produce 
fruit ;  the  branches  are  short,  and  the  tree  is  well  covered  with 
leaves  all  round.  In  many  places  this  tree  is  used  as  a  kind 
of  rough-cast,11  as  it  were,  to  protect  the  walls  of  houses 
against  damp.  The  palms  of  greater  height  form  whole 
forests,  the  trunk  of  the  tree  being  protected  all  round  by 
pointed  leaves,  which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  comb ; 
these,  it  must  be  understood,  are  wild  palms,  though  sometimes, 
by  some  wayward  fancy  or  other,  they  are  known  to  make 
their  appearance  among  the  cultivated  varieties.  The  other 
kinds  are  tall,  round,  and  tapering ;  and  being  furnished  with 
dense  and  projecting  knobs  or  circles  in  the  bark,  arranged  in 
regular  gradation,  they  are  found  easy  of  ascent  by  the  people 
in  the  East ;  in  order  to  do  which,  the  climber  fastens  a  loop 
of  osier  round  his  body  and  the  trunk,  and  by  this  contrivance 
ascends  the  tree  with  astonishing 12  rapidity.  All  the  foliage  is 
at  the  summit,  and  the  fruit  as  well ;  this  last  being  situate, 
not  among  the  leaves,  as  is  the  case  with  other  trees,  but 
hanging  in  clusters  from  shoots  of  its  own  among  the 
branches,  and  partaking  of  the  nature  both  of  the  grape  and 
the  apple.  The  leaves  terminate  in  a  sharp  edge,  like  that  of 
a  knife,  while  the  sides   are  deeply  indented — a  peculiarity 

10  Or  in  a  wild  state. 

11  "  Tectorii  vicem."     They  were  probably  planted  in  rows,  close  to  the 
wall. 

12  This  mode  of  ascending  the  date-palm  is  still  practised  in  the  East. 


Chap.  7.]  THE    PALM-TREE.  171 

which  first  gave  the  idea  of  a  troop  of  soldiers  presenting  face 
on  two  sides  at  once ;  at  the  present  day  they  are  split  asunder13 
to  form  ropes  and  wythes  for  fastening,  as  well  as  light  um- 
brellas u  for  covering  the  head. 

The  more  diligent15  enquirers  into  the  operations  of  Nature 
state  that  all  trees,  or  rather  all  plants,  and  other  productions 
of  the  earth,  belong  to  either  one  sex  or  the  other ;  a  fact 
which  it  may  be  sufficient  to  notice  on  the  present  occasion, 
and  one  which  manifests  itself  in  no  tree  more  than  in  the 
palm.  The  male  tree  blossoms  at  the  shoots  ;  the  female  buds 
without  blossoming,  the  bud  being  very  similar  to  an  ear  of 
corn.  In  both  trees  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  shows  first,  and 
after  that  the  woody  part  inside  of  it,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
seed  :  and  that  this  is  really  the  case,  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that 
we  often  find  small  fruit  on  the  same  shoot  without  any  seed  in 
it  at  all.  This  seed  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  not  rounded 
like  the  olive-stone.  It  is  also  divided  down  the  back  by  a 
deep  indentation,  and  in  most  specimens  of  this  fruit  there 
is  exactly  in  the  middle  a  sort  of  navel,  as  it  were,  from  which 
the  root  of  the  tree  first  takes  its  growth.16  In  planting  this 
seed  it  is  laid  on  its  anterior  surface,  two  being  placed  side 
by  side,  while  as  many  more  are  placed  above  ;  for  when 
planted  singly,  the  tree  that  springs  up  is  but  weak  and 
sickly,  whereas  the  four  seeds  all  unite  and  form  one  strong 
tree.  The  seed  is  divided  from  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  by  several 
coats  of  a  whitish  colour,  some  of  which  are  attached  to  the 
body  of  it ;  it  lies  but  loosely  in  the  inside  of  the  fruit,  ad- 
hering only  to  the  summit  by  a  single  thread.17 

The  flesh  of  this  fruit  takes  a  year  to  ripen,  though  in  some 
places,  Cyprus18  for  instance,  even  if  it  should  not  reach  ma- 
turity, it  is  very  agreeable,  for  the  sweetness  of  its  flavour : 
the  leaf  of  the  tree  too,  in  that  island,  is  broader  than  else- 
where, and  the  fruit  rounder  than  usual :  the  body  of  the  fruit 

13  See  B.  xvi.  c.  37. 

14  "  Umbracula."  The  fibres  of  the  leaves  were  probably  platted  or  woven, 
and  the  "umbracula"  made  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  straw  and 
fibre  hats  of  the  present  day. 

15  Most  of  this  is  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant,  ii.  9. 

16  Fee  remarks,  that  this  account  is  quite  erroneous. 

17  This  he  copies  also  from  Theophrastus,  B.  ii.  c.  8. 

18  Theophrastus,  B.  ii.  c.  8,  mentions  this  as  a  kind  of  date  peculiar  to 
Cyprus. 


172  PLINY's   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

however,  is  never  eaten,  but  is  always  spit19  out  again,  after 
the  juice  has  been  extracted.  In  Arabia,  the  palm  fruit  is 
said  to  have  a  sickly  sweet  taste,  although  Juba  says  that  he 
prefers  the  date  found  among  the  Arabian  Sceriitse,20  and  to 
which  they  give  the  name  of  "dablan,"  before  those  of  any 
other  country  for  flavour.  In  addition  to  the  above  parti- 
culars, it  is  asserted  that  in  a  forest  of  natural  growth  the 
female21  trees  will  become  barren  if  they  are  deprived  of  the 
males,  and  that  many  female  trees  may  be  seen  surrounding  a 
single  male  with  downcast  heads  and  a  foliage  that  seems  to  be 
bowing  caressingly  towards  it ;  while  the  male  tree,  on  the 
other  hand,  with  leaves  all  bristling  and  erect,  by  its  exha- 
lations, and  even  the  very  sight  of  it  and  the  dust22  from 
off  it,  fecundates  the  others :  if  the  male  tree,  too,  should 
happen  to  be  cut  down,  the  female  trees,  thus  reduced  to  a  state 
of  widowhood,  will  at  once  become  barren  and'  unproductive. 
So  well,  indeed,  is  this  sexual  union  between  them  understood, 
that  it  has  been  imagined  even  that  fecundation  may  be  en- 
sured through  the  agency  of  man,  by  means  of  the  blossoms 
and  the  down23  gathered  from  off  the  male  trees,  and,  indeed, 
sometimes  by  only  sprinkling  the  dust  from  off  them  on  the 
female  trees. 

CHAP.  8. HOW  THE  PALM-TREE  IS  PLANTED. 

Palm-trees  are  also  propagated  by  planting ; 24  the  trunk  is 
first  divided  with  certain  fissures  two  cubits  in  length  which 
communicate  with  the  pith  of  the  tree,  and  is  then  buried  in 
the  earth.  A  slip  also  torn  away  from  the  root  will  produce 
a  sucker  with  vitality,  and  the  same  may  be  obtained  from  the 
more  tender  among  the  branches.     In  Assyria,  the  tree  itself 

19  This  is  said  solely  in  relation  to  the  date  of  Cyprus. 

20  Or  "  dwellers  in  tents;"  similar  to  the  modern  Bedouins. 

21  Fee  remarks,  that  in  these  words  we  find  the  first  germs  of  the  sexual 
system  that  has  been  established  by  the  modern  botanists.  He  thinks  that 
it  is  clearly  shown  by  this  account,  that  Pliny  was  acquainted  with  the 
fecundation  of  plants  by  the  agency  of  the  pollen, 

22  In  allusion  to  the  pollen,  possibly.     See  the  last  Note. 

23  "  Lanugine."  It  is  possible  that  in  the  use  of  this  word,  also,  he 
may  allude  to  the  pollen.  Under  the  term  "pulvis,"  "  dust,"  he  probably 
alludes  in  exaggerated  terms  to  the  same  theory. 

24  The  same  methods  of  propagating  the  palm  are  still  followed  in  the 
East,  and  in  the  countries  near  the  tropics. 


Chap.  9.]  PALM-TREES.  1 73 

is  sometimes  laid  level,  and  then  covered  over  in  a  moist  soil ; 
upon  which  it  will  throw  out  roots  all  over,  but  it  will  grow 
only  to  be  a  number  of  shrubs,  and  never  a  tree  :  hence  it  is 
that  they  plant  nurseries,  and  transplant  the  young  trees  when 
a  year  old,  and  again  when  two  years  old,  as  they  thrive  all 
the  better  for  being  transplanted ;  this  is  done  in  the  spring 
season  in  other  countries,  but  in  Assyria  about  the  rising  of  the 
Dog-star.  Tn  those  parts  they  do  not  touch  the  young  trees 
with  the  knife,  but  merely  tie  up  the  foliage  that  they  may 
shoot  upwards,  and  so  attain  considerable  height.  When 
they  are  strong  they  prune  them,  in  order  to  increase  their 
thickness,  but  in  so  doing  leave  the  branches  for  about  half  a 
foot ;  indeed,  if  they  were  cut  off  at  any  other  place,  the  ope- 
ration would  kill  the  parent  tree.  We  have  already25  men- 
tioned that  they  thrive  particularly  well  in  a  saltish  soil; 
hence,  when  the  soil  is  not  of  that  nature,  it  is  the  custom  to 
scatter  salt,  not  exactly  about  the  roots,  but  at  a  little  distance 
off.  There  are  palm-trees  in  Syria  and  in  Egypt  which  divide 
into  two  trunks,  and  some  in  Crete  into  three  and  as  many  as 
five  even.26  Some  of  these  trees  bear  immediately  at  the  end  of 
three  years,  and  in  Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  when  they  are 
four  years  old  ;  others  again  at  the  end  of  hve  years  :  at  which 
period  the  tree  is  about  the  height  of  a  man.  So  long  as  the 
tree  is  quite  young  the  fruit  has  no  seed  within,  from  which 
circumstance  it  has  received  the  nickname  of  the  "  eunuch."" 

CHAP.  9. — THE  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  OF    PALM-TREES,    AND  THEIR 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  the  palm-tree.  In  Assyria, 
and  throughout  the  whole  of  Persis,  the  barren  kinds  are  made 
use  of  for  carpenters'  work,  and  the  various  appliances  of 
luxury.  There  are  whole  forests  also  of  palm-trees  adapted 
for  cutting,28  and  which,  after  they  are  cut,  shoot  again  from 

25  In  c.  7  of  the  present  Book.     See  also  B.  xvii.  c.  3. 

26  Fee  mentions  one  near  Elvas  in  Spain,  which  shot  up  into  seven  distinct 
trees,  as  it  were,  from  a  single  trunk.  The  Douma  Thebaica,  he  says,  of 
Syria  and  Egypt,  a  peculiar  kind  of  palm,  is  also  bifurcated.  The  fruit 
of  it,  he  thinks,  are  very  probably  the  Phaenico-balanus  of  B.  xii.  c.  47. 

27  "  Spado."     Represented  by  the  Greek  evvovxog  and  ivopxoQ. 

2§  "  Caeduse  "  Though  this  is  the  fact  as  to  some  palm-trees,  the  greater 
part  perish  after  being  cut ;  the  vital  bud  occupying  the  summit,  and  the 
trunk  not  being  susceptible  of  any  increase. 


174  plint's  natukal  history.  [Book  XIII. 

the  root ;  the  pith  of  them  towards  the  top,  which  is  usually- 
called  the  brain29  of  the  tree,  is  sweet  to  the  taste,  and  the 
tree  will  live  even  after  it  has  been  extracted,  which  is  the  case 
with  no  other  kind.  The  name  of  this  tree  is  "chamaereps  ;',3° 
it  has  a  broader  and  softer  leaf  than  the  others,  which  is  ex- 
tremely useful  for  various  kinds  of  wickerwork  ;31  these  trees  are 
very  numerous  in  Crete,  and  even  more  so  in  Sicily.  The 
wood  of  the  palm-tree,  when  ignited,  burns  both  brightly  and 
slowly.32  In  some  of  those  that  bear  fruit,33  the  seed  of  the  fruit 
is  shorter  than  in  others,  while  in  some,  again,  it  is  longer ;  in 
some  it  is  softer  than  in  others,  and  in  some  harder ;  in  some 
it  is  osseous  and  crescent-shaped ;  polished  with  a  tooth,  super- 
stition employs  the  stone  as  an  antidote  against  charms  and  fas- 
cination. This  stone  is  enclosed  in  several  coats,  more  or  less 
in  number  ;  sometimes  they  are  of  a  thick  texture,  and  some- 
times very  thin. 

Hence  it  is  that  we  find  nine  and  forty  different  kinds  of 
palm-trees,  if  any  one  will  be  at  the  trouble  of  enumerating  all 
their  various  barbarous  names,  and  the  different  wines  that  are 
extracted  from  them.  The  most  famous  of  all,  are  those 
which,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  have  received  the  name  of 
"royal"  palms,  because  they  were  preserved  solely  by  the 
kings  of  Persia ;  these  used  to  grow  nowhere  but  at  Babylon, 
and  there  only  in  the  garden  of  Bagous,34  that  being  the 
Persian  for  an  eunuch,  several  of  whom  have  even  reigned 
over  that  country  !  This  garden  was  always  carefully  retained 
within35  the  precincts  of  the  royal  court. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  the  world,  the  dates  known  as 

29  Cerebrum. 

30  The  Chamsereps  humilis  of  the  modern  botanists.  It  is  found,  among 
other  countries,  in  Spain,  Morocco,  and  Arabia. 

31  Vitilia. 

33  "  Vivaces."  Perhaps  it  may  mean  that  the  wood  retains  the  fire  for  a 
long  time,  when  it  burns. 

33  Fee  suggests  that  Pliny  may  possibly  have  confounded  the  fruit  of 
okher  palms  with  the  date. 

34  This  seems  to  have  been  a  general  name,  as  Pliny  says,  meaning  an 
eunuch ;  but  it  is  evident  that  it  was  also  used  as  a  proper  name,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  eunuch  who  slew  Artaxerxes,  Ochus,  b.c.  338,  by  poison, 
and  of  another  eunuch  who  belonged  to  Darius,  but  afterwards  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Alexander,  of  whom  he  became  an  especial  favourite.  The 
name  is  sometimes  written  "  Bagous,"  and  sometimes  "  Bagoas." 

35  Dominantis  in  aula. 


Chap.  9.]  DATES.  175 

"  syagri,36  hold  the  highest  rank,  and  next  after  them  those 
that  are  called  "  margarides."  These  last  are  short,  white, 
and  round,  and  bear  a  stronger  resemblance  to  grapes  than  to 
dates ;  for  which  reason  it  is  that  they  have  received  their 
name,  in  consequence  of  their  close  resemblance  to  "  marga- 
ritse,"  or  pearls.  It  is  said  that  there  is  only  one  tree  that 
bears  them,  and  that  in  the  locality  known  as  Chora.37  The 
same  is  the  case  also  with  the  tree  that  bears  the  syagri.  We 
have  heard  a  wonderful  story  too,  relative  to  this  last  tree,  to 
the  effect  that  it  dies  and  comes  to  life  again  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  phoenix,  which,  it  is  generally  thought,  has 
borrowed  its  name  from  the  palm-tree,  in  consequence  of  this 
peculiarity  ;  at  the  moment  that  I  am  writing  this,  that  tree 
is  still  bearing  fruit.  As  for  the  fruit  itself,  it  is  large,  hard, 
and  of  a  rough  appearance,  and  differing  in  taste  from  all  other 
kinds,  having  a  sort  of  wild  flavour  peculiar  to  itself,  and 
not  unlike  that  of  the  flesh  of  the  wild  boar ;  it^  is  evidently 
this  circumstance  from  which  it  has  derived  its  name  of 
"  syagrus." 

In  the  fourth  rank  are  the  dates  called  "  sandalides,"  from 
their  resemblance  to  a  sandal  in  shape.  It  is  stated,  that  on 
the  confines  of  ^Ethiopia  there  are  but  five  of  these  trees  at 
the  most,  no  less  remarkable  for  the  singular  lusciousness  of 
their  fruit,  than  for  their  extreme  rarity.  Next  to  these,  the 
dates  known  as  "  caryotse  "38  are  the  most  esteemed,  affording 
not  only  plenty  of  nutriment,  but  a  great  abundance  of  juice ; 
it  is  from  these  that  the  principal  wines39  are  made  in  the 
East ;  these  wines  are  apt  to  affect  the  head,  a  circumstance 
from  which  the  fruit  derives  its  name.  But  if  these  trees  are 
remarkable  for  their  abundance  and  fruitfulness,  it  is  in  Judaea 
that  they  enjoy  the  greatest  repute;  not,  indeed,  throughout 
the  whole  of  that  territory,  but  more  particularly  at  Hiericus,40 
although  those  that  grow  at  Archelais,  Phaselis,  and  Livias, 
vallies  in  the  same  territory,  are  highly  esteemed.     The  more 

30  From  the  Greek  avaypog,  "a  wild  boar,"  as  Pliny  afterwards  states ; 
they  being  so  called  from  their  peculiar  wild  taste. 

37  See  B.  vi.  c.  39. 

s8  Said  to  have  been  so  called  from  the  Greek  Kaprj,  "  the  head,"  and 
iw^ia,  "  stupidity,"  owing  to  the  heady  nature  of  the  wine  extracted  from 
the  fruit. 

19  See  B.  vi.  c.  32,  and  B.  xiv.  c.  19. 

40  The  Jericho  of  Scripture. 


176  pllnt's  natural  history.  [Book  XIII. 

remarkable  quality  of  these  is  a  rich,  unctuous  juice ;  they  are 
of  a  milky  consistency,  and  have  a  sort  of  vinous  flavour,  with 
a  remarkable  sweetness,  like  that  of  honey.  The  Mcolaan41 
dates  are  of  a  similar  kind,  but  somewhat  drier;  they  are 
of  remarkable  size,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  four  of  them, 
placed  end  to  end,  will  make  a  cubit  in  length.  A  less  fine 
kind,  but  of  sister  quality  to  the  caryotae  for  flavour,  are  the 
"  adelphides,"42  hence  so  called  ;  these  come  next  to  them  in 
sweetness,  but  still  are  by  no  means  their  equals.  A  third 
kind,  again,  are  the  patetee,  which  abound  in  juice  to  excess, 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the  fruit  bursts,  in  its  excess  of  liquor, 
even  upon  the  parent  tree,  and  presents  all  the  appearance  of 
having  been  trodden43  under  foot. 

There  are  numerous  kinds  of  dates  also,  of  a  drier  nature, 
which  are  long  and  slender,  and  sometimes  of  a  curved  shape. 
Those  of  this  sort  which  we  consecrate  to  the  worship  of  the 
gods  are  called  "  chydaei  "44  by  the  Jews,  a  nation  remarkable 
for  the  contempt  which  they  manifest  of  the  divinities.  Those 
found  all  over  Thebais  and  Arabia  are  dry  and  small,  with  a 
shrivelled  body :  being  parched  up  and  scorched  by  the  con- 
stant heat,  they  are  covered  with  what  more  nearly  resembles 
a  shell45  than  a  skin.  In  ^Ethiopia  the  date  is  quite  brittle 
even,  so  great  is  the  driness  of  the  climate  ;  hence  the  people 
are  able  to  knead  it  into  a  kind  of  bread,  just  like  so  much 

41  Athenseus,  B.  xiv.  c.  22,  tells  us  that  these  dates  were  thus  called 
from  Nicolaus  of  Damascus,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher,  who,  when  visiting' 
Rome  with  Herod  the  Great,  made  Augustus  a  present  of  the  finest  fruit 
of  the  palm-tree  that  could  be  procured.  This  fruit  retained  its  name  of 
"  Nicolaan,"  down  to  the  middle  ages. 

42  Pliny  would  imply  that  they  are  so  called  from  the  Greek  adi\<pia, 
"  a  sister,"  as  being  of  sister  quality  to  the  caryotse  ;  but  it  is  much  more 
probable,  as  Fee  remarks,  that  they  got  this  name  from  being  attached  in 
pairs  to  the  same  pedicle  or  stalk. 

43  Pliny  certainly  seems  to  imply  that  they  are  so  called  from  the  Greek 
TrctTtio,  "  to  tread  under  foot,"  and  Hardouin  is  of  that  opinion.  Fee, 
however,  thinks  the  name  is  from  the  Hebrew  or  Syriac  "  patach,"  "  to  ex- 
pand," or  "  open,"  or  else  from  the  Hebrew  "  pathah,"  the  name  of  the  first 
vowel,  from  some  fancied  resemblance  in  the  form. 

44  From  the  Greek  xvdaiog,  "  vulgar,"  or  "common,"  it  is  supposed.  The 
Jews  probably  called  them  so,  ns  being  common,  or  offered  by  the  Gentiles 
to  their  idols  and  divinities.  Pliny  evidently  considers  that  in  the  name 
given  to  them  no  compliment  was  intended  to  the  deities  of  the  heathen 
mythology. 

45  From  its  extreme  driness,  and  its  shrivelled  appearance. 


Chap.  9.]  DATES.  \7~ 

flour.46  It  grows  upon  a  shrub,  with  branches  a  cubit  in 
length  :  it  has  a  broad  leaf,  and  the  fruit  is  round,  and  larger 
than  an  apple.  The  name  of  this  date  is  "  co'ix."47  It  conies 
to  maturity  in  three  years,  and  there  is  always  fruit  to  be 
found  upon  the  shrub,  in  various  stages  of  maturity.  The 
date  of  Thebais  is  at  once  packed  in  casks,  with  all  its  natu- 
ral heat  and  freshness ;  for  without  this  precaution,  it  quickly 
becomes  vapid ;  it  is  of  a  poor,  sickly  taste,  too,  if  it  is  not 
exposed,  before  it  is  eaten,  to  the  heat  of  an  oven. 

The  other  kinds  of  dates  appear  to  be  of  an  ordinary  nature, 
and  are  generally  known  as  "tragemata  ;"48  but  in  some  parts  of 
Phoenicia  and  Cilicia,  they  are  commonly  called  "  balani,"  a 
name  which  has  been  also  borrowed  by  us.  There  are  nume- 
rous kinds  of  them,  which  differ  from  one  another  in  being 
round  or  oblong  ;  as  also  in  colour,  for  some  of  them  are  black, 
and  others  red — indeed  it  is  said  that  they  present  no  fewer 
varieties  of  colour  than  the  fig :  the  white  ones,  however,  are 
the  most  esteemed,  They  differ  also  in  size,  according  to  the 
number  which  it  requires  to  make  a  cubit  in  length ;  some, 
indeed,  are  no  larger  than  a  bean.  Those  are  the  best  adapted 
for  keeping  which  are  produced  in  salt  and  sandy  soils,  Judaea, 
and  Cyrenaica  in  Africa,  for  instance  :  those,  however,  of  Egypt, 
Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Seleucia  in  Assyria,  will  not  keep  :  hence 
it  is  that  they  are  much  used  for  fattening  swine  and  other 
animals.  It  is  a  sign  that  the  fruit  is  either  spoilt  or  old, 
when  the  white  protuberance  disappears,  by  which  it  has  ad- 
hered to  the  cluster.  Some  of  the  soldiers  of  Alexander's  army 
were  choked  by  eating  green  dates  ;49  and  a  similar  effect  is 
produced  in  the  country  of  the  Gedrosi,  by  the  natural  quality 
of  the  fruit ;  while  in  other  places,  again,  the  same  results  arise 
from  eating  them  to  excess.  Indeed,  when  in  a  fresh  state,  they 
are  so  remarkably  luscious,  that  there  would  be  no  end  to 

46  From  Theophrastus,  B.  i.  c.  16. 

47  Kvkojq  in  the  Greek.  It  is  supposed  by  Sprengel  to  be  the  same  as 
the  Cycas  circimialis  of  Linngeus ;  but,  as  Fee  remarks,  that  is  only  found  in 
India. 

48  From  the  Greek,  meaning  "sweetmeats,"  or  "  dessert  fruit :"  he  pro- 
bably means  that  in  S)7ria  and  some  parts  of  Phoenicia  they  were  thus  called. 

49  This  story,  which  is-  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  B.  iv.  c.  5,  is 
doubted  by  Fee,  who  says  that  in  the  green  state  they  are  so  hard  and 
nauseous,  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  eat  sufficient  to  be  materially  in- 
commoded by  them. 

VOL.  in.  N 


178  pliny's  natural  iiistohy.  [Book  XIII. 

eating  them,  were  it  not  for  fear  of  the  dangerous  consequences 
that  would  be  sure  to  ensue. 

CHAP.   10.  (5.)— THE  TREES    OF    SYRIA:    THE   PISTACIA,    THE    COT- 
TANA,    THE    DAMASCENA,    AND    THE    MYXA. 

In  addition  to  the  palm,  Syria  has  several  trees  that  are  pe- 
culiar to  itself.  Among  the  nut-trees  there  is  the  pistacia/ 
well  known  among  us.  It  is  said  that,  taken  either  m  food  or 
drink  the  kernel  of  this  nut  is  a  specific  against  the  bite  ot 
serpents.  Among  figs,  too,  there  are  those  known  as  ca- 
ricse"51  together  with  some  smaller  ones  of  a  similar  kind 
the  name  of  which  is  "  cottana."  There  is  a  plum,  too,  which 
grows  upon  Mount  Damascus,53  as  also  that  known  as  the 
"mvxa-"53  these  last  two  are,  however,  now  naturalized  m 
Italy.  In  Egypt,  too,  they  make  a  kind  of  wine  from  the  myxa. 

CHAP.  11.— THE  CEDAR.      TREES  WHICH  HAVE  ON  THEM  THE  FRUIT 
OF  THREE  YEARS  AT  ONCE. 

Phoenicia  too,  produces  a  small  cedar,  which  bears  a  strong 
resemblance'  to  the  juniper.^  Of  this  tree  there  _  are  two 
varieties ;  the  one  found  in  Lycia,  the  other  m  Phoenicia.5'  The 
difference  is  in  the  leaf:  the  one  m  which  it  is  hard  sharp, 
and  prickly,  being  known  as  the  oxycedros,56  a  branchy  tree 
and  rugged  with  knots.  The  other  kind  is  more  esteemed  for 
its  powerful  odour.  The  small  cedar  produces  a  fruit  the  size 
of  a  grain  of  myrrh,  and  of  a  sweetish  taste.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  the  larger  cedar57  also;  the  one  that  blossoms  bears 

so  The  Pistacia  vera  of  Linnseus.  It  was  introduced  into  Rome  in  the 
reio-n  of  Tiberius.  The  kernel  is  of  no  use  whatever  m  a  medical  point  of 
viei  and  what  Pliny  says  about  its  curing  the  bite  of  serpents  is  per- 
fectlyfabubus  The  ucar.ca))  ^  ly  the  uCar^,  fift 
-Ficuscarii?  is,  however,  the  name  given  to  the  common  fig  by  the 

modern  botanists.  o      ^  io 

■  The  parent  of  our  Damascenes,  or  damsons.     See  B  xv^  c   Id. 

53  Supposed  to  be  the  Corda  myxa  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xv.  c  15. 

54  The  Juninerus  communis  of  Linnaeus. 

55  The  Jun  perns  Lycia,  and  the  Juniperus  Phoenicia,  probably,  of  Lin- 
1      Tt  has  been  supposed  by  some,  that  it  is  these  trees  that  produce 

TLnLcense  of  AS,  but/as  Fee  observes,  the  subject  is  enveloped 

^^Tle^sto^aTea7"  cedar.     The  Juniperus  oxycedrus  of  Linens. 
The  «SS"  of  Linmeus.   The  name  "cedrus"  was  given  by 
/  *«  «Trmlv  to  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  but  to  many  others  of  the 

£K£  S^dltpSuculady  to  several  varieties  of  the  juu.pe, 


Chap.  13,]  THE    SUMACH-TEEE.  1/9 

no  fruit,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  one  that  bears  fruit  has 
no  blossom,  and  the  fruit,  as  it  falls,  is  being  continually  replaced 
by  fresh.  The  seed  of  this  tree  is  similar  to  that  of  the  cy- 
press. Some  persons  give  this  tree  the  name  of  "  cedrelates." 
The  resin  produced  from  it  is  very  highly  praised,  and  the 
wood  of  it  lasts  for  ever,  for  which  reason  it  is  that  they  have 
long  been  in  the  habit  of  using  it  for  making  the  statues  of  the 
gods.  In  a  temple  at  Rome  there  is  a  statue  of  Apollo  Sosi- 
anus58  in  cedar,  originally  brought  from  Seleucia.  There  is  a 
tree  similar  to  the  cedar,  found  also  in  Arcadia ;  and  there  is 
a  shrub  that  grows  in  Phrygia,  known  as  the  "  cedrus." 

CHAP.   12.    (6.) THE    TEKEBINTH.59 

Syria,  too,  produces  the  terebinth,  the  male  tree  of  which 
bears  no  fruit,  and  the  female  consists  of  two  different  va- 
rieties ; 60  one  of  these  bears  a  red  fruit,  the  size  of  a  lentil, 
while  the  other  is  pale,  and  ripens  at  the  same  period  as 
the  grape.  This  fruit  is  not  larger  than  a  bean,  is  of  a  very 
agreeable  smell,  and  sticky  and  resinous  to  the  touch.  About 
Ida  in  Troas,  and  in  Macedonia,  this  tree  is  short  and  shrubby, 
but  at  Damascus,  in  Syria,  it  is  found  of  very  considerable  size. 
Its  wood  is  remarkably  flexible,  and  continues  sound  to  a  very 
advanced  age  :  it  is  black  and  shining.  The  blossoms  appear 
in  clusters,  like  those  of  the  olive-tree,  but  are  of  a  red  colour  ; 
the  leaves  are  dense,  and  closely  packed.  It  produces  foili- 
cules,  too,  from  which  issue  certain  insects  like  gnats,  as  also  a 
kind  of  resinous  liquid61  which  oozes  from  the  bark. 

CHAP.   13. THE  SUMACH-TREE. 

The  male  sumach-tree62  of  Syria  is  productive,  but  the 
female  is  barren.  The  leaf  resembles  that  of  the  elm,  though 
it  is  a  little  longer,  and  has  a  downy  surface.  ^  The  footstalks 
of  the  leaves  lie  always  alternately  in  opposite  directions,  and 

5S  See  B.  xxxvi.  c.  4. 

59  Pistacia  terebinttms  of  Linnaras. 

60  These  varieties,  Fee  says,  are  not  observed  by  modern  naturalists. 

01  Garidel  has  remarked,  that  the  trunk  of  this  tree  produces  coriaceous 
vesicles,  filled  with  a  clear  and  odoriferous  terebinthine,  in  which  pucerons, 
or  aphides,  are  to  be  seen  floating. 

62  "Rhus."  The  Rhus  coriaria  of  Linnaeus.  Pliny  is  wrong  in  distin- 
guishing this  tree  into  sexes,  as  all  the  flowers  are  hermaphroditical,  and 
therefore  fruitful. 

N    2 


180  pLINY's   NATUEAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XIII. 

the  branches  are  short  and  slender.  This  tree  is  nsed  in  the 
preparation  of  white  skins.63  The  seed,  which  strongly  re- 
sembles a  lentil  in  appearance,  turns  red  with  the  grape ;  it 
is  known  by  the  name  of  "ros,"  and  forms  a  necessary  in- 
gredient in  various  medicaments.6* 

CHAP.   14.    (7.) THE    TEEES    OF    EGYPT.       THE    FIG-TEEE    OF 

ALEXANDE1A. 

Egypt,  too,  has  many  trees  which  are  not  to  be  found  else- 
where, and  the  kind  of  fig  more  particularly,  which  for  this 
reason  has  been  called  the  Egyptian  fig.65  In  leaf  this  tree 
resembles  the  mulberry-tree,  as  also  in  size  and  general  appear- 
ance. It  bears  fruit,  not  upon  branches,  but  upon  the  trunk 
itself :  the  fig  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme  sweetness,  and 
has  no  seeds66  in  it.  This  tree  is  also  remarkable  for  its  fruit- 
fulness,  which,  however,  can  only  be  ensured  by  making  inci- 
sions67 in  the  fruit  with  hooks  of  iron,  for  otherwise  it  will 
not  come  to  maturity.  But  when  this  has  been  done,  it  may 
be  gathered  within  four  days,  immediately  upon  which  another 
shoots  up  in  its  place.  Hence  it  is  that  in  the  year  it  produces 
seven  abundant  crops,  and  throughout  all  the  summer  there  is 
an  abundance  of  milky  juice  in  the  fruit.  Even  if  the  inci- 
sions are  not  made,  the  fruit  will  shoot  afresh  four  times 
during  the  summer,  the  new  fruit  supplanting  the  old,  and 
forcing  it  off  before  it  has  ripened.  The  wood,  which  is  of  a 
very  peculiar  nature,  is  reckoned  among  the  most  useful 
known.  When  cut  down  it  is  immediately  plunged  into 
standing  water,  such  being  the  means  employed  for  drying68  it. 
At  first  it  sinks  to  the  bottom,  after  which  it  begins  to  float, 
and  in  a  certain  length  of  time  the  additional  moisture  sucks 
it  dry,  which  has  the  effect  of  penetrating  and  soaking  all69 

63  It  is  still  used  by  curriers  in  preparing  leather. 

6i  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  79.  The  fruit,  which  has  a  pleasant  acidity,  was 
used  for  culinary  purposes  by  the  ancients,  as  it  is  by  the  Turks  at  the 
present  day.  .  . 

65  The  Ficus  sycamorus  of  Linnaeus.  It  receives  its  name  from  being 
a  h>-tree  that  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  "  morus,"  or  mul- 
berry-tree. 66  This  is  not  the  case. 

6T  This  appears  to  be  doubtful,  although,  as  Fee  says,  the  fruit  ripens 
but  very  slowly. 

68  This,  Fee  says,  is  a  fallacy 

es»  »  Aliam  omnem."     This  reading  seems  to  be  very  doubtful/, 


Chap.  16.]  THE    CAEOB-TEEE.  1  Si 

other  kinds  of  wood.     It  is  a  sign  that  it  is  fit  for  use70  when 
it  begins  to  float. 

CHAP.   1  5. THE  FIG-TEEE  OF  CTPEUS. 

The  fig-tree  that  grows  in  Crete,  and  is  known  there  as  the 
Cyprian  fig,71  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  preceding  one ;  for 
it  bears  fruit  upon  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  upon  the  branches 
as  well,  when  they  have  attained  a  certain  degree  of  thickness. 
This  tree,  however,  sends  forth  buds  without  any  leaves,72  but 
similar  in  appearance  to  a  root.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  poplar,  and  the  leaves  to  those  of  the  elm. 
It  produces  four  crops  in  the  year,  and  germinates  the  same 
number  of  times,  but  its  green73  fruit  will  not  ripen  unless  an 
incision  is  made  in  it  to  let  out  the  milky  juice.  The  sweet- 
ness of  the  fruit  and  the  appearance  of  the  inside  are  in  all 
respects  similar  to  those  of  the  fig,  and  in  size  it  is  about  as 
large  as  a  sorb-apple. 

CHAP.   16.  (8.) THE  CAEOB-TEEE. 

Similar  to  this  is  the  carob-tree,  by  the  Ionians  known  as 
the  "  ceraunia,"74  which  in  a  similar  manner  bears  fruit  from 
the  trunk,  this  fruit  being  known  by  the  name  of  "  siliqua," 
or  "  pod."  For  this  reason,  committing  a  manifest  error, 
some  persons75  have  called  it  the  Egyptian  fig;  it  being  the 
fact  that  this  tree  does  not  grow  in  Egypt,  but  in  Syria  and 
Ionia,  in  the  vicinity,  too,  of  Cnidos,  and  in  the  island  of 
Ehodes.  It  is  always  covered  with  leaves,  and  bears  a  white 
flower  with  a  very  powerful  odour.     It  sends  forth  shoots  at 

70  This  wood  was  very  extensively  used  in  Egypt  for  making  the  outer 
cases,  or  coffins,  in  which  the  mummies  were  enclosed. 

71  This  account  is  borrowed  almost  entirely  from  Theophrastus,  Hist. 
Plant.  B.  iv.  c.  2.  A  variety  of  the  sycamore  is  probably  meant.  It  is 
still  found  in  the  Isle  of  Crete. 

72  He  seems  to  mean  that  the  buds  do  not  shoot  forth  into  leaves  ;  the 
reading,  however,  varies  in  the  editions,  and  is  extremely  doubtful. 

7:1  Grossus. 

74  The  Ceratonia  siliqua  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  sy- 
camore, but  resembles  it  in  no  other  respect.  It  is  still  common  in  the 
localities  mentioned  by  Pliny,  and  in  the  south  of  Spain. 

75  Theophrastus  in  the  number,  Hist.  Plant,  i.  23,  and  iv.  2.  It  bears 
no  resemblance  to  the  fig-tree,  and  the  fruit  is  totally  different  from  the 
fig.  Pliny,  too,  is  wrong  in  saying  that  it  does  not  grow  in  Egypt ;  the 
fact  being  that  it  is  found  there  in  great  abundance. 


182  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIII. 

the  lower  part,  and  is  consequently  quite  yellow  on  the  sur- 
face, as  the  young  suckers  deprive  the  trunk  of  the  requisite 
moisture.  When  the  fruit  of  the  preceding  year  is  gathered, 
about  the  rising  of  the  Dog-star,  fresh  fruit  immediately  makes 
its  appearance  ;  after  which  the  tree  blossoms  while  the  con- 
stellation of  Arc turus76  is  above  the  horizon,  and  the  winter 
imparts  nourishment  to  the  fruit. 

CHAP.    17.   (9.) THE  PERSIAN  TREE.      IN  WHAT  TREES  THE  FRUITS 

GERMINATE  THE  ONE  BELOW  THE  OTHEK. 

Egypt,  too,  produces  another  tree  of  a  peculiar  description, 
the  Persian77  tree,  similar  in  appearance  to  the  pear-tree,  but 
retaining  its  leaves  during  the  winter.  This  tree  produces 
without  intermission,  for  if  the  fruit  is  pulled  to-day,  fresh 
fruit  will  make  its  appearance  to-morrow  :  the  time  for  ripen- 
ing is  while  the  Etesian78  winds  prevail.  The  fruit  of  this 
tree  is  more  oblong  than  a  pear,  but  is  enclosed  in  a  shell  and 
a  rind  of  a  grassy  colour,  like  the  almond  ;  but  what  is  found 
within,  instead  of  being  a  nut  as  in  the  almond,  is  a  plum, 
differing  from  the  almond79  in  being  shorter  and  quite  soft.  This 
fruit,  although  particularly  inviting  for  its  luscious  sweetness, 
is  productive  of  no  injurious  effects.  The  wood,  for  its  good- 
ness, solidity,  and  blackness,  is  in  no  respect  inferior  to  that 
of  the  lotus :  people  have  been  in  the  habit  of  making  statues 
of  it.  The  wood  of  the  tree  which  we  have  mentioned  as 
the  "balanus,"80  although  very  durable,  is  not  so  highly  es- 
teemed as  this,  as  it  is  knotted  and  twisted  in  the  greater 
part :  hence  it  is  only  employed  for  the  purposes  of  ship- 
building. 

76  See  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 

77  Fee  identifies  it  with  the  Egyptian  almond,  mentioned  by  Pliny  in 
B.  xv.  c.  28;  the  Myrobalanus  chebulus  of  Wesling,  the  Balanites 
iEgyptiaca  of  Delille,  and  the  Xymenia  iEgyptiaca  of  Linnaeus.  Schreber 
and  Sprcngel  take  it  to  be  the  Cordia  Sebestana  of  Linnaeus ;  but  that  is  a 
tree  peculiar  to  the  Antilles.  The  fruit  is  in  shape  like  a  date,  enclosing  a 
large  stone  with  five  sides,  and  covered  with  a  little  viscous  flesh,  of  some- 
what bitter,  though  not  disagreeable  flavour.  It  is  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  Sennaar,  and  near  the  Red  Sea.  The  Arabs  call  it  the  "  date  of  the 
Desert," 

78  See  B.  xviii.  c.  68.  "  See  B.  xv.  c.  34. 
M  Or  ben.    See  B.  xii.  cc.  46,  47. 


Chap.  19.]  THE    EGYPTIAN   THOEN.  183 

CHAP.    18.—  THE  CITCUS. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  wood  of  the  cucus81  is  held  in  very 
high  esteem.  It  is  similar  in  nature  to  the  palm,  as  its  leaves 
are  similarly  used  for  the  purposes  of  texture  :  it  differs  from 
it,  however,  in  spreading  out  its  arms  in  large  branches.^  The 
fruit,  which  is  of  a  size  large  enough  to  fill  the  hand,  k  of  a 
tawny  colour,  and  recommends  itself  by  its  juice,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  sweet  and  rough.  The  seed  in  the  inside  is  large 
and  of  remarkable  hardness,  and  turners  use  it  for  making 
curtain  rings.82  The  kernel  is  sweet,  while  fresh ;  but  when 
dried  it  becomes  hard  to  a  most  remarkable  degree,  so  much 
so,  that  it  can  only  be  eaten  after  being  soaked  in  water  for 
several  days.  The  wood  is  beautifully  mottled  with  circling 
veins,83  for  which  reason  it  is  particularly  esteemed  among  the 
Persians. 

CHAP.   19. — -THE  EGYPTIAN  TH0EN. 

]STo  less  esteemed,  too,  in  the  same  country,  is  a  certain  kind 
of  thorn,84  though  only  the  black  variety,  its  wood  being  im- 
perishable, in  water  even,  a  quality  which  renders  it  particu- 
larly valuable  for  making  the  sides  of  ships  :  on  the  other  hand, 
the  white  kinds  will  rot  very  rapidly.  It  has  sharp,  prickly 
thorns  on  the  leaves  even,  and  bears  its  seeds  in  pods ;  they 
are  employed  for  the  same  purposes  as  galls  in  the  preparation 
of  leather.  The  flower,  too,  has  a  pretty  effect  when  made 
into  garlands,  and  is  extremely  useful  in  medicinal  preparations. 
A  gum,  also,  distils  from  this  tree ;  but  the  principal  merit 
that  it  possesses  is,  that  when  it  is  cut  down,  ^  it  will  grow 
ao-ain  within  three  years.  It  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  Thebes, 
Adhere  we  also  find  the  quercus,  the  Persian  tree,  and  the  olive  : 
the  spot  that  produces  it  is  a  piece  of  woodland,  distant  three 

«  Many  have  taken  this  to  he  the  cocoa-nut  tree  ;  -but,  as  Fee  remarks, 
that  is  a  ti-ee  of  India,  and  this  of  Egypt.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  is 
the  doum  of  the  Arabs,  the  Cucifera  Thebaica  of  Delille.  The  timber  of 
the  trunk  is  much  used  in  Egypt,  and  of  the  leaves  carpets,  bags,  and 
panniers  are  made.  In  fact,  the  description  of  it  and  its  fruit  is  almost 
identical  with  that  here  given  by  Pliny. 

82  The  seed  or  stone  of  the  doum  is  still  used  in  Egypt  for  making  the 
beads  of  chaplets  :  it  admits  of  a  very  high  polish. 

83  Matcries  crispioris  elegantiae. 

s4  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  67.  This  is,  no  doubt,  the  Acacia  Nilotica  of  Linnaeus, 
which  produces  the  gum  Arabic  of  modern  commerce. 


184  pliny's  natueal  HISTOEY.  [Book  XIII. 

hundred  stadia  from  the  Kile,  and  watered  by  springs  of  its 
own. 

(10.)  Here  we  find,  too,  the  Egyptian85  plum-tree,  not  much 
unlike  the  thorn  last  mentioned,  with  a  fruit  similar  to  the 
medlar,  and  which  ripens  in  the  winter.  This  tree  never  loses 
its  leaves.  The  seed  in  the  fruit  is  of  considerable  size,  but 
the.  flesh  of  it,  by  reason  of  its  quality,  and  the  great  abund- 
ance in  which  it  grows,  affords  quite  a  harvest  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  those  parts ;  after  cleaning  it,  they  subject  it  to  pressure, 
and  then  make  it  up  into  cakes  for  keeping.  There  was  for- 
merly 86  a  woodland  district  in  the  vicinity  of  Memphis,  with 
trees  of  such  enormous  size,  that  three  men  could  not  span 
one  with  their  arms  :  one  of  these  trees  is  remarkable,  not  for 
its  fruit,  or  any  particular  use  that  it  is.  but  for  the  singular 
phenomenon  that  it  presents.  In  appearance  it  strongly  re- 
sembles a  thorn,87  and  it  has  leaves  which  have  all  the  appear- 
ance of  wings,  and  which  fall  immediately  the  branch  is 
touched  by  any  one,  and  then  immediately  shoot  again. 

CHAP.  20.  (11.) NINE  KINDS  OF  GEM.       THE  SAECOCOLLA. 

It  is  universally  agreed,  that  the  best  gum  is  that  produced 
from  the  Egyptian  thorn  ; 8B  it  is  of  variegated  appearance,  of 
azure  colour,  clean,  free  from  all  admixture  of  bark,  and 
adheres  to  the  teeth ;  the  price  at  which  it  sells  is  three 
denarii  per  pound.     That  produced  from  the  bitter  almond- 

85  This  is  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv.  c.  3.  Fee  suggests 
that  it  may  have  been  a  kind  of  myrobalanus.  Sprengel  identifies  it  with 
the  Cordia  sebestana  of  the  botanists. 

86  «  Fuit."  From  the  use  of  this  word  he  seems  uncertain  as  to  its  ex- 
istence in  his  time ;  the  account  is  copied  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant. 
B.  iv.  c.  3.  Fee  suggests  that  he  may  here  allude  to  the  Baobab,  the 
Adansonia  digitata,  which  grows  in  Senegal  and  Sennaar  to  an  enormous 
size.  Prosper  Alpinus  speaks  of  it  as  existing  in  Egypt.  The  Arabs  call 
it  El-omarah,  and  the  fruit  El-kongles. 

87  The  Mimosa  polyacanthe,  probably.  Fee  says  that  the  mimosa?,  re- 
spectively known  as  casta,  pudibunda,  viva,  and  sensitiva,  with  many  of 
the  inga,  and  other  leguminous  trees,  are  irritable  in  the  highest  degree. 
The  tree  here  spoken  of  he  considers  to  be  one  of  the  acacias.  The  pas- 
sage in  Theophrastus  speaks  of  the  leaf  as  shrinking,  and  not  falling, 
and  then  as  simply  reviving. 

58  The  Acacia  Nilotica  of  Linnaeus,  from  which  we  derive  the  gum 
Arabic  of  commerce ;  and  of  which  a  considerable  portion  is  still  derived 
from  Egypt. 


Chap.  21.] 


THE    PAPYRUS.  185 


tree  and  the  cherry89  is  of  an  inferior  kind,  and  that  which  is 
gathered  from  the  plum-tree  is  the  worst  of  all.  The  vine, 
too,  produces  a  gum,60  which  is  of  the  greatest  utility  in  healing 
the  sores  of  children  ;  while  that  which  is  sometimes  found  on 
the  olive-tree 91  is  used  for  the  tooth-ache.  Gum  is  also  found 
on  the  elm93  upon  Mount  Corycus  in  Cilicia,  and  upon  the 
juniper,93  but  it  is  good  for  nothing ;  indeed,  the  gum  of  the 
elm  found  there  is  apt  to  breed  gnats.  From  the  sarcocolla94 
also—such  is  the  name  of  a  certain  tree— a  gum  exudes  that  is 
remarkably  useful  to  painters 95  and  medical  men  ;  it  is  similar 
to  incense  dust  in  appearance,  and  for  those  purposes  the  white 
kind  is  preferable  to  the  red.  The  price  of  it  is  the  same  as 
that  mentioned  above.96 

CHAP.   21. THE  PAPYRUS  :    THE    TTSE    OE  PAPER;    WHEN  IT  WAS 

FIRST  INVENTED. 

We  have  not  as  yet  taken  any  notice  of  the  marsh  plants, 
nor  yet  of  the  shrubs  that  grow  upon  the  banks  of  rivers  : 
before  quitting  Egypt,  however,  we  must  make  some  mention 
of  the  nature  of  the  papyrus,  seeing  that  all  the  usages  of 
civilized  life  depend  in  such  a  remarkable  degree  upon  the 
employment  of  paper — at  all  events,  the  remembrance  of  past 
events.     M.  Yarro  informs  us  that  paper  owes  its  discovery  to 

89  These  gums  are  chemically  different  from  gum  Arabic,  and  they  are 
used  for  different  purposes  in  the  arts.  m  _ 

90  The  vine  does  not  produce  a  gum ;  but  when  the  sap  ascends,  a  juice 
is  secreted,  which  sometimes  becomes  solid  on  the  evaporation  of  the 
aqueous  particles.  This  substance  contains  acetate  of  potassa,  which,  by 
the  decomposition  of  that  salt,  becomes  a  carbonate  of  the  same  base. 

91  This  is  not  a  gum,  but  a  resinous  product  of  a  peculiar  nature.  It  is 
known  to  the  moderns  by  the  name  of  "  olivine." 

92  The  sap  of  the  elm  leaves  a  saline  deposit  on  the  bark,  principally 
formed  of  carbonate  of  potassa.  Fee  is  at  a  loss  to- know  whether  Pliny 
here  alludes  to  this  or  to  the  manna  which  is  incidentally  formed  by  certain 
insects  on  some  trees  and  reeds.  But,  as  he  justly  says,  would  Pliny  say 
of  the  latter  that  it  is  "  ad  nihil  utile"—"  good  for  nothing  "? 

9*  A  resinous  product,  no  doubt.  The  frankincense  of  Africa  has  been 
attributed  by  some  to  the  Juniperus  Lycia  and  Phoenicia. 

94  The  Penaea  Sarcocolla  of  Linnaeus.  The  gum  resin  of  this  tree  is 
still  brought  from  Abyssinia,  but  it  is  not  used  in  medicine.  This  account 
is  from  Dioscorides,  B.  iii.  c.  99.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek  cdpK, 
"flesh,"  and  icoXXa,  "glue." 

95  See  B.  xxiv.  e.  78.  %  Three  denarii  per  pound. 


185  pliny's  natural  history.  [EookXIII. 

the  victorious97  career  of  Alexander  the  Great,  at  the  time 
when  Alexandria  in  Egypt  was  founded  by  him ;  before  which 
period  paper  had  not  been  used,  the  leaves  of  the  palm  having 
been  employed  for  writing  at  an  early  period,  and  after  that 
the  bark  of  certain  trees.     In  succeeding  ages,  public  docu- 
ments were  inscribed  on  sheets  of  lead,  while  private  memo- 
randa were  impressed  upon  linen  cloths,  or  else  engraved  on 
tablets  of  wax ;  indeed,  we  find  it  stated  in  Homer,98  that  tablets 
were  employed  for  this  purpose  even  before  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war.     It  is  generally  supposed,  too,  that  the  country 
which  that  poet  speaks  of  as  Egypt,  was  not  the  same  that  is 
at  present  understood  by  that  name,  for  the  Sebennytic  and 
the  Sait]  c  "  Nomes,  in  which  all  the  papvrus  is  produced,  have 
been  added  since  his  time  by  the  alluvion  of  the  Nile ;  indeed, 
he  himself  has  stated1  that  the  main -land  was  a  day  and  a 
night's  sail  from  the  island  of  Pharos2,  which  island  at  the 
present  day  is  united  by  a  bridge  to  the  city  of  Alexandria.    In 
later  times,  a  rivalry  having  sprung  up  between  King  Ptolemy 
and  King  Eumenes,3  in  reference  to  their  respective  libraries, 
Ptolemy  prohibited  the  export  of  papyrus;  upon  which,  as  Varro 
relates,   parchment  was  invented    for    a  similar   purpose  at 
Pergamus.     After  this,  the  use  of  that  commodity,  by  which 
immortality  is  ensured  to  man,  became  universally  known. 

CHAP.  22. THE  MODE  OE  MAKING  PAPER. 

Papyrus  grows  either  in  the  marshes  of  Egypt,  or  in  the 
sluggish  waters  of  the  river  Mle,  when  they  have  overflowed 
and  are  lying  stagnant,  in  pools  that  do  not  exceed  a  couple  of 
cubits  in  depth.     The  root  lies  obliquely, 4  and  is  about  the 

97  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  this  is  not  the  fact.  This  plant  is 
the  Cyperus  papyrus  of  Linnaeus,  the  "herd"  of  the  modern  Egyptians. 

>8  II.  B  vi.  1.  168.  See  B.  xxxiii.  c.  4,  where  the  tablets  which  are 
here  called  "  pugillares,"  are  styled  "codicilli"  by  Pliny. 

99  His  argument  is,  that  paper  made  from  the  papyrus  could  not  be 
known  in  the  time  of  Homer,  as  that  plant  only  grew  in  certain  districts 
which  had  been  rescued  fiom  the  sea  since  the  time  of  the  poet. 

1  Od.  B.  ir.  1.  355.  2  See  B   i{  0<  87# 

3  There  is  little  doubt  that  parchment  was  really  known  many  years 
before  the  time  of  Eumenes  II.,  king  of  Pontus.  It  is  most  probable  that 
this  king  introduced  extensive  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  parch- 
ment, for  Herodotus  mentions  writing  on  skins  as  common  in  his  time ;  and 
in  B.  v.  c.  58,  he  states  that  the  Ionians  had  been  accustomed  to  give  the 
name  of  skins,  ditiQepai,  to  books. 

4  Brachiali  radicis  obliques  crassitudine. 


Chap.  23.]  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  Or  PAPER.  187 

thickness  of  one's  arm  ;  the  section  of  the  stalk  is  triangular, 
and  it  tapers  gracefully  upwards  towards  the  extremity, 
being  not  more  than  ten  cubits  at  most  in  height.  Very  much 
like  a  thyrsus 5  in  shape,  it  has  a  head  on  the  top,  which  has 
no  seed6*  in  it,  and,  indeed,  is  of  no  use  whatever,  except  as  a 
flower  employed  to  crown  the  statues  of  the  gods.  The 
natives  use  the  roots  by  way  of  wood,  not  only  for  firing,  but 
for  various  other  domestic  purposes  as  well.  From  the  papy- 
rus itself  they  construct  boats6  also,  and  of  the  outer  coat  they 
make  sails  and  mats,  as  well  as  cloths,  besides  coverlets  and 
ropes ;  they  chew  it  also,  both  raw  and  boiled,  though  they 
swallow  the  juice  only. 

The  papyrus  grows  in  Syria  also,  on  the  borders  of  the  same 
lake  around  which  grows  the  sweet-scented  calamus;7  and 
King  Antiochus  used  to  employ  the  productions  of  that  country 
solely  as  cordage  for  naval  purposes;  for  the  use  of  spartum8 
had  not  then  become  commonly  known.  More  recently  it  has 
been  understood  that  a  papyrus  grows  in  the  river  Euphrates, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon,  from  which  a  similar  kind  of  paper 
may  easily  be  produced  :  still,  however,  up  to  the  present  time 
the  Parthians  have  preferred  to  impress9  their  characters  upon 
cloths 

CHAP.  23.   (12) TnE  NTNE  DIFFERENT    KINDS  OF   PAPER. 

Paper   is  made  from  the  papyrus,  by  splitting  it  with  a 

5  This  was  a  pole  represented  as  being  carried  by  Bacchus  and  his  Bac- 
chanalian train.  It  was  mostly  terminated  by  the  fir  cone,  that  tree  being 
dedicated  to  Bacchus,  in  consequence  of  the  use  of  its  cones  and  turpentine 
in  making  wine.  Sometimes  it  is  surmounted  by  vine  or  fig  leaves,  with 
grapes  or  berries  arranged  in  form  of  a  cone. 

5*  This  is  not  the  fact :  it  has  seed  in  it,  though  not  very  easily  percep- 
tible.    The  description  here  given  is  otherwise  very  correct. 

6  Among  the  ancients  the  term  papyrus  was  used  as  a  general  appellation 
for  all  the  different  plants  of  the  genus  Cyperus,  which  was  used  for  making 
mats,' boats,  baskets,  and  numerous  other  articles:  but  one  species  only 
was  employed  for  making  paper,  the  Cyperus  papyrus,  or  Byblos  Fee 
states  that  the  papyrus  is  no  longer  to  be  found  in  the  Delta,  where  it  for- 
merly abounded.    '  7  See  B.  xii.  c.  48. 

8  Sometimes  translated  hemp.  A  description  will  be  given  of  it  in  B. 
xix.  c.  7. 

9  "  Intexere."  This  would  almost  appear  to  mean  that  they  embroidered 
or  interwove  the  characters.  The  Persians  still  write  on  a  stuff  made  of 
white  silk,  gummed  and  duly  prepared  for  the  purpose. 


I'S8  PLIXX'S    NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book   XIII. 

needle  into  very  thin  leaves,  due  care  being  taken  that  they 
should  be  as  broad  as  possible.  That  of  the  first  quality  is 
taken  from  the  centre  of  the  plant,  and  so  in  regular  succession, 
according  to  the  order  of  division.  "  Hieratica"10  was  the  name 
that  was  anciently  given  to  it,  from  the  circumstance  that  it 
was  entirely  reserved  for  the  religious  books.  In  later  times, 
through  a  spirit  of  adulation,  it  received  the  name  of  "  Au- 
gusta," Just  as  that  of  second  quality  was  called  "  Liviana," 
from  his  wife,  Livia ;  the  consequence  of  which  was,  that  the 
name  "  hieratica"  came  to  designate  that  of  only  third-rate 
quality.  The  paper  of  the  next  quality  was  called  "  amphi- 
theatrica,"  from  the  locality11  of  its  manufacture.  The  skilful 
manufactory  that  was  established  by  Fannius12  at  Rome,  was  in 
the  habit  of  receiving  this  last  kind,  and  there,  by  a  very 
careful  process  of  insertion,  it  was  rendered  much  finer ;  so 
much  so,  that  from  being  a  common  sort,  he  made  it  a  paper  of 
first-rate  quality,  and  gave  his  own13  name  to  it:  while  that 
which  was  not  subjected  to  this  additional  process  retained 
its_  original  name  of  "  amphitheatrica."  Next  to  this  is  the 
Saitic  paper,  so  called  from  the  city  of  that  name,  u  where 
it  is  manufactured  in  very  large  quantities,  though  of  cuttings 
of  inferior 15  quality.  The  Taeniotic  paper,  so  called  from  a 
place  in  the  vicinity,16  is  manufactured  from  the  materials  that 
lie  nearer  to  the  outside  skin  ;  it  is  sold,  riot  according  to  its 
quality,  but  by  weight  only.     As  to  the  paper  that  is  known 

10  Or  "  holy  "  paper.  The  priests  would  not  allow  it  to  be  sold,  lest  it 
might  be  used  for  profane  writing  ;  but  after  it  was  once  written  upon,  it 
was  easily  procurable.  The  Romans  were  in  the  habit  of  purchasing  it 
largely  in  the  latter  state,  and  then  washing  off  the  writing,  and  using  it 
as  paper  of  the  finest  quality.  Hence  it  received  the  name  of  "Augustus," 
as  representing _ in  Latin  its  Greek  name  "  hieraticus,"  or  "sacred."  In 
length  of  time  it  became  the  common  impression,  as  here  mentioned,  that 
this  name  was  given  to  it  in  honour  of  Augustus  Caesar. 

11  Near  the  amphitheatre,  probably,  of  Alexandria. 

12  He  alludes  to  Q,.  Remmius  Fannius  Palaemon,  a  famous  grammarian 
of  Rome,  though  originally  a  slave.  Being  manumitted,  he  opened  a  school 
at  Rome,  which  was  resorted  to  by  great  numbers  of  pupils,  notwithstand- 
ing his  notoriously  bad  character.  He  appears  to  have  established,  also, 
a  manufactory  for  paper  at  Rome.  Suetonius,  in  his  treatise  on  Illustrious 
Grammarians,  gives  a  long  account  of  him.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  preceptor  of  Quintilian. 

13  Fanniana.  "  In  Lower  Egypt. 

15  Ex  vilioribus  ramentis.  1G  Of  Alexandria,  probably. 


Chap.  24.]  MODE  OF  TESTING  PAPER.  189 

as  "emporetica,"17  it  is  quite  useless  for  writing  upon,  and  is 
only  employed  for  wrapping  up  other  paper,  and  as  a  covering 
for  various  articles  of  merchandize,  whence  its  name,  as  being 
used  by  dealers.  After  this  comes  the  bark  of  the  papyrus, 
the  outer  skin  of  which  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
bulrush,  and  is  solely  used  for  making  ropes,  and  then  only 
for  those  which  have  to  go  into  the  water.18 

All  these  various  kinds  of  paper  are  made  upon  a  table, 
moistened  with  Nile  water ;  a  liquid  which,  when  in  a 
muddy  state,  has  the  peculiar  qualities  of  glue.19  This  table 
being  first  inclined,20  the  leaves  of  papyrus  are  laid  upon  it 
lengthwise,  as  long,  indeed,  as  the  papyrus  will  admit  of,  the 
jagged  edges  being  cut  off  at  either  end  ;  after  which  a  cross 
layer  is  placed  over  it,  the  same  way,  in  fact,  that  hurdles  are 
made.  "When  this  is  done,  the  leaves  are  pressed  close  together, 
and  then  dried  in  the  sun  ;  after  which  they  are  united  to  one 
another,  the  best  sheets  being  always  taken  first,  and  the  infe- 
rior ones  added  afterwards.  There  are  never  more  than 
twenty  of  these  sheets  to  a  roll.21 

CHAP.  24. THE  MODE  OF  TESTING  THE  GOODNESS  OF  PAPEK. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  breadth  of  the  various 
kinds  of  paper.  That  of  best  quality 23  is  thirteen  fingers  wide, 
while  the  hieratica  is  two  fingers  less.  The  Eanniana  is  ten 
fingers  wide,  and  that  known  as  "  amphitheatrica,"  one  less. 
The  Saitic  is  of  still  smaller  breadth,  indeed  it  is  not  so 
wide  as  the  mallet  with  which  the  paper  is  beaten ;  and  the 
emporetica  is  particularly  narrow,  being  not  more  than  six 
fingers  in  breadth. 

In  addition  to  the  above  particulars,  paper  is  esteemed 
according  to  its  fineness,  its  stoutness,  its  whiteness,  and  its 
smoothness.     Claudius  Csesar  effected  a  change  in  that  which 

17  "Shop-paper,"  or  "paper  of  commerce." 

18  Otherwise,  probably,  the  rope  would  not  long  hold  together. 

19  Fee  remarks,  that  this  is  by  no  means  the  fact.  With  M.  Poiret,  he 
questions  the  accuracy  of  Pliny's  account  of  preparing  the  papyrus,  and  is 
of  opinion  that  it  refers  more  probably  to  the  treatment  of  some  other 
vegetable  substance  from  which  paper  was  made. 

20  Primo  supina  tabulae  scheda. 

21  "Scapus."  This  was,  properly,  the  cylinder  on  which  the  paper  was 
rolled. 

22  Augustan. 


190  PLINY  3    NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

till  then  had  been  looked  upon  as  being  of  the  first  quality : 
for  the  Augustan  paper  had  been  found  to  be  so  remarkably 
fine,  as  to  offer  no  resistance  to  the  pressure  of  the  pen ;  in 
addition  to  which,  as  it  allowed  the  writing  upon  it  to  run 
through,  it  was  continually  causing  apprehensions  of  its  being 
blotted  and  blurred  by  the  writing  on  the  other  side  ;  the  re- 
markable transparency,  too,  of  the  paper  was  very  unsightly  to 
the  eye.  To  obviate  these  inconveniences,  a  groundwork  of 
paper  was  made  with  leaves  of  the  second  quality,  over  which 
was  laid  a  woof,  as  it  were,  formed  of  leaves  of  the  first.  He 
increased  the  width  also  of  paper ;  the  width  [of  the  common 
sort]  being  made  afoot,  and  that  of  the  size  known  as  "  macro- 
collum,"23  a  cubit ;  though  one  inconvenience  was  soon  detected 
in  it,  for,  upon  a  single  leaf24  being  torn  in  the  press,  more 
pages  were  apt  to  be  spoilt  than  before.25  In  consequence  of 
the  advantages  above-mentioned,  the  Claudian  has  come  to  be 
preferred  to  all  other  kinds  of  paper,  though  the  Augustan  is 
still  used  for  the  purposes  of  epistolary  correspondence.  The 
Livian,  which  had  nothing  in  common  with  that  of  first  quality, 
but  was  entirely  of  a  secondary  rank,  still  holds  its  former 
place.. 

CHAP.  25. THE  PECULIAR  DEFECTS  IN  PAPER. 

The  roughness  and  inequalities  in  paper  are  smoothed  down 
with  a  tooth26  or  shell ;  but  the  writing  in  such  places  is  very 
apt  to  fade.  "When  it  is  thus  polished  the  paper  does  not  take 
the  ink  so  readily,  but  is  of  a  more  lustrous  and  shining  surface. 
The  water  of  the  Nile  that  has  been  originally  employed  in 
its  manufacture,  being  sometimes  used  without  due  precaution, 
will  unfit  the  paper  for  taking  writing :  this  fault,  however, 
may  be  detected  by  a  blow  with  the  mallet,  or  even  by 
the  smell,27  when  the  carelessness  has  been  extreme.     These 

23  Or  "long  glued"  paper:  the  breadth  probably  consisted  of  tbat  of 
two  or  more  sheets  glued  or  pasted  at  the  edges,  the  seam  running  down 
the  roll. 

24  Scheda.  One  of  the  leaves  of  the  papyrus,  of  which  the  roll  of 
twenty,  joined  side  by  side,  was  formed. 

25  This  passage  is  difficult  to  be  understood,  and  various  attempts  have 
been  made  to  explain  it.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  his  meaning  is  that  the 
breadth  being  doubled,  the  tearing  of  one  leaf  or  half  breadth  entailed  of 
necessity  the  spoiling  of  another,  making  the  corresponding  half  breadth. 

20  He  perhaps  means  a  portion  of  an  elephant's  tusk. 
37  Meaning  a  damp,  musty  smell. 


Chap.  27.]  THE    BOOKS    OF   JHTHA.  191 

spots,  too,  may  be  detected  by  the  eye ;  but  the  streaks  that 
run  down  the  middle  of  the  leaves  where  they  have  been 
pasted  together,  though  they  render  the  paper  spongy  and  of 
a  soaking  nature,  can  hardly  ever  be  detected  before  the  ink 
runs,  while  the  pen  is  forming  the  letters ;  so  many  are  the 
openings  for  fraud  to  be  put  in  practice.  The  consequence  is, 
that  another  labour  has  been  added  to  the  due  preparation 
of  paper. 

CHAP.  26. THE  PASTE  USED  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF  PAPER. 

The  common  paper  paste  is  made  of  the  finest  flour  of  wheat 
mixed  with  boiling  water,  and  some  small  drops  of  vinegar 
sprinkled  in  it :  for  the  ordinary  workman's  paste,  or  gum, 
if  employed  for  this  purpose,  will  render  the  paper  brittle. 
Those,  however,  who  take  the  greatest  pains,  boil  the  crumb 
of  leavened  bread,  and  then  strain  off  the  water :  by  the 
adoption  of  this  method  the  paper  has  the  fewest  seams  caused 
by  the  paste  that  lies  between,  and  is  softer  than  the  nap  of 
linen  even.  All  kinds  of  paste  that  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
ought  not  to  be  older  or  newer  than  one  day.  The  paper  is 
then  thinned  out  with  a  mallet,  after  which  a  new  layer  of 
paste  is  placed  upon  it ;  then  the  creases  which  have  formed 
are  again  pressed  out,  and  it  then  undergoes  the  same  process 
with  the  mallet  as  before.  It  is  thus  that  we  have  memorials 
preserved  in  the  ancient  handwriting  of  Tiberius  and  Caius 
Gracchus,  which  I  have  seen  in  the  possession  of  Pomponius 
Secundus,28  the  poet,  a  very  illustrious  citizen,  almost  two 
hundred  years  since  those  characters  were  penned.  As  for  the 
handwriting  of  Cicero,  Augustus,  and  Virgil,  we  frequently 
see  them  at  the  present  day. 

CHAP.  27.   (13.) THE  BOOKS  OF  NTJMA. 

There  are  some  facts  of  considerable  importance  which  make 
against  the  opinion  expressed  by  M.  Varro,  relative  to  tho 
invention  of  paper.  Cassius  Hemina,  a  writer  of  very  great 
antiquity,  has  stated  in  the  Fourth  Book  of  his  Annals,  that 
Cneius  Terentius,  the  scribe,  while  engaged  in  digging  on  his 

2S  See  B.  vii.  c.  18,  and  B.  xiv.  c.  6.  Also  the  Life  of  Pliny,  in  the 
Introduction  to  Vol.  i.  p.  vii. 


192  FLINT'S  natural  history.  [Book  XIII. 

land,  in  the  Janiculum,  came  to  a  coffer,  in  which  Nunia  had 
been  buried,  the  former  king  of  Rome,  and  that  in  this  coffer 
were  also  found  some  books23  of  his.  This  took  place  in  the 
consulship  of  Publius  Cornelius  Cethegus,  the  son  of  Lucius, 
and  of  M.  Basbius  Tamphilus,  the  son  of  Quintus,  the  interval 
between  whose  consulship  and  the  reign  of  Numa  was  five 
hundred  and  thirty-five  years.  These  books  were  made  of 
paper,  and,  a  thing  that  is  more  remarkable  still,  is  the  fact 
that  they  lasted  so  many  years  buried  in  the  ground.  In 
order,  therefore,  to  establish  a  fact  of  such  singular  import- 
ance, I  shall  here  quote  the  words  of  Hemina  himself — "  Some 
persons  expressed  wonder  how  these  books  could  have  possibly 
lasted  so  long  a  time — this  was  the  explanation  that  Teren- 
tius  gave  :  '  In  nearly  the  middle  of  the  coffer  there  lay  a  square 
stone,  bound  on  every  side  with  cords  enveloped  in  wax  ;30 
upon  this  stone  the  books  had  been  placed,  and  it  was  through 
this  precaution,  he  thought,  that  they  had  not  rotted.  The 
books,  too,  were  carefully  covered  with  citrus  leaves,31  and  it 
was  through  this,  in  his  belief,  that  they  had  been  protected 
from  the  attacks  of  worms.'  In  these  books  were  written 
certain  doctrines  relative  to  the  Pythagorean  philosophy  ;  they 
were  burnt  by  Q.  Petilius,  the  prsetor,  because  they  treated 
of  philosophical  subjects."32 

Piso,  who  had  formerly  been  censor,  relates  the  same  facts 
in  the  First  Book  of  his  Commentaries,  but  he  states  in  addition, 
that  there  were  seven  books  on  Pontifical  Eights,  and  seven  on 
the  Pythagorean  philosophy.33  Tuditanus,  in  his  Fourteenth 
Book,  says  that  they  contained  the  decrees  of  Numa  :  Yarro,  in 
the  Seventh  Book  of  his  "  Antiquities  of  Mankind,"  u  states  that 
they  were  twelve  in  number ;  and  Antias,  in  his  Second  Book, 
says  that  there  were  twelve  written  in  Latin,  on  pontifical 

29  This  story,  no  doubt,  deserves  to  be  rejected  as  totally  fabulous,  even 
though,  we  have  Hemina's  word  for  it. 

3U  See  B.  xvi.  c.  70. 

31  B.  xii.  c.  7,  and  B.  xiii.  e.  31.  It  was  thought  that  the  leaves 
and  juices  of  the  cedar  and  the  citrus  preserved  books  and  linen  from  the 
attacks  of  noxious  insects. 

3'2  And  because.,  as  Livy  says,  their  doctrines  were  inimical  to  the  then 
existing  religion. 

33  Val.  Maximus  says  that  there  were  some  books  written  in  Latin,  on 
the  pontifical  rights,  and  others  in  Greek  on  philosophical  subjects. 

34  Humanas  Antiquitates. 


Chap.  28.]  THE    TREES    OF   ETHIOPIA.  193 

matters,  and  as  many  in  Greek,  containing  philosophical  pre- 
cepts. The  same  author  states  also  in  his  Third  Book  why 
it  was  thought  proper  to  burn  them. 

It  is  a  fact  acknowledged  by  all  writers,  that  the  Sibyl35 
brought  three  books  to  Tarquinius  Superbus,  of  which  two 
were  burnt  by  herself,  while  the  third  perished  by  fire  with 
the  Capitol36  in  the  days  of  Sylla.  In  addition  to  these  tacts, 
Mucianus,  who  was  three  times  consul,  has  stated  that  he  had 
recently  read,  while  governor  of  Lycia,  a  letter  written  upon 
paper,  and  preserved  in  a  certain  temple  there,  which  had 
been  written  from  Troy,  by  Sarpedon ;  a  thing  that  surprises 
me  the  more,  if  it  really  was  the  fact  that  even  in  the  time 
of  Homer  the  country  that  we  call  Egypt  was  not  in  exist- 
ence.37 And  why  too,  if  paper  was  then  in  use,  was  it  the 
custom,  as  it  is  very  well  known  it  was,  to  write  upon  leaden 
tablets  and  linen  cloths  ?  Why,  too,  has  Homer38  stated  that 
in  Lycia  tablets39  were  given  to  Bellerophon  to  carry,  and  not 
a  paper  letter  ? 

Papyrus,  for  making  paper,  is  apt  to  fail  occasionally ;  such 
a  thing  happened  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  when 
there  was  so  great  a  scarcity40  of  paper  that  members  of  the 
senate  were  appointed  to  regulate  the  distribution  of  it :  had 
not  this  been  done,  all  the  ordinary  relations  of  life  would 
have  been  completely  disarranged. 

CHAP.  28.   (14.) THE  TREES  OF  JETHIOPIA. 

^Ethiopia,  which  borders  upon  Egypt,  has  in  general  no 
remarkable  trees,  with  the  exception  of  the  wool-bearing41 
ones,  of  which  we  have  had  occasion  to  speak42  in  our  descrip- 
tion of  the  trees  of  India  and  Arabia.     However,  the  produce 

35  See  B.  xxxiv.  c.  11.  36  See  B.  xxxiii.  c.  5. 

37  He  implies  that  it  could  not  have  been  written  upon  paper,  as  the 
papyrus  and  the  districts  which  produced  it  were  not  in  existence  in  the 
time  of  .Homer.  No  doubt  this  so-called  letter,  if  shown  at  all,  was  a  for- 
gery, a  "pia  fraus."     See  c.  21  of  the  present  Book. 

38  II.  B.  vi.  1.  168. 

39  "  Codicillos,"  as  meaning  characters  written  on  a  surface  of  wood. 
7riVcr£,  as  Homer  calls  it. 

40  It  was  probably  then  that  the  supply  of  it  first  began  to  fail;  in  the 
sixth  century  it  was  still  -used,  but  by  the  twelfth  it  had  wholly  fallen 
into  disuse. 

41  The  cotton-tree,  Gossypium  arboreum  of  Linnaeus. 
«  See  B.  xii.  c.  21,  22. 

VOL.    III.  O 


194  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

of  the  tree  of  ^Ethiopia  bears  a  much  stronger  resemblance  to 
wool,  and  the  follicule  is  much  larger,  being  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  a  pomegranate  ;  as  for  the  trees,  they  are  other- 
wise similar  in  every  respect.  Besides  this  tree,  there  are 
some  palms,  of  which  we  have  spoken  already.43  In  describing 
the  islands  along  the  coast  of  ^Ethiopia,  we  have  already  made 
mention44  of  their  trees  and  their  odoriferous  forests. 

CHAP.  29.  (15.) THE  TREES  OE  MOUNT  ATLAS.      THE  CITRUS,  AND 

THE   TABLES  MADE  OF  THE  WOOD  THEREOF. 

Mount  Atlas  is  said  to  possess  a  forest  of  trees  of  a  peculiar 
character,45  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.46  In  the  vicinity 
of  this  mountain  is  Mauretania,  a  country  which  abounds  in 
the  citrus,47  a  tree  which  gave  rise  to  the  mania48  for  fine 
tables,  an  extravagance  with  which  the  women  reproach  the 
men,  when  they  complain  of  their  vast  outlay  upon  pearls. 
There  is  preserved  to  the  present  day  a  table  which  belonged 
to  M.  Cicero,49  and  for  which,  notwithstanding  his  compara- 
tively moderate  means,  and  what  is  even  more  surprising  still, 
at  that  day  too,  he  gave  no  less  than  one50  million  sesterces : 
we  find  mention  made  also  of  one  belonging  to  Gallus  Asinius, 
which  cost  one  million  one  hundred  thousand  sesterces.  Two 
tables  were  also  sold  by  auction  which  had  belonged  to  King 
Juba ;  the  price  fetched  by  one  was  one  million  two  hundred 
thousand  sesterces,  and  that  of  the  other  something  less. 
There  has  been  lately  destroyed  by  fire,  a  table  which  came 
down  from  the  family  of  the  Cetliegi,  and  which  had  been  sold 
for  the  sum  of  one  million  four  hundred  thousand  sesterces, 
the  price  of  a  considerable  domain,  if  any  one,  indeed,  could  be 
found  who  would  give  so  large  a  sum  for  an  estate. 

43  In  c.  9  of  the  present  Book.  44  See  B.  vi.  c.  36,  37. 

45  Desfontaines  observed  in  the  vicinity  of  Atlas,  several  trees  pecu- 
liar to  that  district.  Among  others  of  this  nature,  he  names  the  Pistacia 
Atlantica,  and  the  Thuya  articulata. 

46  See  B.  v.  c.  1. 

47  Generally  supposed  to  be  the  Thuya  articulata  of  Desfontaines,  the 
Cedrus  Atlantica  of  other  botanists. 

48  This  rage  for  fine  tables  made  of  the  citrus  is  alluded  to,  among  others, 
by  Martial  and  Petronius  Arbiter.     See  also  Lucan,  A.  ix.  B.  426,  et.  scq. 

49  It  is  a  rather  curious  fact  that  it  is  in  Cicero's  works  that  we  find 
the  earliest  mention  made  of  citrus  tables,  2nd  Oration  ag.  Verres,  s.  4  : — 
"  You  deprived  Q.  Lutatius  Diodorus  of  Lilybaeum  of  a  citrus  table  of  re- 
markable age  and  beauty."  ^  Somewhere  about  £9000. 


Chap.  30.]  CITRUS    T1BLES.  195 

The  largest  table  that  has  ever  yet  been  known  was  one 
that  belonged  to  PtolemaBus,  king  of  Mauretania ;  it  was  made 
of  two  semicircumferences  joined  together  down  the  middle, 
being  four  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  a  quarter  of  a  foot 
in  thickness :  the  most  wonderful  fact,  however,  connected 
with  it,  was  the  surprising  skill  with  which  the  joining  had 
been  concealed,51  and  which  rendered  it  more  valuable  than  if 
it  had  been  by  nature  a  single  piece  of  wood.  The  largest 
table  that  is  made  of  a  single  piece  of  wood,  is  the  one  that 
takes  its  name52  from  Nomius,  a  freedman  of  Tiberius  Caesar. 
The  diameter  of  it  is  four  feet,  short  by  three  quarters  of  an 
inch,  and  it  is  half  a  foot  in  thickness,  less  the  same  fraction. 
While  speaking  upon  this  subject,  I  ought  not  to  omit  to  men- 
tion that  the  Emperor  Tiberius  had  a  table  that  exceeded  four 
feet  in  diameter  by  two  inches  and  a  quarter,  and  was  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  thickness :  this,  however,  was  only  covered  with 
a  veneer  of  citrus-wood,  while  that  which  belonged  to  his 
freedman  Nomius  was  so  costly,  the  whole  material  of  which 
it  was  composed  being  knotted  53  wood. 

These  knots  are  properly  a  disease  or  excrescence  of  the 
root,  and  those  used  for  this  purpose  are  more  particularly 
esteemed  which  have  lain  entirely  concealed  under  ground ; 
they  are  much  more  rare  than  those  that  grow  above  ground, 
and  that  are  to  be  found  on  the  branches  also.  Thus,  to  speak 
correctly,  that  which  we  buy  at  so  vast  a  price  is  in  reality  a 
defect  in  the  tree  :  of  the  size  and  root  of  it  a  notion  may  be 
easily  formed  from  the  circular  sections  of  its  trunk.  The 
tree  resembles  the  wild  female  cypress54  in  its  foliage,  smell, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  trunk.  A  spot  called  Mount  Anco- 
rarius,  in  Nearer  Mauretania,  used  formerly  to  furnish  the 
most  esteemed  citrus-wood,  but  at  the  present  day  the  supply 
is  quite  exhausted. 

CHAP.-  30. — THE    POINTS    THAT    ARE    DESIKABLE  OR  OTHERWISE   IN 

THESE    TABLES. 

The  principal  merit  of  these  tables  is  to  have  veins55  arranged 

51  This  is  considered  nothing  remarkable  at  the  present  day,  such  is  the 
skill  displayed  by  our  cabinet-makers. 

5-  Called  "  Nomiana."  f  Tuber.  _ 

5i  The  European  Cyprus,  the  Cupressus  sempervirens  of  Linn.eus. 
65  These  veins  were  nothing  in  reality  but  the  lines  of  the  layers  or 

o  2 


196  PLINY'S   2TATUEAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XIII. 

in  waving  lines,  or  else  forming  spirals  like  so  many  little 
whirlpools.  In  the  former  arrangement  the  lines  run  in  an 
oblong  direction,  for  which  reason  these  are  called  "  tiger"56 
tables ;  while  in  the  latter  the  marks  are  circling  and  spiral, 
and  hence  they  are  styled  "panther"37  tables.  There  are 
some  tables  also  with  wavy,  undulating  marks,  and  which  are 
more  particularly  esteemed  if  these  resemble  the  eyes  on  a 
peacock's  tail.  Next  in  esteem  to  these  last,  as  well  as  those 
previously  mentioned,  is  the  veined  wood,56  covered,  as  it  were, 
with  dense  masses  of  grain,  for  which  reason  these  tables  have 
received  the  name  of  "  apiatse." 59  But  the  colour  of  the  wood 
is  the  quality  that  is  held  in  the  highest  esteem  of  all :  that 
of  wine  mixed  with  honey60  being  the  most  prized,  theveinsbeing 
peculiarly  refulgent.  Next  to  the  colour,  it  is  the  size  that  is 
prized  ;  at  the  present  day  whole  trunks  are  greatly  admired, 
and  sometimes  several  are  united  in  a  single  table. 

The  peculiar  defects  in  these  kinds  of  tables  are  woodiness,61 
such  being  the  name  given  to  the  table  when  the  wood  is  dull, 
common-looking,  indistinct,  or  else  has  mere  simple  marks 
upon  it,  resembling  the  leaves  of  the  plane-tree ;  also,  when 
it  resembles  the  veins  of  the  holm-oak  or  the  colour  of  that 
tree;  and,  a  fault  to  which  it  is  peculiarly  liable  from  the 
effect  of  heat  or  wind,  when  it  has  flaws  in  it  or  hair-like  lines 
resembling  flaws  ;  when  it  has  a  black  mark,  too,  running 
through  it  resembling  a  murena  in  appearance,  various  streaks 
that  look  like  crow  scratches,  or  knots  like  poppy  heads,  with  a 
colour  all  over  nearly  approaching  to  black,  or  blotches  of  a 
sickly  hue.  The  barbarous  tribes  bury  this  wood  in  the 
ground  while  green,  first  giving  it  a  coating  of  wax.  When 
it  comes  into  the  workmen's  hands,  they  put  it  for  seven  days 
beneath  a  heap  of  corn,   and  then  take  it  out  for  as  many 

strata  lignea,  running  perpendicularly  iu  the  trunk,  and  the  number  of 
which  denotes  the  age  of  the  tree. 

=6  «  Tigrince." 

57  "  Pantherinae."  The  former  tables  were  probably  made  of  small  pieces 
from  the  trunk,  the  latter  from  the  sections  of  the  tubers  or  knots. 

ss  "Crispis." 

59  Or  "  parsley-seed  "  tables.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  word 
comes  from  "apis,"  a  bee;  the  wood  presenting  the  appearance  of  being 
covered  with  swarms  of  bees. 

60  "Mulsum."  This  mixture  will  be  found  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
next  Book. 

cl  Lignum. 


Chap.  30.]  CITRUS    TABLES.  197 

more  :  it  is  quite  surprising  how  greatly  it  loses  in  weight  by 
this  process.  Shipwrecks  have  recently  taught  us  also  that  this 
wood  is  dried  by  the  action  of  sea-water,  and  that  it  thereby 
acquires  a  hardness63  and  a  degree  of  density  which  render  it 
proof  against  corruption  r  no  other  method  is  equally  sure  to 
produce  these  results.  These  tables  are  kept  best,  and  shine 
with  the  greatest  lustre,  when  rubbed  with  the  dry  hand, 
more  particularly  just  after  bathing.  As  if  this  wood  had 
been  created  for  the  behoof  of  wine,  it  receives  no  injury 
from  it. 

(16.)  As  this  tree  is  one  among  the  elements  of  more  civil- 
ized life,  I  think  that  it  is  as  well  on  the  present  occasion  to 
dwell  a  little  further  upon  it.  It  was  known  to  Homer  even, 
and  in  the  Greek  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  thyon,"63  or 
sometimes  "thya."  He  says  that  the  wood  of  this  tree  was 
among  the  unguents  that  were  burnt  for  their  pleasant  odour 
by  Circe,64  whom  he  would  represent  as  being  a  goddess ;  a 
circumstance  which  showrs  the  great  mistake  committed  by 
those  who  suppose  that  perfumes  are  meant  under  that  name,64* 
seeing  that  in  the  very  same  line  he  says  that  cedar  and  larch 
were  burnt  along  with  this  wood,  a  thing  that  clearly  proves 
that  it  is  only  of  different  trees  that  he  is  speaking.  Theo- 
phrastus,  an  author  who  wrote  in  the  age  succeeding  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  about  the  year  of  the  City  of  Rome 
440,  has  awarded  a  very  high  rank  to  this  tree,  stating  that  it 
is  related  that  the  raftering  of  the  ancient  temples  used  to  be 
made  of  this  wood,  and  that  the  timber,  when  employed  in 
roofs,  will  last  for  ever,  so  to  say,  being  proof  against  all  de- 
cay,— quite  incorruptible,  in  fact.  He  also  says  that  there  is 
nothing  more  full  of  wavy  veins65  than  the  root  of  this  tree,  and 
that  there  is  no  workmanship  in  existence  more  precious  than 
that  made  of  this  material.  The  finest  kind  of  citrus  grows, 
he  says,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Hammon ; 
he  states  also  that  it  is  produced  in  the  lower  part  of  Cyre- 
naica.  He  has  made  no  mention,  however,  of  the  tables  that 
are  made  of  it ;  indeed,  we  have  no  more  ancient  accounts  of 

62  Fee  remarks  that  this  is  incorrect,  and  that  this  statement  betrays  an 
entire  ignorance  of  the  vegetable  physiology. 

66  Qvov,  "  wood  of  sacrifice." 

64  Od.  B.  v.  1.  60.  Pliny  makes  a  mistake  in  saying  "  Circe ;"  it  should 
be  "  Calypso. 

w*  ei/o*\  65  Crispius. 


198  pltny's    NATURAL  HISTOET.  [Book  XIII. 

them  than  those  of  the  time  of  Cicero,  from  which  it  would 
appear  that  they  are  a  comparatively  recent  invention. 

CHAP.   31. THE    CTTRON-TBEE. 

There  is  another  tree  also  which  has  the  same  name  of 
"  citrus,"66  and  hears  a  fruit  that  is  held  by  some  persons  in 
particular  dislike  for  its  smell  and  remarkable  bitterness ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  who  esteem  it  very 
highly.  This  tree  is  used  as  an  ornament  to  houses ;  it  re- 
quires, however,  no  further  description. 

CHAP.   32.  (17.) THE  LOTUS. 

Africa,  too,  at  least  that  part  of  it  which  looks  towards 
our  shores,  produces  a  remarkable  tree,  the  lotus,67  by  some 
known  as  the  "celtis,"  which  has  also  been  naturalized  in  Italy,63 
though  it  has  been  somewhat  modified  by  the  change  of  soil. 
The  finest  quality  of  lotus  is  that  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Syrtes  and  among  the  Nasamones.  It  is  the  same  size  as  the 
pear-tree,  although  Cornelius  Nepos  states  to  the  effect  that  it 
is  but  short.  The  leaves  have  numerous  incisions,  just  as  with 
those  of  the  holm-oak.  There  are  many  varieties  of  the  lotus, 
which  are  characterized  more  particularly  by  the  difference  in 
their  respective  fruits.  The  fruit  is  of  about  the  size  of  a 
bean,  and  its  colour  is  that  of  saffron,  though  before  it  is  ripe 
it  is  continually  changing  its  tints,  like  the  grape.  It  has 
branches  thickly  set  with  leaves,  like  the  myrtle,  and  not, 
as  with  us  in  Italy,  like  the  cherry.  In  the  country  to 
which  this  tree  is  indigenous,  the  fruit  of  it  is  so  remarkably 
sweet  and  luscious,  that  it  has  even  given  its  name  to  a  whole 
territory,  and  to  a  nation69  who,  by  their  singular  hospitality, 
have  even  seduced  strangers  who  have  come  among  them,  to 
lose  all  remembrance  of  their  native  country.  It  is  said  also, 
that  those  who  eat  this  fruit  are  subject  to  no  maladies  of  the 
stomach.  The  fruit  which  has  no  stone  in  the  inside  is  the 
best :  this  stone  in  the  other  kind  seems  to  be  of  an  osseous 
nature.     A  wine  is  also  extracted  from  this  fruit  very  similar 

66  He  alludes  to  the  citron,  the  Citrus  Medica  of  Linnaeus.    See  B.  xii.  c.  7. 

67  The  Rhamnus  lotus  of  Linnaeus ;  the  Zizyphus  lotus  of  Desfontaines. 

68  The  Celtis  australis  of  Linnaeus.  Fee  remarks  that  Pliny  is  in  error 
in  giving  the  name  of  Celtis  to  the  lotus  of  Africa. 

69  The  Lotophagi.     See  B.  v.  c.  7. 


Chap.  32.] 


THE   LOTUS.  199 


to  honied  wine ;  according  to  Nepos,  however,  it  will  not  last 
above  ten  days ;  he  states  also  that  the  berries  are  chopped  up 
with  alica,70  and  then  put  away  in  casks  for  the  table.  In- 
deed, we  read  that  armies  have  been  fed  upon  this  food  whan 
marching  to  and  fro  through  the  territory  of  Africa.  The 
wood  is  of  a  black  colour,  and  is  held  in  high  esteem  for  making 
flutes ;  from  the  root  also  they  manufacture  handles  for  knives, 
and  various  other  small  articles. 

Such  is  the  nature  of  the  tree  that  is  so  called  in  Africa ;  the 
same  name  being  also  given  to  a  certain 71  herb,  and  to  a  stalk" 
that  grows  in  Egypt  belonging  to  the  marsh  plants.  This  last 
plant  springs  up  when  the  waters  of  the  Nile  have  retired  after 
its  overflow  :  its  stalk  is  similar  to  that  of  the  bean,  and  its 
leaves  are  numerous  and  grow  in  thick  clusters,  but  are  shorter 
and  more  slender  than  those  of  the  bean.  The  fruit  grows  on 
the  head  of  the  plant,  and  is  similar  in  appearance  to  a  poppy 
in  its  indentations73  and  all  its  other  characteristics ;  withm 
there  are  small  grains,  similar  to  those  of  millet.74  The  in- 
habitants lay  these  heads  in  large  heaps,  and  there  let  them 
rot,  after  which  they  separate  the  grain  from  the  residue  by 
washing,  and  then  dry  it;  when  this  is  done  they  pound  it, 
and  then  use  it  as  flour  for  making  a  kind  of  bread.  What  is 
stated  in  addition  to  these  particulars,  is  a  very  singular 75  fact ; 
it  is  said  that  when  the  sun  sets,  these  poppy-heads  shut  and 
cover  themselves  in  the  leaves,  and  at  sun-rise  they  open 
again ;  an  alternation  which  continues  until  the  fruit  is  per- 
fectly ripe,  and  the  flower,  which  is  white,  falls  off. 

(18.)  Even  more  than  this,  of  the  lotus  of  the  Euphrates,76 
it  is  said  that  the  head  and  flower  of  the  plant,  at  nightfall, 
sink  into  the  water,  and  there  remain  till  midnight,  so  deep  m 
the  water,  that  on  thrusting  in  one's  arm,  the  head  cannot  be 
reached  :  after  midnight  it  commences  to  return  upwards,  and 
gradually  becomes  more  and  more  erect  till-  sunrise,  when  it 

w  A  kind  of  grain  diet.    See  B.  xviii.  c.  29,  and  B.  xxii.  c.  61. 

«  The  Melilotus  officinalis  of  Linnaeus. 

72  The  Nymphaea  Nelumbo  of  Linnaeus,  or  Egyptian  bean. 

«  He  speaks  of  the  indentations  on  the  surface  of  the  poppy-head. 

74  See  B.  xxii.  c.  28.  ^ 

75  Fee  remarks  that  there  is  nothing  singular  about  it,  the  sun  more  or 
less  exercising  a  similar  influence  on  all  plants. 

76  The  same  as  the  Nymphaaa  Nelumbo  of  the  Nile,  according  to  Uee. 


200  pltnt's  natural  history.  [Book  XIII. 

emerges  entirely  from  the  water  and  opens  its  flower ;  after 
which  it  still  continues  to  rise,  until  at  last  it  is  to  be  seen 
raised  quite  aloft,  high  above  the  level  of  the  water.  This 
lotus  has  a  root  about  the  size  of  a  quince,  enveloped  in  a  black 
skin,  similar  to  that  with  which  the  chesnut  is  covered.  The 
substance  that  lies  within  this  skin  is  white,  and  forms  very 
pleasaut  food,  but  is  better  cooked,  either  in  water  or  upon 
hot  ashes,  then  in  a  raw  state.  Swine  fatten  upon  nothing 
better  than  the  peelings  of  this  root. 

CHAP.  33.   (19.) THE  TREES  Of  CYRENAICA.       THE  PALIURUS. 

The  region  of  Cyrenaica  places  before  the  lotus  its  paliurus,77 
which  is  more  like  a  shrub  in  character,  and  bears  a  fruit  of 
a  redder  colour.  This  fruit  contains  a  nut,  the  kernel  of  which 
is  eaten  by  itself,  and  is  of  a  very  agreeable  flavour.  The 
taste  of  it  is  improved  by  wine,  and,  in  fact,  the  juices  are 
thought  to  be  an  improvement  to  wine.  The  interior  of 
Africa,  as  far  as  the  Garamantes  and  the  deserts,  is  covered 
with  palms,  remarkable  for  their  extraordinary  size  and  the 
lusciousness  of  their  fruit.  The  most  celebrated  are  those  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Hammon. 

CHAP.  34. NINE  VARIETIES  OF  THE  PUNIC  APPLE.       BALAUSTIUM. 

But  the  vicinity  of  Carthage  is  claimed  more  particularly  as 
its  own  by  the  fruit  the  name  of  which  is  the  "  Punic  apple;"78 
though  by  some  it  is  called  "  granatum."79  This  fruit  has 
been  distinguished  into  a  variety  of  kinds;  the  name  of 
"  apyrenum"  80  being  given  to  the  one  which  has  no81  woody 
seeds  inside,  but  is  naturally  whiter  than  the  others,  the  pips 
being  of  a  more  agreeable  flavour,  and  the  membranes  by 
which  they  are  separated  not  so  bitter.     Their  conformation  in 

77  Probably  the  Phamnus  paliurus  of  Linnseus ;  the  Spina  Christi  of 
other  botanists. 

78  The  pomegranate,  the  Punica  granatum  of  botanists. 

79  Or  "grained  apple." 

60  From  the  Greek  ctTrvprjvov,  "without  kernel."  This  Fee  would  not 
translate  literally,  but  as  meaning  that  by  cultivation  the  grains  had  been 
reduced  to  a  very  diminutive  size.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  57. 

81  This  variety  appears  to  be  extinct.     Fee  doubts  if  it  ever  existed. 

w  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  57 


Chap.  36.]  THE    TRAGION.  201 

other  respects,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  partitions  of  the 
cells  in  the  honeycomb,  is  much  the  same  in  all.  Of  those 
that  have  a  kernel  there  are  five  kinds,  the  sweet,  the  acrid, 
the  mixed,  the  acid,  and  the  vinous :  those  of  Samos  and 
Egypt  are  distinguished  into  those  with  red,  and  those  with 
white  foliage.82  The  skin,  while  the  fruit  is  yet  sour,  is  held 
in  high  esteem  for  tanning  leather.  The  flower  of  this  tree  is 
known  by  the  name  of  "  balaustium,"  and  is  very  useful  for 
medicinal  purposes ; 83  also  for  dyeing  cloths  a  colour  which 
from  it  has  derived  its  name.85 

CHAP.  35.  (20.) THE  TREES  OF  ASIA  AND  GEEECE  ;    THE  EPIPACTIS, 

THE  ERICA,  THE    CNIDIAN    GRAIN    OR    THYMEL^A,  PYROSACHNE, 
CNESTRON,  OR  CNEORON. 

In  Asia  and  Greece  are  produced  the  following  shrubs,  the 
epipactis,86  by  some  known  as  "  elleborine,"  the  leaves  of 
which  are  of  small  size,  and  when  taken  in  drink,  are  an 
antidote  against  poison  ;  just  in  the  same  way  that  those  of 
the  erica 87  are  a  specific  against  the  sting  of  the  serpent. 

(21.)  Here  is  also  found  another  shrub,  upon  which  grows 
the  grain  of  Cnidos,8S  by  some  known  as  "  linum  ;  "  the  name 
of  the  shrub  itself  being  thymelsea,89  while  others,  again,  call  it 
"  chamelsea, 90  others  pyrosachne,  others  cnestron,  and  others 
cneorum ;  it  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  wild  olive,  but 
has  a  narrow  leaf,  which  has  a  gummy  taste  in  the  mouth. 
The  shrub  is  of  about  the  size  of  the  myrtle ;  its  seed  is  of  the 
same  colour  and  appearance,  but  is  solely  used  for  medicinal 
purposes. 

CHAP.  36. THE  TRAGION  :    TRAGACANTHE. 

The  island  of  Crete  is  the  only  place  that  produces  the 

82  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  57.  83  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  60. 

85  "  Puniceus,"  namely,  a  kind  of  purple. 

86  See  B.  xxvii.  c.  52.  Sprengel  thinks  that  this  is  the  Neottia  spiralis 
cf  Schwartz;  but  Fee  is  of  opinion  that  it  has  not  hitherto  been  identified. 

87  Probably  the  Erica  arborea  of  Linnaeus,  or  "  heath  "  in  its  several 
varieties. 

88  Granum  Cnidium.     The  shrub  is  the  Daphne  Cnidium  of  Linnaeus. 

89  The  "thyme-olive.". 

90  The  "ground  olive,"  or  "  small  olive."  Dioscorides  makes  a  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  last ;  and  Sprengel  has  followed  it,  naming  the 
last  Daphne  Cnidium,  and  the  first  Daphne  Cneorum. 


202  PLINY'S  NATURAL  IIISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

shrub  called  "  tragion."  91  It  is  similar  in  appearance  to  the 
terebinth ; 93  a  similarity  which  extends  to  the  seed  even,  said 
to  be  remarkably  efficacious  for  healing  wounds  made  by 
arrows.  The  same  island  produces  tragacanthe93  also,  with  a 
root  which  resembles  that  of  the  white  thorn ;  it  is  very  much 
preferred  M  to  that  which  is  grown  in  Media  or  in  Achaia ;  the 
price  at  which  it  sells  is  three  denarii  per  pound. 

CHAP.  37. THE  TEAGOS  OB  SCOBPIO  ;    THE  MrEICA  OE  BETA  J    THE 

OSTEYS. 

Asia,  too,  produces  the  tragos 95  or  scorpio,  a  thorny  shrub, 
destitute  of  leaves,  with  red  clusters  upon  it  that  are  employed 
in  medicine.  Italy  produces  the  myrica,  which  some  persons 
cali  the  "tamarix;"  96  and  Achaia,  the  wild  brya,97  remarkable 
for  the  circumstance  that  it  is  only  the  cultivated  kind  that 
bears  a  fruit,  not  unlike  the  gall-nut.  In  Syria  and  Egypt 
this  plant  is  very  abundant.  It  is  to  the  trees  of  this  last 
country  that  we  give  the  name  of  "  unhappy  ;"98  but  yet  those 
of  Greece  are  more  unhappy  still,  for  that  country  produces  the 
tree  known  as  "  ostrys,"  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  "ostrya,"  " 
a  solitary  tree  that  grows  about  rocks  washed  by  the  water, 
and  very  similar  in  the  bark  and  branches  to  the  ash.     It  re- 

31  See  B.  xxvii.  c.  115. 

92  He  says  elsewhere  that  it  is  like  the  juniper,  which,  however,  is  not 
the  case.  Guettard  thinks  that  the  tragion  is  the  Androsremon  fetidum, 
the  Hyperium  hircinum  of  the  modern  botanists.  Sprengel  also  adopts 
the  same  opinion.  Fee  is  inclined  to  think  that  it  was  a  variety  of  the 
Pistacia  lentiscus. 

93  Goat's  thorn.     The  Astragalus  Creticus  of  Linnaeus. 

94  He  speaks  of  gum  tragacanth. 

95  See  B.  xxvii.  c.  11G.  Sprengel  identifies  it  with  the  Salsola  tragus 
of  Linnaeus. 

96  Probably  the  Tamarix  Gallica  of  Linnaeus.  Fee  says,  in  relation  to 
the  myrica,  that  it  would  seem  that  the  ancients  united  in  one  collective 
name,  several  plants  which  resembled  each  other,  not  in  their  botanical 
characteristics,  but  in  outward  appearance.  To  this,  he  says,  is  owing 
the  fact  that  Dioscorides  calls  the  myrica  a  tree,  Favorinus  a  herb ; 
Dioscorides  says  that  it  is  fruitful,  Nicander  and  Pliny  call  it  barren ; 
Yirgil  calls  it  small,  and  Theophrastus  says  that  it  is  large. 

97  Fee  thinks  that  it  is  the  Tamarix  onentalis  of  Delille. 

98  "  Infelix,"  meaning  '•'  sterile."  He  seems  to  say  this  more  particularly 
in  reference  to  the  brya,  which  Egypt  produces.  As  to  this  use  of  the  word 
"infelix,"  see  B.  xvi.  c.  46. 

99  Sprengel  and  Fee  identify  this  with  the  Ostrya  vulgaris  of  Willdenow, 
the  Carpinus  ostrya  of  Linnseus. 


Chap.  39.]  THE   TREE   CALLED   EOK.  203 

sembles  the  pear-tree  in  its  leaves,  which,  however,  are  a  little 
longer  and  thicker,  with  wrinkled  indentations  running  down 
the  whole  length  of  the  leaf.  The  seed  of  this  tree  resembles 
barley  in  form  and  colour.  The  wood  is  hard  and  solid ;  it  is 
said,  that  if  it  is  introduced  into  a  house,  it  is  productive  of 
painful  deliveries  and  of  shocking  deaths. 

CHAP.  38.  (22.) THE    ETJ0NY1I0S. 

There  is  no  tree  productive  of  a  more  auspicious  presage 
than  one  which  grows  in  the  Isle  of  Lesbos,  and  is  known  by 
the  name  of  euonymos.1  It  bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
pomegranate  tree,  the  leaf  being  in  size  between  the  leaf  of 
that  and  the  leaf  of  the  laurel,  while  in  shape  and  softness  it 
resembles  that  of  the  pomegranate  tree  :  it  has  a  white  blos- 
som,2 by  which  it  immediately  gives  us  notice  of  its  dangerous 
properties.3  It  bears  a  pod 4  very  similar  to  that  of  sesame, 
within  which  there  is  a  grain  of  quadrangular  shape,  of  coarse 
make  and  poisonous  to  animals.  The  leaf,  too,  has  the  same 
noxious  effects ;  sometimes,  however,  a  speedy  alvine  discharge 
is  found  to  give  relief  on  such  occasions. 

CHAP.  39. THE  TEEE  CALLED  EON. 

Alexander  Cornelius  has  called  a  tree  by  the  name  of 
"  eon,"  5  with  the  wood  of  which,  he  says,  the  ship  Argo  was 
built.  This  tree  has  on  it  a  mistletoe  similar  to  that  of  the 
oak,  which  is  proof  against  all  injury  from  either  fire  or  water, 

1  Or  the  "  luckily  named."  It  grew  on  Mount  Ordymnus  in  Lesbos. 
See  Theophrastus,  B.  ii.  c.  31. 

2  The  Evonymus  Europaeus,  or  else  the  Evonymus  latifolius  of  bota- 
nists, is  probably  intended  to  be  indicated  ;  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  say  that 
it  is  poisonous  to  animals.  On  the  contrary,  Fee  says  that  sheep  will 
fatten  on  its  leaves  very  speedily. 

3  "  Statim  pestem  denuntians."  Pliny  appears  to  be  in  error  here. 
In  copying  from  Theophrastus,  he  seems  to  have  found  the  word  (povoQ 
used,  really  in  reference  to  a  blood-red  juice  which  distils  from  the  plant; 
but  as  the  same  word  also  means  slaughter,  or  death,  he  seems  to  have 
thought  that  it  really  bears  reference  to  the  noxious  qualities  of  the  plant. 

4  Fee  censures  the  use  of  the  word  "  siliqua,"  as  inappropriate,  al- 
though the  seed  does  resemble  that  of  sesamum,  the  Sesamum  orientale 
of  Linnaeus. 

5  Or  eonis.  Fee  suggests  that  in  this  story,  which  probably  belongs 
to  the  region  of  Fable,  some  kind  of  oak  may  possibly  be  alluded  to. 


204  PLINY' S    NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIII. 

in  the  same  manner,  in  fact,  as  that  of  no  other  tree  known. 
This  tree,  however,  appears  to  have  been  known  to  no  other 
author,  that  I  am  aware  of. 

CHAP.    40. THE    ANDRACHLE.6 

Nearly  all  the  Greek  writers  interpret  the  name  of  the  tree 
called  "  andrachle,"  as  meaning  the  same  as  "  purslain : " 7 
whereas  purslain  is,  in  reality,  a  herb,  and,  with  the  difference 
of  a  single  letter,  is  called  "  andrachne."  The  andrachle  is  a 
wild  tree,  which  never  grows  in  the  plain  country,  and  is  simi- 
lar to  the  arbute  tree  in  appearance,  only  that  its  leaves  are 
smaller,  and  never  fall  off.  The  bark,  too,  is  not  rough,  but 
might  be  taken. to  be  frozen  all  over,  so  truly  wretched  is  its 
appearance. 

CHAP.  41. — THE  COCCYGIA  ;    THE  APHARCE. 

Similar,  too,  in  leaf  to  the  preceding  tree,  is  the  coccygia,3 
though  not  so  large ;  it  has  this  peculiarity,  that  it  loses  its 
fruit  while  still  in  the  downy9  state — they  then  call  it 
"  pappus  " — a  thing  that  happens  to  no  other  tree.  The 
apharce 10  is  another  tree  that  is  similar  to  the  andrachle,  and 
like  it,  bears  twice  in  the  year  :  just  as  the  grape  is  beginning 
to  flower  the  first  fruit  is  ripening,  while  the  second  fruit 
ripens  at  the  commencement  of  winter;  of  what  nature  this 
fruit  is  we  do  not  find  stated. 

CHAP.  42. THE    FERULA. 

We  ought  to  place  the  ferula11  also  in  the  number  of  the 
exotics,  and  as  making  one  of  the  trees.  For,  in  fact,  we  dis- 
tinguish the  trees  into  several  different  kinds  :  it  is  the  nature 
of  some  to  have  wood  entirely  in  place  of  bark,  or,  in  other 

6  In  the  former  editions,  "adrachne" — the  Arbutus  integrifolia,  Fee 
says,  and  not  the  Arbutus  andrachne  of  Linnaeus,  as  Sprengel  thinks. 

7  "  Porcillaca."     The  Portulaca  oleracea  of  Linnaeus. 

8  The  Rhus  cotinus  of  Linnaeus,  a  sort  of  sumach. 

9  This  is  not  the  fact ;  the  seeds  when  ripe  are  merely  lost  to  view  in 
the  large  tufts  of  down  which  grow  on  the  stems. 

10  Generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  alaternus,  mentioned  in 
B.  xvi.  c.  45.  Some  writers  identify  it  with  the  Phyllirea  angustifolia 
of  Linnaeus. 

11  Probably  the  Ferula  communis  of  Linnaeus,  the  herb  or  shrub 
known  as  "  fennel  giant." 


Chap.  43.]  THE   THAr-MA.  205 

■words,  on  the  outside;  while,  in  the  interior,  in  place  of  wood, 
there  is  a  fungous  kind  of  pith,  like  that  of  the  elder; 
others,  again,  are  hollow  within,  like  the  reed.  The  ferula 
grows  in  hot  countries  and  in  places  beyond  sea,  the  stalk 
being  divided  into  knotted  joints.  There  are  two  kinds  of  it : 
that  which  grows  upwards  to  a  great  height  the  Greeks  call 
by  the  name  of  "  narthex,"12  while  the  other,  which  never 
rises  far  from  the  ground,  is  known  as  the  "  narthecya." 13 
From  the  joints  very  large  leaves  shoot  forth,  the  largest  lying 
nearest  to  the  ground :  in  other  respects  it  has  the  same  na- 
ture as  the  anise,  which  it  resembles  also  in  its  fruit.  The 
wood  of  no  shrub  is  lighter  than  this ;  hence  it  is  very  easily 
carried,  and  the  stalks  of  it  make  good  walking-sticks14  for 
the  aged. 

CHAP.  43. THE  THAPSIA. 

The  seed  of  the  ferula  has  been  by  some  persons  called 
"  thapsia;"15  deceived,  no  doubt,  by  what  is  really  the  fact, 
that  the  thapsia  is  a  ferula,  but  of  a  peculiar  kind,  with  leaves 
like  those  of  fennel,  and  a  hollow  stalk  not  exceeding  a  walk- 
ing-stick in  length ;  the  seed  is  like  that  of  the  ferula,  and 
the  root  of  the  plant  is  white.  When  an  incision  is  made  in 
the  thapsia,  a  milky  juice  oozes  from  it,  and,  when  pounded, 
it  produces  a  kind  of  juice  ;  the  bark  even  is  never  thrown16 
away.  All  these  parts  of  the  shrub  are  poisonous,  and,  in- 
deed, it  is  productive  of  injurious  effects  to  those  engaged  in 
digging  it  up  ;  for  if  the  slightest  wind  should  happen  to  be 
blowing  towards  them  from  the  shrub,  the  body  begins  to 
swell,  and  erysipelas  attacks  the  face  :  it  is  for  this  reason  that, 
before  beginning  work,  they  anoint  the  face  all  over  with  a 
solution  of  wax.  Still,  however,  the  medical  men  say  that, 
mixed  with  other  ingredients,  it  is  of  considerable  use  in  the 

12  The  Ferula  glauca  of  Linnaeus. 

13  The  Ferula  nodiflora  of  Linnaeus. 

14  It  is  still  used  for  that  purpose  in  the  south  of  Europe.  The  Roman 
schoolmasters,  as  we  learn  from  Juvenal,  Martial,  and  others,  employed  it 
for  the  chastisement  of  their  scholars.  Pliny  is  in  error  in  reckoning  it 
among  the  trees,  it  really  having  no  pretensions  to  be  considered  such. 
It  is  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  "  ferio,"  to  "  beat." 

u  Sprengel  thinks  that  this  is  the  Thapsia  asclepium  of  the  moderns  ; 
but  Fee  takes  it  to  be  the  Thapsia  villosa  of  Linnaeus. 

16  It  was  valued,  Dioscorides  says,  for  its  cathartic  properties. 


206  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XIII. 

treatment  of  some  diseases.  It  is  employed  also  for  the  cure 
of  scald-head,  and  for  the  removal  of  black  and  blue  spots 
upon  the  skin,  as  if,  indeed,  we  were  really  at  a  loss  for  reme- 
dies in  such  cases,  without  having  recourse  to  things  of  so 
deadly  a  nature.  These  plants,  however,  act  their  part  in 
serving  as  a  pretext  for  the  introduction  of  noxious  agents ; 
and  so  great  is  the  effrontery  now  displayed,  that  people  would 
absolutely  persuade  one  that  poisons  are  a  requisite  adjunct  to 
the  practice  of  the  medical  art. 

The  thapsia  of  Africa17  is  the  most  powerful  of  all.  Some 
persons  make  an  incision  in  the  stalk  at  harvest-time,  and  bore 
holes  in  the  root,  too,  to  let  the  juice  flow;  after  it  has  be- 
come quite  diy,  they  take  it  away.  Others,  again,  pound  the 
leaves,  stalk,  and  root  in  a  mortar,  and  after  drying  the  juice 
in  the  sun,  divide  it  into  lozenges.18  Nero  Caesar,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign,  conferred  considerable  celebrity  on  this 
plant.  In  his  nocturnal  skirmishes19  it  so  happened  that  he 
received  several  contusions  on  the  face,  upon  which  he 
anointed  it  with  a  mixture  composed  of  thapsia,  frankincense, 
and  wax,  and  so  contrived  the  next  day  effectually  to  give  the 
lie  to  all  rumours,  by  appearing  with  a  whole  skin.20  It  is  a 
well-known  fact,  that  fire21  is  kept  alight  remarkably  well  in 
the  hollow  stalk  of  the  ferula,  and  that  for  this  purpose  those 
of  Egypt  are  the  best. 

CHAP.    44.    (23.) — THE  CArPARIS  OR  CTNOSBATON,  OTHERWISE 
OPHIOSTAPHTLE. 

In  Egypt,  too,  the  capparis22  is  found,  a  shrub  with  a  wood 

17  Either  the  Thapsia  garganica  of  "Willdenow,  or  the  Thapsia  villosa, 
found  in  Africa  and  the  south  of  Europe,  though,  as  Pliny  says,  the 
thapsia  of  Europe  is  mild  in  its  effects  compared  with  that  of  Africa.  It 
is  common  on  the  coast  of  Barbary. 

18  Pastillos.  19  Nocturnis  grassationihus. 

20  It  is  still  used  in  Barbary  for  the  cure  of  tetter  and  ringworm. 

21  The  story  was,  that  Prometheus,  when  he  stole  the  heavenly  fire  from 
Jupiter,  concealed  it  in  a  stalk,  of  narthex. 

22  The  "  caper-tree,"  the  Capparis  spinosa  of  Linnams.  Fee  suggests 
that  Pliny  may  possibly  allude,  in  some  of  the  features  which  he  describes, 
to  kinds  less  known  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Capparis  inermis  of  Forsk- 
hal,  found  in  Arabia;  the  Capparis  ovata  of  Desfoutaines,  found  in  Bar- 
bary ;  the  Capparis  Sinaica,  found  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  remarkable  for 
the  size  of  its  fruit;  and  the  Capparis  iEgyptiaca  of  Lamarck,  commonly 
found  in  Egypt. 


Chap.  46.] 


THE    ROYAL    THORN.  207 


of  much  greater  solidity.  The  seed  of  it  is  a  well-known 
article  of  food,23  and  is  mostly  gathered  together  with  the  stalk. 
It  is  as  well,  however,  to  be  on  our  guard  against  the  foreign 
kinds  ;24  for  that  of  Arabia  has  certain  deleterious  properties, 
that  from  Africa  is  injurious  to  the  gums,  and  that  from 
Marmarica  is  prejudicial  to  the  womb  and  causes  flatulence 
in  all  the  organs.  That  of  Apulia,  too,  is  productive  of  vomit- 
ing, and  causes  derangement  in  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
Some  persons  call  this  shrub  "  cynosbaton,"25  others,  again, 
"  ophiostaphyle."26 

CHAP.  45. — THE   SARIPHA. 

The  saripha,27  too,  that  grows  on  the  banks  of  the  Kile,  is 
one  of  the  shrub  genus.  It  is  generally  about  two  cubits  in 
height,  and  of  the  thickness  of  one's  thumb  :  it  has  the  foliage 
of  the  papyrus,  and  is  eaten  in  a  similar  manner.  The  root, 
in  consequence  of  its  extreme  hardness,  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  charcoal  in  forging  iron. 

CHAP.  46.    (24.) THE    ROYAL    THORN. 

We  must  take  care,  also,  not  to  omit  a  peculiar  shrub  that 
is  planted  at  Babylon,  and  only  upon  a  thorny  plant  there, 
as  it  will  not  live  anywhere  else,  just  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  mistletoe  will  live  nowhere  but  upon  trees.  This  shrub, 
however,  will  only  grow  upon  a  kind  of  thorn,  which  is  known 
as  the  royal  thorn.28  It  is  a  wonderful  fact,  but  it  germinates 
the  very  same  day  that  it  has  been  planted.     This  is  done 

23  The  stalk  and  seed  were  salted  or  pickled.  The  buds  or  unexpanded 
flowers  of  this  shrub  are  admired  as  a  pickle  or  sauce  of  delicate  flavour. 

21  Fee  remarks  that  this  is  not  the  truth,  all  the  kinds  possessing  the 
same  qualities.  There  may,  however,  have  been  some  difference  inthe 
mode  of  salting  or  pickling  them,  and  possibly  productive  of  noxious 
effects.  . 

25  Probably  from  its  thorns,  that  being  the  name  of  the  sweet-briar,  or 
dog-rose.  26  "  Serpent  grapes." 

27  Sprengel  and  Fee  take  this  to  be  the  Cyperus  fastigiatus  of  Linnaeus, 
which  Forskhal  found  in  the  river  Nile. 

28  Spina  regia.  Some  writers  have  considered  this  to  be  the  same  with 
the  Centaurea  solstitialis-of  Linnaeus.  Sprengel  takes  it  to  be  the  Cassyta 
filiformis  of  Linnaeus,  a  parasitical  plant  of  India.  We  must  conclude, 
however,  with  Fee,  that  both  the  thorn  and  the  parasite  have  not  hitherto 
been  identified. 


208  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIII. 

at  the  rising  of  the  Dog-star,  after  which  it  speedily  takes 
possession  of  the  whole  tree.  They  use  it  in  the  preparation 
of  wine,  and  it  is  for  this  purpose  that  it  is  planted.  This 
thorn  grows  at  Athens  also,  upon  the  Long  Walls  there.29 

CHAP.  47. THE  CYTISUS. 

The  cytisus30  is  also  a  shrub,  which,  as  a  food  for  sheep,  has 
been  extolled  with  wonderful  encomiums  by  Aristomachus  the 
Athenian,  and,  in  a  dry  state,  for  swine  as  well :  the  same 
author,  too,  pledges  his  word  that  a  jugerum  of  very  mid- 
dling land,  planted  with  the  cytisus,  will  produce  an  income 
of  two  thousand  sesterces  per  annum.  It  is  quite  as  useful  as 
the  ervum,31  but  is  apt  to  satiate  more  speedily :  very  little  of 
it  is  necessary  to  fatten  cattle ;  to  such  a  degree,  indeed,  that 
beasts  of  burden,  when  fed  upon  it,  will  very  soon  take  a  dis- 
like to  barley.  There  is  no  fodder  known,  in  fact,  that  is 
productive  of  a  greater  abundance  of  milk,  and  of  better  qua- 
lity; in  the  medical  treatment  of  cattle  in  particular,  this 
shrub  is  found  a  most  excellent  specific  for  every  kind  of  ma- 
lady. Even  more  than  this,  the  same  author  recommends  it, 
when  first  dried  and  then  boiled  in  water,  to  be  given  to  nurs- 
ing women,  mixed  with  wine,  in  cases  where  the  milk  has 
failed  them :  and  he  says  that,  if  this  is  done,  the  infant  will 
be  all  the  stronger  and  taller  for  it.  In  a  green  state,  or,  if 
dried,  steeped  in  water,  he  recommends  it  for  fowls.  Both 
Democritus  and  Aristomachus  promise  us  also  that  bees  will 
never  fail  us  so  long  as  they  can  obtain  the  cytisus  for  food. 
There  is  no  crop  that  we  know  of,  of  a  similar  nature,  that 
costs  a  smaller  price.  It  is  sown  at  the  same  time  as  barley, 
or,  at  all  events,  in  the  spring,  in  seed  like  the  leek,  or  else 
planted  in  the  autumn,  and  before  the  winter  solstice,  in  the  stalk. 
When  sown  in  grain,  it  ought  to  be  steeped  in  water,  and  if 

29  The  Makron  Teichos.     See  B.  iv.  c.  11. 

30  From  the  various  statements  of  ancient  authors,  Fee  has  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  name  was  given  to  two  totally  different  productions. 
The  cytisus  which  the  poets  speak  of  as  grateful  to  bees  and  goats,  and 
sheep,  he  takes  to  be  the  Medicago  arborea  of  Linnaeus,  known  to  us  as 
Medic  trefoil,  or  lucerne ;  while  the  other,  a  tree  with  a  black  wood,  he 
considers  identical  with  the  Cytisus  laburnum  of  Liumeus,  the  laburnum, 
or  false  ebony  tree. 

31  A  kind  of  vetch  or  tare.     Sec  B.  xviii. 


Chap.  48.]  THE   TREES    OF   THE    MEDITERRANEAN.  209 

there  should  happen  to  be  no  rain,  it  ought  to  be  watered 
when  sown  :  when  the  plants  are  about  a  cubit  in  height, 
they  are  replanted  in  trenches  a  foot  in  depth.  It  is  trans- 
planted at  the  equinoxes,  while  the  shrub  is  yet  tender,  and  in 
three  years  it  will  arrive  at  maturity.  It  is  cut  at  the  vernal 
equinox,  when  the  flower  is  just  going  off ;  a  child  or  an  old 
woman  is  able  to  do  this,  and  their  labour  may  be  had  at  a 
trifling  rate.  It  is  of  a  white  appearance,  and  if  one  would 
wish  to  express  briefly  what  it  looks  like,  it  is  a  trifoliate  d 
shrub,32  with  small,  narrow  leaves.  It  is  always  given  to 
animals  at  intervals  of  a  couple  of  days,  and  in  winter,  when  it  is 
dry,  before  being  given  to  them,  it  is  first  moistened  with  water. 
Ten  pounds  of  cytisus  will  suffice  for  a  horse,  and  for  smaller 
animals  in  proportion  :  if  I  may  here  mention  it  by  the  way, 
it  is  found  very  profitable  to  sow  garlic  and  onions  between 
the  rows  of  cytisus. 

This  shrub  has  been  found  in  the  Isle  of  Cythnus,  from 
whence  it  has  been  transplanted  to  all  the  Cyclades,  and  more 
recently  to  the  cities  of  Greece,  a  fact  which  has  greatly  in- 
creased the  supply  of  cheese :  considering  which,  I  am  much 
surprised  that  it  is  so  rarely  used  in  Italy.  This  shrub  is  proof, 
too,  against  all  injuries  from  heat,  from  cold,  from  hail,  and 
from  snow :  and,  as  Hyginus  adds,  against  the  depredations  of 
the  enemy  even,  the  wood33  produced  being  of  no  value  what- 
ever. 

CHAP.    48.    (25.) THE    TREES    AND    SHRTJBS  OE    THE  MEDITER- 
RANEAN.      THE  PHTCOS,  PRASON,  OR  ZOSTER. 

Shrubs  and  trees  grow  in  the  sea34  as  well ;  those  of  our 
sea35  are  of  inferior  size,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Red  Sea 
and  all  the  Eastern  Ocean  are  filled  with  dense  forests.  No 
other  language  has  any  name  for  the  shrub  wjiich  is  known  to 
the  Greeks  as  the  "phycos,"36  since  by  the  word  "alga"37  a 

32  a  Frutex."  When  speaking  of  it  as  a  shrub,  he  seems  to  be  confound- 
ing the  tree  with  the  plant. 

33  Evidently  in  allusion  to  the  tree. 

34  He  alludes  to  various  kinds  of  fucus  or  sea-weed,  which  grows  to  a 
much  larger  size  in  the  Eastern  seas. 

35  The  Mediterranean.- 

36  Whence  the  word  "  fucus  "  of  the  naturalists. 

37  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  be  the  Laminaria  saccharina  of  Linnaeus, 
being  one  of  the  "  ulvse  "  often  thrown  up  on  the  coasts  of  Europe. 

vol.  in.  p 


210  pliny's  natural  history.  [BookXIil. 

mere  herb  is  generally  understood,  while  the  "  phycos"  is  a 
complete  shrub.  This  plant  has  a  broad  leaf  of  a  green  co- 
lour, which  is  by  some  called  "prason,"38  and  by  others  is 
known  as  "  zoster."39  Another  kind,40  again,  has  a  hairy  sort 
of  leaf,  very  similar  to  fennel,  and  grows  upon  rocks,  while 
that  previously  mentioned  grows  in  shoaly  spots,  not  far  from 
the  shore.  Both  kinds  shoot  in  the  spring,  and  die  in  autumn.41 
The  phycos42  which  grows  on  the  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Crete,  is  used  also  for  dyeing  purple ;  the  best  kind  being 
that  produced  on  the  north  side  of  the  island,  which  is  the 
case  also  with  sponges  of  the  very  best  quality.  A  third  kmd,4a 
again,  is  similar  in  appearance  to  grass ;  the  root  of  it  is 
knotted,  and  so  is  the  stalk,  which  resembles  that  of  a  reed. 

CHAP.    49. THE    SEA    BRYON. 

There  is  another  kind  of  marine  shrub,  known  by  the  name 
of  "  bryon ;" 44  it  has  the  leaf  of  the  lettuce,  only  that  it  is 
of  a  more  wrinkled  appearance;  it  grows  nearer  land,  too,  than 
the  last.  Par  out  at  sea  we  find  a  fir-tree 45  and  an  oak,4G 
each  a  cubit  in  height ;  shells  are  found  adhering  to  their 
branches.  It  is  said  that  this  sea-oak  is  used  for  dyeing  wool, 
and  that  some  of  them  even  bear  acorns 47  in  the  sea,  a  fact  which 
has  been  ascertained  by  shipwrecked  persons  and  divers.  There 
are  other  marine  trees  also  of  remarkable  size,  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Sicyon ;  the  sea- vine,48  indeed,  grows  everywhere. 
The  sea-fig  w  is  destitute  of  leaves,  and  the  bark  is  red.  There 

38  The  "  green  "  plant.  39  The  "  girdle  "  plant. 

40  The  Fucus  barbatus,  probably,  of  Linnaeus,  or  else  the  Fucus  eroides. 

41  They  are  in  reality  more  long-lived  than  this. 

43  Fee  suggests  that  it  is  the  Roccella  tinctoria  of  Linnaeus. 

43  The  Zostera  marina  of  Linnaeus,  according  to  Fee. 

44  The  Ulva  lactuca  of  the  moderns,  a  very  common  sea-weed. 

45  The  Fucus  ericoidcs,  Fee  suggests,  not  unlike  a  fir  in  appearance. 

46  Quercus.  According  to  Gmellin,  this  is  the  Fucus  vesiculosus  of  Lin- 
naeus.    Its  leaves  are  indented,  somewhat  similarly  to  those  of  the  oak. 

47  Polybius,  as  quoted  by  Athenaeus,  says  that  in  the  Lusitanian  Sea 
there  are  oaks  that  bear  acorns,  on  which  the  thunnies  feed  and  grow  fat. 

48  On  the  contrary,  Theophrastus  says,  B.  iv.  c.  7,  that  the  sea-vine 
grows  near  the  sea,  from  which  Fee  is  disposed  to  consider  it  a  phaneroga- 
mous plant.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  really  a  fucus,  he  thinks  that  the 
Fucus  uvarius  may  be  meant,  the  vesicles  of  which  resemble  a  grape  in 
shape. 

49  He  speaks  of  a  madrepore,  Fee  thinks,  the  identity  of  which  it  is 


Chap.  51.]  PLANTS   OF   THE    INDIAN   SEA.  211 

is  a  palm-tree  ^  also  in  the  number  of  the  sea-shrubs.  Beyond 
the  columns  of  Hercules  there  is  a  sea-shrub  that  grows  with 
the  leaf  of  the  leek,  and  others  with  those  of  the  carrot,51  and 
of  thyme.  Both  of  these  last,  when  thrown  up  by  the  tide, 
are  transformed52  into  pumice. 

CHAP.   50. PLANTS    OF    THE    RED    SEA. 

In  the  East,  it  is  a  very  remarkable  thing,  that  immediately 
after  leaving  Coptos,  as  we  pass  through  the  deserts,  we  rind 
nothing  whatever  growing,  with  the  exception  of  the  thorn  that 
is  known  as  the  "  thirsty'' 53  thorn ;  and  this  but  very  rarely. 
In  the  Red  Sea,  however,  there  are  whole  forests  found  grow- 
ing, among  which  more  particularly  there  are  plants  that  bear 
the  laurel-berry  and  the  olive  ;54  when  it  rains  also  certain 
fungi  make  their  appearance,  which,  as  soon  as  they  are  touched 
by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  are  turned  into  pumice.55  The  size  of  the 
shrubs  is  three  cubits  in  height ;  and  they  are  all  filled  with 
sea-dogs,56  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  is  hardly  safe  to  look  at 
them  from  the  ship,  for  they  will  frequently  seize  hold  of  the 
very  oars. 

CHAP.  51. PLANTS    OF    THE   INDIAN    SEA. 

The  officers 57  of  Alexander  who  navigated  the  Indian  seas, 
have  left  an  account  of  a  marine  tree,  the  foliage  of  which  is 
green  while  in  the  water  ;  but  the  moment  it  is  taken  out,  it 

difficult  to  determine.  Professor  Pallas  speaks  of  an  Alcyonidium  ficus, 
which  lives  in  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  ocean,  and  which  resembles  a 
fig,  and  has  no  leaves,  but  its  exterior  is  not  red. 

50  Fee  queries  whether  this  may  not  be  the  Gorgonia  palma  of  Linnaeus, 
which  has  received  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  small  palm-tree. 

51  These  three,  Fee  thinks,  are  madrepores  or  zoophytes,  which  it  would 
be  vain  to  attempt  to  identify. 

52  That  is,  they  dry  up  to  the  consistency  of  pumice. 

53  "  Sitiens."  Delille  considers  this  as  identical  with  his  Acacia  seyal,  a 
thorny  tree,  often  to  be  seen  in  the  deserts  of  Africa. 

54  Probably  zoophytes  now  unknown. 

55  Fee  suggests  that  he  may  allude  to  the  Madrepora  fungites  of  Lin- 
naeus, the  Fungus  lapideus  of  Bauhin,  These  are  found  in  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  hut,  of  course,  the  story  of  their  appearance  during 
rain  is  fabulous. 

66  Sharks  ;  see  B.  ix.  c.  70. 

57  The  companions  of  Onesicritus  and  Nearchus. 


212  PLINY'S   NATTJEAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XIII. 

dries  and  turns  to  salt.  They  have  spoken  also  of  bulrushes58 
of  stone  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  real  ones,  which  grew 
along  the  sea- shore,  as  also  certain  shrubs 59  in  the  main  _  sea, 
the  colour  of  an  ox's  horn,  branching  out  in  various  direc- 
tions, and  red  at  the  tips.  These,  they  say,  were  brittle,  and 
broke  like  glass  when  touched,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
the  fire  they  would  become  red-hot  like  iron,  and  when  cool 
resume  their  original  colour. 

In  the  same  part  of  the  earth  also,  the  tide  covers  the 
forests  that  grow  on  the  islands,  although  the  trees  there  are 
more  lofty 60  than  the  very  tallest  of  our  planes  and  poplars  ! 
The  leaves  of  these  trees  resemble  that  of  the  laurel,  while  the 
blossom  is  similar  to  the  violet,  both  in  smell  and  colour :  the 
berries  resemble  those  of  the  olive,  and  they,  too,  have  an 
agreeable  smell :  they  appear  in  the  autumn,  and  the  leaves 
of  the  trees  never  fall  off.  The  smaller  ones  are  entirely 
covered  by  the  waves,  while  the  summits  of  those  of  larger 
size  protrude  from  the  water,  and  ships  are  made  fast  to  them ; 
when  the  tide  falls  the  vessels  are  similarly  moored  to  the  roots. 
We  find  the  same  persons  making  mention  of  certain  other 
trees  which  they  saw  out  at  sea,  which  always  retained  their 
leaves,  and  bore  a  fruit  very  similar  to  the  lupine. 

CHAP.  52. THE  PLANTS  OF  THE  TEOGLODYTIC  SEA  J    THE    HAIE  OF 

ISIS  :    THE    CHAEITO-BLEPHAEON. 

Juba  relates,  that  about  the  islands  of  the^  Troglodytae 
there  is  a  certain  shrub  found  out  at  sea,  which  is  known  as 
the  "  hair  of  Isis  :"61  he  says  that  it  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  coral,  is  destitute  of  leaves,  and  if  cut  will  change 
its  colour,  becoming  quite  black  and  hard,  and  so  brittle  as  to 
break  if  it  falls.  He  speaks  also  of  another  marine  plant,  to 
which  he  gives  the  name  of  "  Charito-blepharon,"62  and  which, 

58  Fee  hazards  a  conjecture  that  this  may  be  the  Gorgonia  scirpea  of 
Pallas,  found  in  the  Indian  Seas. 

59  One  of  the  Gorgonise,  Fee  thinks  ;  but  its  characteristics  are  not  suf- 
ficiently stated  to  enable  us  to  identify  it. 

60  A  fable  worthy  of  Sinbad  the  Sailor  ! 

61  "  Isidis  crinem."  Fee  says  that  this  is  evidently  black  coral,  the  Gor- 
gonia antipathes  of  Linnaeus. 

62  «  The  eyelid  of  the  Graces."  Fee  is  almost  tempted  to  think  that  he 
means  red  coral. 


Chap.  52.]  SUMMARY.  213 

he  says,  is  particularlj'-  efficacious  in  love-charms.60  Brace- 
lets64 and  necklaces  are  made  of  it.  He  sa3rs  also  that  it  is  sen- 
sible65 when  it  is  about  to  be  taken,  and  that  it  turns  as  hard 
as  horn,  so  hard,  indeed,  as  to  blunt  the  edge  of  iron.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  cut  before  it  is  sensible  of  the  danger,  it  is 
immediately  transformed  to  stone. 

Summary. — Remarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
four  hundred  and  sixty-eight. 

Roman  authors  quoted. — M.  Varro,66  Mucianus,67  Virgil,06 
Fabianus,69  Sebosus,70  Pomponius  Mela,71  Fabius,72  Procilius,7* 
Hyginus,74  Trogus,75  Claudius  Caesar,76  Cornelius  Nepos,77  Sex- 
tius  Niger78  who  wrote  in  Greek  on  Medicine,  Cassius  He- 
rnina,79  L.  Piso,80  Tuditanus,81  Antias.82 

Foreign  authors  quoted.  —  Theophrastus,83  Herodotus,84 
Callisthenes,85  Isigonus,86  Clitarchus,87  Anaximenes,88  Duris,39 
Nearchus,90  Onesicritus,91  Polycritus,92  Olympiodorus,93  Diog- 
netus,94  Cleobulus,95  Anticlides,96  Chares97  of  Mitylene,  Me- 
naBchmus,98  Dorotheus"  of  Athens,  Lycus,1  Antaeus,2  Ephip- 

63  Amatoriis. 

64  Spatalia.     Armlets  or  bracelets. 

e5  By  this  apparently  fabulous  story,  one  would  be  almost  inclined  to 
think  that  he  is  speaking  of  a  zoophyte. 

66  See  end  of  B.  ii.  67  gee  en(j  of  B>  iL 

68  See  end  of  B  vii. 

69  Papirius  Fabianus,    See  end  of  B.  ii. 

70  See  end  of  B.  ii.  7l  See  end  of  B.  hi. 
72  Fabius  Tictor.     See  end  of  B.  x. 

J3  See  end  of  B.  viii.  ™  gee  end  of  B.  iii. 

75  Trogus  Pompeius.     See  end  of  B.  vii. 

76  See  end  of  B,  v.  "  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
78  See  end  of  B.  xii.  ™  See  end  of  B.  xii. 
80  See  end  of  B.  ii.  8i  gee  en(j  0f  B.\ii. 
82  See  end  of  B.  ii.  83  gee  end  of  B.  iii. 
84  See  end  of  B.  ii.  85  gee  en&  0f  £  ^ 
86  See  end  of  B.  vii.  87  See  end  of  B.  vi. 
88  See  end  of  B.  xii.  69  gee  end  0f  r.  vjj# 
90  See  end  of  B.  vi.  ^  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
94  See  end  of  B.  xii.  93  gee  en(j  0f  g.  xn 
94  See  end  of  B.  vi.       ■  95  gee  en(j  0f  g#  jv> 
96  See  end  of  B.  iv.  97  See  end  of  B.  xii. 
98  See  end  of  B.  iv.  99  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

1  See  end  of  B.  xii.  2  See  end  of  B.  xii. 


214  plijty's  natural  history.  [Book  XII I. 

pus,3  Dion,4  Adimantus,6  Ptolemy  Lagus,6  Marsyas7  of 
Macedon,  Zoilus8  of  Macedon,  Democritu-s,9  Amphilochus,10 
Alexander  Polyhistor,11  Aristomachus,12  King  Juba,13  Apollo- 
dorus  M  who  wrote  on  Perfames,  Heraclides 15  the  physician, 
Botrys 16  the  physician,  Archidemus  17  the  physician,  Diony- 
sius 18  the  physician,  Democlides  19  the  physician,  Euphron 20 
the  physician,  Mnesides 21  the  physician,  Diagoras 22  the  phy- 
sician, Iollas 23  the  physician,  Heraclides24  of  Tarentum,  Xeno- 
crates  K  of  Ephesus. 

3  See  end  of  B.  xii.  4  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

5  Nothing1  certain  is  known  of  him ;  but  he  appears  to  be  the  geographer, 
a  native  of  Lampsacus,  mentioned  by  Strabo  in  B.  xiii. 

6  See  end  of  B.  xii.  7  See  end  of  B.  xii. 
8  See  end  of  B.  xii.  9  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

10  See  end  of  B.  viii.  n  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

12  A  writer  on  Agriculture,  or  domestic  economy ;  but  nothing  further  is 
known  of  him.  13  See  end  of  B.  v. 

14  Perhaps  the  same  writer  that  is  mentioned  at  the  end  of  B.  xi. 

15  For  two  physicians  of  this  name,  see  end  of  B.  xii. 

16  One  of  his  prescriptions  is  preserved  in  the  works  of  Galen.     Nothing 


else  is  known  of  him. 

17  See  end  of  B. 

xii. 

18  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

19  See  end  of  B. 

xii. 

20  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

21  See  end  of  B. 

xii. 

22  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

23  See  end  of  B. 

xii. 

24  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

25  See  end  of  B. 

xii. 

215 


BOOK  XIV. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRUIT  TREES. 

CHATS.   1   &  2.  (1.) THE  NATURE  OF  THE  TINE.      ITS  MODE  OP 

FRUCTIFICATION. 

Those  which  have  been  hitherto  mentioned,  are,  nearly  all 
of  them,  exotic  trees,  which  it  is  impossible  to  rear  in  any 
other  than  their  native  soil,  and  which  are  not  to  be  naturalized 
in  strange  countries.1  It  is  now  for  us  to  speak  of  the  more 
ordinary  kinds,  of  all  of  which  Italy  may  be  looked  upon 
as  more  particularly  the  parent.2  Those  who  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  subject,  must  only  bear  in  mind  that  for 
the  present  we  content  ourselves  with  merely  stating  the 
different  varieties  of  these  trees,  and  not  the  mode  of  cultivating 
them,  although  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  characteristics  of  a 
tree  depend  very  considerably  upon  its  cultivation.  At  this 
fact  I  cannot  sufficiently  express  my  astonishment,  that  of 
some  trees  all  memory  has  utterly  perished,  and  that  the 
very  names  of  some,  of  which  we  find  various  authors  making 
mention,  have  wholly  disappeared.3  And  yet  who  does  not 
readily  admit  that  now,  when  intercommunications  have  been 
opened  between  all  parts  of  the  world,  thanks  to  the  majestic 
sway  of  the  Eoman  empire,  civilization  and  the  arts  of  life 
have  made  a  rapid  progress,  owing  to  the  interchange  of  com- 
modities and  the  common  enjoyment  by  all  of  the  blessings  of 
peace,  while  at  the  same  time  a  multitude  of  objects  which 

1  This  must  be  understood  with  considerable  modification — many- of 
the  tropical  trees  and  plants  have  been  naturalized,  and  those  of  America 
more  particularly,  in  Europe. 

2  He  is  probably  wrong  in  looking  upon  the  vine  as  indigenous  to  Italy. 
It  was  known  in  very  earty  times  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  it  is  now 
generally  considered  that  it  is  indigenous  throughout  the  tract  that 
stretches  to  the  south,  from  the  the  mountains  of  Mazandiran  on  the  Cas- 
pian to  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Indian  Sea,  and  eastward 
through  Khorassan  and  Cabul  to  the  base  of  the  Himalayas. 

3  The  art  of  printing,  Fee  remarks,  utterly  precludes  the  recurrence  of 
such  a  fact  as  thjs. 


216  PLINY'S   NATITEAL    HISTOEY.  [Book  XIV. 

formerly  lay  concealed,  are  now  revealed  for  our  indiscriminate 
use? 

Still,  by  Hercules !  at  the  present  day  there  are  none  to  be 
found  who  have  any  acquaintance  with  much  that  has  been 
handed  down  to  us  by  the  ancient  writers ;  so  much  more 
comprehensive  was  the  diligent  research  of  our  forefathers,  or 
else  so  much  more  happily  employed  was  their  industry.  It 
is  a  thousand  years  ago  since  Hesiod,4  at  the  very  dawn,  so  to 
say,  of  literature,  first  gave  precepts  for  the  guidance  of  the 
agriculturist,  an  example  which  has  since  been  followed  by  no 
small  number  of  writers.  Hence  have  originated  considerable 
labours  for  ourselves,  seeing  that  we  have  not  only  to  enquire 
into  the  discoveries  of  modern  times,  but  to  ascertain  as  well 
what  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  this,  too,  in  the  very 
midst  of  that  oblivion  which  the  heedlessness  of  the  present 
day  has  so  greatly  tended  to  generate.  What  causes  then  are 
we  to  assign  for  this  lethargy,  other  than  those  feelings  which 
we  find  actuating  the  public  in  general  throughout  all  the 
world  ?  New  manners  and  usages,  no  doubt,  have  now  come 
into  vogue,  and  the  minds  of  men  are  occupied  with  subjects 
of  a  totally  different  nature ;  the  arts  of  avarice,  in  fact,  are 
the  only  ones  that  are  now  cultivated. 

In  days  gone  by,  the  sway  and  the  destinies  of  states  were 
bounded  by  their  own  narrow  limits,  and  consequently  the 
genius  of  the  people  was  similarly  circumscribed  as  well, 
through  a  sort  of  niggardliness  that  was  thus  displayed  by 
Fortune :  hence  it  became  with  them  a  matter  of  absolute 
necessity  to  employ  the  advantages  of  the  understanding : 
kings  innumerable  received  the  homage  of  the  arts,  and  in 
making  a  display  of  the  extent  of  their  resources,  gave  the 
highest  rank  to  those  arts,  entertaining  the  opinion  that  it  was 
through  them  that  they  should  ensure  immortality.  Hence  it 
was  that  due  rewards,  and  the  various  works  of  civilization,  were 
displayed  in  such  vast  abundance  in  those  times.  For  these 
later  ages,  the  enlarged  boundaries  of  the  habitable  world, 
and  the  vast  extent  of  our  empire,  have  been  a  positive  injury. 
Since  the  Censor  has  been  chosen  for  the  extent  of  his  property, 
since  the  judge  has  been  selected  according  to  the  magnitude  of 
his  fortune,  since  it  has  become  the  fashion  to  consider  that 

4  In  allusion  to  Ms  poem,  the  "Works  and  Days,"  the  prototype  of 
Virgil's  Georgics. 


Chap.  2.] 


THE    NATURE    OF   THE   TINE.  217 


nothing  reflects  a  higher  merit  upon  the  magistrate  and  the 
general  than  a  large  estate,  since  the  being  destitute  of  heirs6 
has  begun  to  confer  upon  persons  the  very  highest  power  and 
influence,  since  legacy-hunting6  has  become  the  most  lucrative 
of  all  professions,  and  since  it  has  been  considered  that  the 
only  real  pleasures  are  those  of  possessing,  all  the  true  enjoy- 
ments of  life  have  been  utterly  lost  sight  of,  and  all  those  arts 
which  have  derived  the  name  of  liberal,  from  liberty,7  that 
greatest  blessing  of  life,  have  come  to  deserve  the  contrary 
appellation,  servility  alone  being  the  passport  to  profit. 

This  servility  each  one  has  his  own  peculiar  way  of  making 
most  agreeable,  and  of  putting  in  practice  in  reference  to 
others,  the  motives  and  the  hopes  of  all  tending  to  the  one 
great  object,  the  acquisition  of  wealth  :  indeed,  we  may  every- 
where behold  men  even  of  naturally  excellent  qualities  pre- 
ferring to  foster  the  vicious  inclinations  of  others  rather  than 
cultivate  their  own  talents.  We  may  therefore  conclude,  by 
Hercules !  that  pleasure  has  now  begun  to  live,  and  that  life, 
truly  so  called,  has  ceased  to  be.8  As  to  ourselves,  however, 
we  shall  continue  our  researches  into  matters  now  lost  in  ob- 
livion, nor  shall  we  be  deterred  from  pursuing  our  task  by  the 
trivial  nature9  of  some  of  our  details,  a  consideration  which 
has  in  no  way  influenced  us  in  our  description  of  the  animal 
world.  And  yet  we  find  that  Virgil,  that  most  admirable 
poet,  has  allowed  this  to  influence  him,  in  his  omission  to  enlarge 
upon  the  beauties  of  the  garden  ;  for,  happy  and  graceful  poet 
as  he  is,  he  has  only  culled  what  we  may  call,  the  flower  of 
his  subject:  indeed,  we  find  that  he  has  only  named10  in  all 
some  fifteen  varieties  of  the  grape,  three  of  the  olive,  the  same 
number  of  the  pear,  and  the  citron  of  Assyria,  and  has  passed 
over  the  rest  in  silence  altogether. 

(2).  With  what  then  ought  we  to  begin  in  preference  to  the 
vine,  the  superiority  in  which  has  been  so  peculiarly  con- 

5  He  alludes  to  the  legacy-hunters  with  which  Rome  abounded  in  his 
time.  They  are  spoken  of  by  Seneca,  Tacitus,  and  Juvenal,  in  terms  of 
severe  reprobation. 

6  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "  captatio ;"  much  like  what  we  call 
"  toadying,"  or  "  toad-eating." 

'  The  "  liberales  artes,"  were  those,  the  pursuit  of  which  was  not  con- 
sidered derogatory  to  the  dignity  of  a,  free  man. 
8  Vita  ipsa  desut. 
»  Humilitas.  10  In  the  Georgics. 


218  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XIV. 

ceded  to  Italy,  that  in  this  one  blessing  we  may  pronounce  her 
to  have  surpassed  those  of  all  other  nations  of  the  earth,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  those  that  bear  the  various  perfumes  ? 
and  even  there,  when  the  vine  is  in  flower,  there  is  not  a  per- 
fume known  which  in  exquisite  sweetness  can  surpass  it. 
The  vine  has  been  justly  reckoned11  by  the  ancients  among  the 
trees,  on  account  of  its  remarkable  size.  In  the  city  of  Popu- 
lonium,  we  see  a  statue  of ,  Jupiter  formed  of  the  trunk  of  a 
single  vine,  which  has  for  ages  remained  proof  against  all 
decay ;  and  at  Massilia,  there  is  a  patera  made  of  the  same 
wood.  At  Metapontum,  the  temple  of  Juno  has  long  stood 
supported  by  pillars  formed  of  the  like  material ;  and  even  at 
the  present  day  we  ascend  to  the  roof  of  the  temple  of  Diana  at 
Ephesus,  by  stairs  constructed,  it  is  said,  of  the  trunk  of  a  single 
vine,  that  was  brought  from  Cyprus  ;  the  vines  of  that  island 
often  attaining  a  most  remarkable  size.  There  is  not  a  wood  in 
existence  of  a  more  lasting  nature  than  this ;  I  am  strongly 
inclined,  however,  to  be  of  opinion  that  the  material  of  which 
these  various  articles  were  constructed  was  the  wild  vine. 

CHAP.  3. THE   NATURE  OF    THE  GEAPE,  AND    THE  CULTIVATION  OP 

THE  VINE. 

The  cultivated  vine  is  kept  down  by  pruning  every  year, 
and  all  the  strength  of  the  tree  is  drawn  as  much  as  possible 
into  the  shoots,  or  else  thrown  downwards  to  the  sets  ;12  indeed, 
it  is  only  allowed  to  expand  with  the  view  of  ensuring  an 
abundant  supply  of  juice,  a  result  which  is  obtained  in  various 
modes  according  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  climate  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  In  Campania  they  attach13  the  vine  to  the 
poplar :  embracing  the  tree  to  which  it  is  thus  wedded,  the 
vine  grasps  the  branches  with  its  amorous  arms,  and  as  it 
climbs,  holds  on  with  its  knotted  trunk,  till  it  has  reached  the 
very  summit ;  the  height  being  sometimes  so  stupendous  that 
the  vintager  when  hired  is  wont  to  stipulate  for  his  funeral 
pile  and  a  grave  at  the  owner's  expense.      The  vine  keeps 

11  Theopbrastus  reckons  it  among  the  trees ;  Columella,  B.  ii.,  considers 
it  to  occupy  a  middle  position  between  a  tree  and  a  shrub.  Horace,  B.  i. 
Ode  18,  calls  it  a  tree,  "  arbor.' 

12  Or  "layers,"  " propagines." 

13  Nubunt,  properly  "  marry."  This  is  still  done  in  Naples,  and  other 
parts  of  Italy.     The  use  of  vine  stays  there  are  unknown. 


Chap.  3.] 


THE    CULTIVATION"   OF    THE    VINE.  219 


continually  on  the  increase,  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  sepa- 
rate the  two,  or  rather,  I  may  say,  to  tear  them  asunder. 
Yalerianus  Cornelius  has  regarded  it  as  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable facts  that  could  be  transmitted  to  posterity,  that 
single  vines  have  been  known  to  surround  villas  and  country- 
houses  with  their  shoots  and  creeping  tendrils  ever  on  the 
stretch.  At  Eome,  in  the  porticoes  of  Livia,  a  single  vine, 
with  its  leaf-clad  trellises,  protects  with  its  shade  the  walks 
in  the  open  air ;  the  fruit  of  it  yields  twelve  amphorae  of 
must.14 

Everywhere  we  find  the   vine  overtopping  the  elm  even, 
and  we  read  that  Cineas,14*  the  ambassador  of  King  Pyrrhus, 
when   admiring  the  great   height    of   the   vines   at   Aricia, 
wittily  making  allusion  to  the  peculiar  rough  taste  of  wine, 
remarked  that  it  was  with  very  good   reason  that  they  had 
hung  the  parent  of  it  on  so  lofty  a  gibbet.     There  is  a  tree 
in  that  part  of  Italy  which  lies  beyond  the  Padus,15  known 
as  the  "  rumpotinus," 15*  or  sometimes  by  the  name  of  "opu- 
lus,"  the  broad  circular16  storeys  of  which  are  covered  with 
vines,  whose  branches  wind  upwards  in  a  serpentine  form  to 
the  part  where  the  boughs  finally  divide,17  and  then,  throw- 
ing out  their  tendrils,  disperse  them  in  every  direction  among 
the    straight   and   finger-like    twigs  which  project  from  the 
branches.     There  are  vines  also,   about  as  tall  as  a  man  of 
moderate  height,  which  are  supported  by  props,  and,  as  they 
throw  out  their  bristling  tendrils,  form  whole  vineyards  :  while 
others,  again,  in  their  inordinate  love  for  climbing,  combined 
with  skill  on  the  part  of  the  proprietor,  will  cover  even  the 
very  centre18  of  the  court-yard  with  their  shoots  and  foliage. 

li  "  Mustum."     Pure,  unfermented  juice  of  the  grape. 
u*  See  B.  vii.  c.  24.  15  Italia  Transpadana.^ 

15*  See  B.  xxiv.'c.  112.  The  Bauhins  are  of  opinion  that  this  is  the 
Acer  opulus  of  Willdenow,  common  in  Italy,  and  very  branchy. 

16  *'  Tabulate  in  orbem  patula."  He  probably  alludes  to  the  branches 
extending  horizontally  from  the  trunk. 

17  "  In  palmam  ejus."  .    . 

is  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  whole  of  this  passage  is  m  a  most  cor- 
rupt state,  and  we  can  only  guess  at  its  meaning.  Sillig  suggests  a  new 
reading,  which,  unsupported  as  it  is  by  any  of  the  MSS.,  can  only  be 
regarded  as  fanciful,  and  perhaps  as  a  very  slight  improvement  on  the 
attempts  to  obtain  a  solution  of  the  difficulty.  Pliny's  main  object  seems 
to  be  to  contrast  the  vines  that  entwine  round  poles  and^  rise  perpendicu- 
larly with  those  that  creep  horizontally. 


220  plint's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XIV. 

So  numerous  are  the  varieties  of  the  vine  which  even  Italy- 
alone  presents. 

In  some  of  the  provinces  the  vine  is  able  to  stand  of  itself 
without  anything  to  support  it,  drawing  in  its  bending 
branches,  and  making  up  in  its  thickness  for  its  stunted  size. 
In  other  places,  again,  the  winds  will  not  allow  of  this  mode  of 
culture,  as  in  Africa,  for  instance,  and  various  parts  of  the 
province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis.  These  vines,  being  prevented 
from  growing  beyond  the  first  branches,  and  hence  always 
retaining  a  resemblance  to  those  plants  which  stand  in  need 
of  the  hoe,  trail  along  the  ground  just  like  them,  and  every 
here  and  there  suck19  up  the  juices  from  the  earth  to  fill  their 
grapes :  it  is  in  consequence  of  this,  that  in  the  interior  of  Africa 
the  clusters20  are  known  to  exceed  the  body  of  an  infant  in  size. 
The  wine  of  no  country  is  more  acid  than  those  of  Africa,  but 
there  is  nowhere  to  be  found  a  grape  that  is  more  agreeable 
for  its  firmness,  a  circumstance  which  may  very  probably  have 
given  rise  to  its  name  of  the  "hard  grape."21  As  to  the 
varieties  of  the  grape,  although  they  are  rendered  innumerable 
by  the  size,  the  colour,  and  the  flavour  of  the  berry,  they  are 
multiplied  even  still  more  by  the  wines  that  they  produce. 
In  one  part  they  are  lustrous  with  a  rich  purple  colour,  while 
in  another,  again,  they  glow  with  a  rosy  tint,  or  else  are  glossy 
with  their  verdant  hue.  The  grapes  that  are  merely  white 
or  black  are  the  common  sorts.  The  bumastus22  swells  out 
in  form  like  a  breast,  while  that  known  as  the  "  dactylus," 2S 
has  a  berry  of  remarkable  length.  Nature,  too,  displays  such 
varieties  in  these  productions  of  hers,  that  small  grapes  are 
often  to  be  found  adhering  to  the  largest  vines,  but  of  sur- 
passing sweetness ;  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  "  lep- 
torragse."24  Some,  again,  will  keep  throughout  the  winter,  if 
care  is  taken  to  hang  them  to  the  ceiling25  with  a  string ; 

19  By  throwing  out  fresh  shoots  every  here  and  there.  Fee,  however, 
seems  to  think  that  he  means  that  the  grapes  themselves,  as  they  trail 
along  the  ground,  suck  up  the  juices  with  their  pores.  These  are  known 
in  France  as  "  running  vines,"  and  are  found  in  Berry  and  Anjou. 

20  He  must  evidently  be  speaking  of  the  size  of  the  bunches.  See  the 
account  of  the  grapes  of  Canaan,  in  Numbers  xiii.  24. 

21  "  Durus  acinus,"  or,  according  to  some  readings,  "  duracinus." 

22  From  the  Greek  (Sov^iaaTog,  a  cow's  teat,  mentioned  by  Virgil,  Georg. 
ii.  102.  23  Or  finger-grape. 

24  From  the  Greek  Xs-rrTopayeQ,  "  small-berried." 

25  Pensili  concamaratae  nodo. 


Chap.  3.]  THE    CULTIVATION    OF    THE    VINE.  221 

while  others,  again,  will  keep  by  virtue  of  their  own  natural 
freshness  and  vigour,  if  put  into  earthen  jars,  which  are  then 
enclosed  in  dolia,26  and  covered  up  with  the  fermenting  husks 
of  grapes.  Some  grapes  receive  from  the  smoke  of  the  black- 
smith's forge  that  remarkable  flavour  which  it  is  also  known 
to  impart  to  wines  :  it  was  the  high  name  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberius  that  brought  into  such  great  repute  the  grapes  that 
had  been  smoked  in  the  smithies  of  Africa.  Before  his  time 
the  highest  rank  at  table  was  assigned  to  the  grapes  of  Rhae- 
tia,2;  and  to  those  growing  in  the  territory  of  Verona. 

Raisins  of  the  sun  have  the  name  of  "passi,"  from  having 
been  submitted28  to  the  influence  of  the  sun.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  preserve  grapes  in  must,  and  so  make  them  drunk 
with  their  own  juices;  while  there  are  some  that  are  all  the 
sweeter  for  being  placed  in  must  after  it  has  been  boiled ; 
others,  again,  are  left  to  hang  on  the  parent  tree  till  a  new 
crop  has  made  its  appearance,  by  which  time  they  have  be- 
come as  clear  and  as  transparent29  as  glass.  Astringent 
pitch,  if  poured  upon  the  footstalk  of  the  grape,  will  impart 
to  it  all  that  body  and  that  firmness  which,  when  placed  in 
dolia  or  amphorae,  it  gives  to  wine.  More  recently,  too,  there 
has  been  discovered  a  vine  which  produces  a  fruit  that  imparts 
to  its  wine  a  strong  flavour  of  pitch :  it  is  the  famous  grape 
that  confers  such  celebrity  on  the  territory  of  Yienne,30  and  of 
which  several  varieties  have  recently  enriched  the  territories 
of  the  Arverni,  the  Sequani,  and  the  Helvii : 31  it  was  un- 
known in  the  time  of  the  poet  Virgil,  who  has  now  been  dead 
these  ninety  years.32 

In  addition  to  these  particulars,  need  I  make  mention  of  the 
fact  that  the  vine33  has  been  introduced  into  the  camp  and 

26  "We  have  no  corresponding  word  for  the  Latin  "  dolium."  It  was 
an  oblong  earthen  vessel,  used  for  much  the  same  purpose  as  our  vats ; 
new  wine  was  generally  placed  in  it.  In  times  later  than  that  of  Pliny 
the  dolia  were  made  of  wood. 

27  Hardouin  speaks  of  these  grapes  as  still  growing  in  his  time  in  the 
Valtelline,  and  remarkable  for  their  excellence. 

28  "  A  patientia."  Because  they  have  suffered  from  the  action  of  the 
heat. 

29  From  the  thinness  ef  the  skin. 

30  See  c.  24,  also  B.  xxiii.  c.  24.      31  See  B.  hi.  c.  5,  and  B.  xxxiii.  c  24. 

32  He  died  in  the  year  b.c.  19. 

33  A  vine  sapling  was  the  chief  mark  of  the  centurion's  authority. 


222  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

placed  in  the  centurion's  hand  for  the  preservation  of  the 
supreme  authority  and  command  ?  that  this  is  the  high  reward 
which  summons  the  lagging  ranks  to  the  eagles  raised  aloft,34 
and  that  even  in  chastisement  for  faults  it  tends  to  reflect 
honour  upon  the  punishment  ? 35  It  was  the  vineyard,  too, 
that  first  afforded  a  notion,36  the  practical  utility  of  which  has 
been  experienced  in  many  a  siege.  Among  the  medicinal  pre- 
parations, too,  the  vine  holds  so  high  a  place,  that  its  very 
wines  taken  by  themselves  are  efficacious  as  remedies  for 
disease.37 

CHAP.  4.  (2.) NINETY-ONE    VARIETIES    OF    THE    VINE. 

Democritus,  who  has  declared  that  he  was  acquainted  with 
every  variety  of  the  grape  known  in  Greece,  is  the  only  person 
who  has  been  of  opinion  that  every  kind  could  be  enumerated ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rest  of  the  authors  have  stated  that 
they  are  quite  innumerable38  and  of  infinite  extent,  an  assertion 
the  truth  of  which  will  be  more  evident,  if  we  only  consider 
the  vast  number  of  wines.  I  shall  not  attempt,  then,  to  speak 
of  every  kind  of  vine,  but  only  of  those  that  are  the  most  re- 
markable, seeing  that  the  varieties  are  very  nearly  as  number- 
less as  the  districts  in  which  they  grow.  It  will  suffice,  then, 
to  point  out  those  which  are  the  most  remarkable  among  the 
vines,  or  else  are  peculiar  for  some  wonderful  property. 

The  very  highest  rank  is  given  to  the  Aminean39  grape,  on 

34  The  reading  "  elatas,"  has  been  adopted.  If  "lentas"  is  retained, 
it  may  mean,  "  promotion,  slow  though  it  be,"  for  the  word  "  aquila" 
was  often  used  to  denote  the  rank  of  the  "  primipilus,"  who.  had  the 
charge  of  the  eagle  of  the  legion. 

35  Because  it  was  the  privilege  solely  of  those  soldiers  who  were  Roman 
citizens  to  he  beaten  with  the  vine  sapling. 

36  He  alludes  to  the  "vinea"  used  in  besieging  towns  ;  the  first  notion 
of  which  was  derived  from  the  leafy  roof  afforded  by  the  vines  when  creeping 
on  the  trellis  over-head.  It  was  a  moveable  machine,  affording  a  roof 
under  which  the  besiegers  protected  themselves  against  darts,  stones,  fire, 
and  other  missiles.  Baw  hides  or  wet  cloths  constituted  the  uppermost 
layer. 

37  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  19. 

38  Many  years  ago,  there  were  in  the  gardens  of  the  Luxembourg  one 
thousand  four  hundred  varieties  of  the  French  grape,  and  even  then  there 
were  many  not  to  be  found  there ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  was  con- 
sidered that  the  French  kinds  did  not  form  more  than  one-twentieth  part 
of  the  species  known  in  Europe. 

39  This  vine  was  said  to  be  of  Grecian  origin,  and  to  have  been  con- 


Chap.  4]  VARIETIES   OF    THE   TINE.  223 

account  of  the  body  and  durability  of  its  wine,  which  improves 
with  old  a°-e  There  are  five  varieties  of  the  Aminean  grape  ; 
of  these,  the  smaller  germana,  or  "  sister"  grape,  has  a  smaller 
berry  than  the  rest,  and  flowers  more  strongly,  being  able  to 
bear  up  against  rain  and  tempestuous  weather ;  a  thing  that 
is  not  the  case  with  the  larger  germana,  though  it  is  less  ex- 
posed to  danger  when  attached  to  a  tree  than  when  supported 
only  by  a  trellis.  Another  kind,  again,  has  obtained  the 
name  of  the  "  gemella,"  or  "  twin"  grape,  because  the  clusters 
always  grow40  in  couples :  the  flavour  of  the  wine  is  extremely 
rou4,  but  it  is  remarkable  for  its  strength.  Of  these  several 
varieties  the  smaller  one  suffers  from  the  south  wind,  but  re- 
ceives nutriment  from  all  the  others,  upon  Mount  Vesuvius 
for  instance,  and  the  hills  of  Surrentum  :  in  the  other  parte  of 
Italy  it  is  never  grown  except  attached  to  trees.  The  ntth 
kind  is  that  known  as  the  lanata,  or  "  woolly"  grape ;  so  that 
we  need  not  be  surprised  at  the  wool-bearing  trees41  of  the 
Seres  or  the  Indians,  for  this  grape  is  covered  with  a  woolly 
down  of  remarkable  thickness.  It  is  the  first  of  the  Ami- 
nean vines  that  ripens,  but  the  grape  decays  with  remarkable 

^^he^econcl  rank  belongs  to  the  vines  of  Momentum,4?  the 
wood  of  which  is  red,  from  which  circumstance  the  vines  have 
received  from  some  the  name  of  "  rubellse."  The  grapes  of 
this  vine  produce  less  wine  than  usual,  in  consequence  of  the 
extraordinary  quantity  of  husk  and  lees  they  throw  off:  but 
the  vine  is  remarkably  strong,  is  well  able  to  stand  the  frost, 
and  is  apt  to  receive  more  detriment  from  drought  than  from 
rain  from  heat  than  from  cold ;  hence  it  is  that  those  are 
looked  upon  as  the  best  that  are  grown  in  cold  and  moist 
localities.  That  variety  which  has  the  smallest  grape  is  con- 
veyed by  a  Thessalian  tribe  to  Italy,  where  it  was  grown  at  Aminea,  a 
village  in  the  Falernian  district  of  Campania.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been°the  same  as  the  gros  plant  of  the  French.  The  varieties  mentioned 
by  Pliny  seem  not  to  have  been  recognized  by  the  moderns. 

40  Fee  does  not  give  credit  to  this  statement. 

4i  In  allusion  to  the  cotton-tree,  or  else  the  mulberry  leaves  covered 
with  the  cocoons  of  the  silkworm.  See  B.  vi.  c.  20,  and  B.  xn.  c.  21. 
Virgil,  in  the  Georgics,  has  the  well-known  line  : 

"  Velleraque  ut  foliis  depectant  tenuia  Seres.'      _       _ 

42  See  B.  iii.  c.  9.  There  are  many  vines,  the  wood  of  which  is  red, 
but  this  species  has  not  been  identified. 


224  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XIV. 

sidered  the  most  fruiti\il :  the  one  which  has  a  jagged  leaf  is 
less  productive. 

The  vine  known  as  the  "  apiana,"43  has  received  that  name 
from  the  bee,  an  insect  which  is  remarkably  fond  of  it :  there 
are  two  varieties  of  this  vine.  This  grape,  too,  is  covered  in 
its  young  state  with  a  kind  of  down ;  the  main  difference  be- 
tween the  two  varieties  is,  that  the  one  ripens  more  rapidly 
than  the  other,  though  this  last  ripens  with  considerable 
quickness.  A  cold  locality  is  not  at  all  hurtful  to  them, 
although  there  is  no  grape  that  ripens  sooner  :  these  grapes, 
however,  very  soon  rot  in  the  rain.  The  wines  produced  by 
this  grape  are  sweet  at  first,  but  contract  a  rough  flavour  in 
the  course  of  years.  This  vine  is  cultivated  more  than  any 
other  in  Etruria.  Thus  far  we  have  made  mention  of  the 
more  celebrated  vines  among  those  which  are  peculiar  and  in- 
digenous to  Italy ;  the  rest  have  been  introduced  from  Chios 
or  Thasos. 

The  small  Greek44  grape  is  not  inferior  to  the  Aminean  for 
the  excellence  of  its  quality :  the  berry  is  remarkably  thin- 
skinned,  and  the  cluster  so  extremely  small,45  that  it  is  not 
worth  while  cultivating  it,  except  on  a  soil  of  remarkable 
richness.  The  eugenia,46  so  called  from  its  high  qualities,  has 
been  introduced  into  the  Alban  territory  from  the  hills  of 
Tauromenium : 47  it  is  found,  however,  to  thrive  only  there, 
for  if  transplanted  elsewhere  it  degenerates  immediately :  in 
fact,  there  is  in  some  vines  so  strong  an  attachment  to  their 
native  soil,  that  they  leave  behind  them  all  their  high  repute, 
and  are  never  transplanted  in  their  full  entirety.  This  is  the 
case,  too,  with  the  B-hsetian  and  the  Allobrogian  grapes,  of 
which  we  have  made  mention  above  as  the  pitch-flavoured48 
grape;  these  are  justly  deemed  excellent  in  their  own  coun- 

43  From  "  apis,"  a  "  bee."  He  alludes,  it  is  thought,  to  the  muscatel 
grape,  said  to  have  had  its  name  from  "  musca,"  a  "  fly  ;"  an  insect  which 
is  greatly  attracted  by  its  sweetness. 

44  Grsecula. 

45  Fee  is  inclined  to  think  that  he  alludes  to  the  vine  of  Corinth,  the 
dried  fruit  of  which  are  the  currants  of  commerce. 

46  From  the  Greek  ivykvua. 

47  Now  Taormina,  in  Sicily,  where,  Fee  says,  it  is  still  to  be  found. 
The  grapes  are  red,  similar  to  those  of  Mascoli  near  Etna,  and  much 
esteemed. 

48  Picata.     Seep.  221. 


Chap.  4.]  VARIETIES    OF   THE   VINE.  225 

try,  while  elsewhere  they  are  held  in  no  esteem  at  all.  Still, 
however,  in  consequence  of  their  remarkable  fertility,  they 
make  up  for  quality  by  abundance :  the  eugenia  thrives  in 
spots  which  are  scorching  hot,  the  Rhsetian  vine  in  places  of  a 
more  moderate  temperature,  and  the  Allobrogian  in  cold,  ex- 
posed situations,  the  fruit  being  of  a  black  colour,  and  ripened 
by  the  agency  of  frost. 

The  wines  produced  from  the  vines  of  which  we  have 
hitherto  made  mention,  even  though  the  grapes  are  black, 
become,  all  of  them,  when  old,  of  a  white 49  complexion.  The 
other  vines  are  of  no  note  in  particular,  though  sometimes, 
thanks  to  some  peculiarity  either  in  the  climate  or  the  soil, 
the  wines  produced  from  them  attain  a  mature  old  age  ;  such, 
for  instance,  as  the  Fecenian50  vine,  and  the  Biturigian,51  which 
blossoms  at  the  same  time  with  it,  but  has  not  so  many  grapes. 
The  blossoms  of  these  last-mentioned  vines  are  not  liable  to 
receive  injury,  both  because  they  are  naturally  but  transi- 
tory, and  have  the  power  of  resisting  the  action  of  both  wind 
and  storm ;  still,  however,  those  that  grow  in  cold  spots  are 
considered  superior  to  those  produced  in  a  warm  site,  and  those 
found  in  moist  places  superior  to  those  grown  in  dry,  thirsty 
localities. 

The  vine  known  as  the  "visula"52  *  *  *  *  more 
than  abundance  of  fruit,  being  unable  to  endure  the  extreme 
variations  of  the  atmosphere,  though  it  is  very  well  able  to 
stand  a  continuation  of  either  cold  or  heat.  Of  this  last  kind 
the  smaller  one  is  the  best,  but  difficult  to  please  in  its  choice  ; 
in  a  rich  earth  it  is  apt  to  rot,  while  in  a  thin  soil  it  will  come 
to  nothing  at  all :  in  its  fastidiousness  it  requires  a  soil  of 
middling  quality,  and  hence  it  is  that  it  is  so  commonly  found 
on  the  hills  of  the  Sabine  territory.  Its  grape  is  unsightly  in 
appearance,  but  has  a  very  pleasant  flavour  :  if  it  is  not  gathered 
at  the  very  moment  that  it  is  ripe,  it  will  fall}  even  before  it 
decays.     The  extreme  size  of  the  leaves,  and  its  natural  hardi- 

49  I.  e.,  pale  straw  colour. 

50  It  has  been  supposed  that  this  vine  received  its  name  from  "faex;"  the 
wine  depositing  an  unusually  large  quantity  of  lees. 

51  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  vine  had  its  name  from  being  grown  in 
the  district  now  called  Bourges,  or  that  of  Eourdeaux.  Dalechamps  iden- 
tifies it  with  the  plant  d'  Orleans. 

62  The  origin  of  its  name  is  unknown.    The  text  is  evidently  defective. 

VOL.    III.  Q 


226  plint's  natttbal  histoey.  [Book  XIV. 

ness,  are  its  great  protection  against  the  disastrous  effects  of 
hail. 

The  grapes  known  as  "  helvolaB"53  are  remarkable  for  the 
peculiarity  of  their  colour,  which  is  a  sort  of  midway  between 
purple  and  black,  but  varies  so  frequently  that  it  has  made 
some  persons  give  them  the  name  of  "  variana?."  Of  the  two 
sorts  of  helvolse,  the  black  is  the  one  generally  preferred  :  they 
both  of  them  produce  every  other  year,  but  the  wine  is  best 
when  the  vintage  has  been  less  abundant. 

The  vine  that  is  known  as  the  "  precia"  M  is  also  divided 
into  two  varieties,  distinguished  by  the  size  of  the  grape. 
These  vines  produce  a  vast  quantity  of  wood,  and  the  grape  is 
very  good  for  preserving  in  jars;55  the  leaves  are  similar  in 
appearance  to, that  of  parsley.56  The  people  of  Dyrrhachium 
hold  in  high  esteem  the  vine  known  as  the  "  basilica,"  the 
same  which  in  Spain  is  called  the  "  cocolobis."57  The  grapes 
of  this  Tine  grow  in  thin  clusters,  and  it  can  stand  great  heat, 
and  the  south  winds.  The  wine  produced  from  it  is  apt  to  fly 
to  the  head  :58  the  produce  of  the  vine  is  very  large.  The 
people  in  Spain  distinguish  two  kinds  of  this  vine,  the  one 
with  the  oblong,  the  other  with  the  round  grape  ;  they  gather 
this  fruit  the  very  last  of  all.  The  sweeter  the  cocolobis  is, 
the  more  it  is  valued ;  but  even  if  it  has  a  rough  taste,  the  wine 
will  become  sweet  by  keeping,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
which  was  sweet  at  first,  will  acquire  a  certain  roughness ;  it 
is  in  this  last  state  that  the  wine  is  thought  to  rival  that  of 
Alba.59  It  is  said  that  the  juice  of  this  grape  is  remarkably 
efficacious  when  drunk  as  a  specific  for  diseases  of  the  bladder. 

53  By  this  name  it  would  be  understood  that  they  were  of  an  inter- 
mediate colour  between  rose  and  white,  a  not  uncommon  colour  in  the 
grape.    Pliny,  however,  says  otherwise,  and  he  is  supported  by  Columella. 

54  C.  Bauhin  took  this  to  mean  one  of  the  garden  currant  trees,  the 
Ribes  uva  crispa  of  Linnaeus,  called  by  Bauhin  Grossularia  simplici  acino, 
or  else  Spinosa  agrestis.  But,  as  Fee  observes,  the  ancients  were  not  so 
ignorant  as  to  confound  a  vine  with  a  currant-bush. 

55  Like  the  Portuguese  grapes  of  the  present  day. 

56  Crisped  and  indented. 

57  This  variety,  according  to  Christian  de  la  Vega,  was  cultivated 
abundantly  in  Grenada.  The  word  cocolab,  according  to  some,  meant 
cock's  comb.     It  is  mentioned  as  a  Spanish  word  by  Columella. 

58  Dalechamps  says,  that  a  similar  wine  was  made  at  Montpellier,  and 
that  it  was  called  "piquardant." 

59  See  B.  xxiii.  cc.  20,  21. 


Chap.  4.]  VARIETIES    OF   THE   TINE.  227 

The  "  albuelis"  60  produces  most  of  its  fruit  at  the  top  of 
the  tree,  the  visula  at  the  bottom  ;  hence,  when  planted  around 
the  same  tree,  in  consequence  of  these  peculiarities  in  their 
nature,  they  bear  between  them  a  two-fold  crop.  One  of  the 
black  grape  vines  has  been  called  the  "  inerticula,"  61  though 
it  might  with  more  propriety  have  been  styled  the  "  sobria;"62 
the  wine  from  it  is  remarkably  good,  and  more  particularly 
when  old ;  but  though  strong,  it  is  productive  of  no  ill  effects, 
and,  indeed,  is  the  only  wine  that  will  not  cause  in- 
toxication. 

The  abundance  of  their  produce  again  recommends  other 
vines  to  us,  and,  in  the  first  place,  that  known  as  the  "  helven- 
naca."63  Of  this  vine  there  are  two  kinds ;  the  larger,  which 
is  by  some  called  the  "long"  helvennaca,  and  the  smaller 
kind,  which  is  known  as  the  "  emarcum,"^  not  so  prolific  as 
the  first,  but  producing  a  wine  of  more  agreeable  flavour  ;  it 
is  distinguished  by  its  rounded  leaf,  but  they  are  both  of 
them  of  slender  make.  It  is  requisite  to  place  forks  beneath 
these  vines  for  the  support  of  their  branches,  as  otherwise  it 
would  be  quite  impossible  for  them  to  support  the  weight  of 
their  produce  :  they  receive  nutriment  from  the  breezes  that 
blow  from  the  sea,  and  foggy  weather  is  injurious  to  them. 
There  is  not  one  among  the  vines  that  manifests  a  greater 
aversion  to  Italy,  for  there  it  becomes  comparatively  leafless 
and  stunted,  and  soon  decays,  while  the  wine  which  it  produces 
there  will  not  keep  beyond  the  summer :  no  vine,  however, 
thrives  better  in  a  poor  soil.  Graecinus,  who  has  copied  from 
the  works  of  Cornelius  Celsus,  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  it  is 
not  that  the  nature  of  this  vine  is  repugnant  to  the  climate 
of  Italy,  but   that  it  is   the  mode  of  cultivating  it  that  is 

60  Probably  from  "albus,"  "white."  Poinsinet  thinks  that  it  may 
have  been  so  called  from  the  Celtic  word  alb,  or  alp,  a  mountain,  and  that 
it  grew  on  elevated  spots.     This,  however,  is  probably  fanciful. 

el  Called  by  the  Greeks  an'tQvaTov,  from  its  comparatively  harmless 
qualities. 

63  Or  "sober"  vine. 

63  Hardouin  says  that  in  his  time  it  was  still  cultivated  about  Macerata, 
in  the  Roman  States.  Fee  thinks  that  it  may  be  one  of  the  climbing 
vines,  supported  by  forks,  cultivated  in  the  central  provinces  of  France. 
See  also  B.  xxiii.  c.  19,  as  to  the  effects  produced  by  its  wine. 

64  Poinsinet  gives  a  Celto- Scythian  origin  to  this  word,  and  says  that  it 
means  "injured  by  fogs."  This  appears  to  be  supported  in  some  measure 
by  what  is  stated  below. 

Q   2 


228  pliny's  fatttkal  history.  [Book  XI Y. 

wrong,  and  the  anxiety  to  force  it  to  put  forth  its  shoots ;  a 
mode  of  treatment,  he  thinks,  which  absorbs  all  its  fertility, 
unless  the  soil  in  which  it  is  planted  happens  to  be  remarkably 
rich,  and  by  its  support  prevents  it  from  being  exhausted.  It 
is  said  that  this  vine  is  never  carbuncled,65  a  remarkable  qua- 
lity, if,  indeed,  it  really  is  the  fact  that  there  is  any  vine  in 
existence  that  is  exempt  from  the  natural  influences  of  the 
climate. 

The  spionia,  by  some  called  the  "  spinea,"66  is  able  to  bear 
heat  very  well,  and  thrives  in  the  autumn  and  rainy  weather : 
indeed,  it  is  the  only  one  among  all  the  vines  that  does  well 
amid  fogs,  for  which  reason  it  is  peculiar  to  the  territory  of 
Ravenna.67  The  venicula 68  is  one  of  those  that  blossom  the 
strongest,  and  its  grapes  are  particularly  well  adapted  for  pre- 
serving in  jars.  The  Campanians,  however,  prefer  to  give  it 
the  name  of  "  scircula,"  while  others,  again,  call  it  "  stacula." 
Tarracina  has  a  vine  known  as  the  "  numisiana;"  it  has  no 
qualities  of  its  own,  but  has  characteristics  just  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  it  is  planted  :  the  wine,  how- 
ever, if  kept  in  the  earthen  casks 69  of  Surrentum,  is  remark- 
able for  its  goodness,  that  is  to  say,  as  far  south  as  Vesuvius. 
On  arriving  in  that  district,  we  find  the  Murgentina,70  the  very 
best  among  all  those  that  come  from  Sicily.  Some,  indeed, 
call  the  vine  "  Pompeiana/'71  and  it  is  more  particularly  fruitful 
when  grown  in  Latium,  just  as  the  "  horconia"72  is  productive 
nowhere  but  in  Campania.  Of  a  contrary  nature  is  the  vine 
known  as  the  "  argeica,"  and  by  Yirgil  called  "  argitis:"78 
it  makes  the  ground  all  the  more74  productive,  and  is  remark- 

65  See  B.  xvii.  c.  37. 

66  Or  "  thorny"  vine.     Fee  queries  why  it  should  he  thus  called. 

67  This  humid,  marshy  locality  was  noted  for  the  badness  of  its  grapes, 
and  consequently  of  its  wine. 

68  Hardouin  thinks  that  this  is  the  "Marze  mina"  of  the  Venetians : 
whence,  perhaps,  its  ancient  name. 

69  "  Testis."     See  B.  xxxv.  c.  46. 

70  From  Murgentum,  in  Sicily.     See  B.  iii.  c.  14. 

71  From  Pompeii,  afterwards  destroyed.     See  B.  iii  c.  9. 

72  Hardouin,  as  Fee  thinks,  without  good  reason,  identifies  this  with 
the  "Arelaca"  of  Columella. 

73  Georgics,  ii.  99. 

74  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "ultro  solum  lsetius  tacit."  These 
two  lines  have  been  introduced  by  Sillig,  from  one  of  the  MSS.,  for  the 
first  time. 


Chap.  4.]  VAEIETIES   OF    THE    VINE.  229 

ably  stout  in  its  resistance  to  rain  and  the  effects  of  old  age, 
though  it  will  hardly  produce  wine  every  year  ;  it  is  remark- 
able for  the  abundant  crops  which  it  bears,  though  the  grapes 
are  held  but  in  small  esteem  for  eating.  The  vine  known  as 
the  "  metica"  lasts  well  for  years,  and  offers  a  successful  re- 
sistance to  all  changes  of  weather ;  the  grape  is  black,  and  the 
wine  assumes  a  tawny  hue  when  old. 

(3.)  The  varieties  that  have  been  mentioned  thus  far  are 
those  that  are  generally  known ;  the  others  belong  to  peculiar 
countries  or  individual  localities,  or  else  are  of  a  mixed  nature, 
the  produce  of  grafting.  Thus  the  vine  known  as  the  "  Tuder- 
nis,"75  is  peculiar  to  the  districts  of  Etruria,  and  so  too  is  the 
vine  that  bears  the  name  of  "  Florentia."  At  Arretium  the 
talpona,  the  etesiaca,  and  the  consemina,  are  particularly  ex- 
cellent.76 The  talpona,77  which  is  a  black  grape,  produces  a 
pale,  straw-coloured78  must :  the  etesiaca 79  is  apt  to  deceive ; 
the  more  the  wine  it  produces  the  better  the  quality,  but  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  just  as  it  has  reached  that  point  its 
fecundity  ceases  altogether.  The  consemina80  bears  a  black 
grape,  but  its  wine  will  not  keep,  though  the  grape  itself  is 
a  most  excellent  keeper  ;  it  is  gathered  fifteen  days  later  than 
any  other  kind  of  grape :  this  vine  is  very  fruitful,  but-  its 
grape  is  only  good  for  eating.  The  leaves  of  this  tree,  like 
those  of  the  wild  vine,  turn  the  colour  of  blood  just  before  the 
fall :  the  same  is  the  case  also  with  some 81  other  varieties,  but 
it  is  a  proof  that  they  are  of  very  inferior  quality. 

The  irtiola82  is  a  vine  peculiar  to  Umbria   and  the    terri- 


75  Hardouin  thinks  that  it  is  so  called  from  Tuder,  a  town  of  Etruria. 
See  B.  iii.  c.  19. 

76  Sillig  suggests  that  the  reading  here  is  corrupt,  and  that  Pliny 
means  to  say  that  the  vine  called  Florentia  is  particularly  excellent,  and 
merely  to  state  that  the  talpona,  &c,  are  peculiar  to  Arretium :  for,  as 
he  says,  speaking  directly  afterwards  in  disparagement  of  them,  it  is  not 
likely  he  would  pronounce  them  "opima,"  of  "first-rate  quality." 

77  From  "  talpa,"  a  "  mole,"  in  consequence  of  its  black  colour. 

78  "Album." 

79  Probably  so  called  from  the  Etesian  winds,  which  improved  its  growth. 

80  Perhaps  meaning  "  double-seeded."  We  may  here  remark,  that  the 
wines  of  Tuscany,  though  held  in  little  esteem  in  ancient  times,  are  highly 
esteemed  at  the  present  day, 

81  The  leaves  of  most  varieties  turn  red  just  before  the  fall. 

82  And  Baccius  thinks  that  this  is  the  kind  from  which  the  raisins  of  the 


230  plint's  nattjeal  histoet.  [Book  XIV. 

tories  of  Mevania  and  Picenum,  while  the  punrala 83  belongs 
to  Amiternum.  In  the  same  districts  we  find  the  vine  called 
bannanica,84  which  is  very  deceptive,  though  the  people  are 
remarkably  fond  of  its  fruit.  The  municipal  town  of  Pom- 
peii has  given  its  name  to  the  Pompeia,85  although  it  is  to  be 
foimd  in  greater  abundance  in  the  territory  of  Clusium.  The 
Tiburina,  also,  is  so  called  from  the  municipal  town  of  Tibiir, 
although  it  is  in  this  district  that  they  have  lately  discovered 
the  grape  known  as  the  "  oleaginea,"  from  its  strong  resem- 
blance to  an  olive  :  this  being  the  very  last  kind  of  grape  that 
has  been  introduced.  The  Sabines  and  the  Laurentes  are  the 
only  people  acquainted  with  the  vinaciola.87  As  to  the  vines 
of  Mount  Graurus,88 1  am  aware  that,  as  they  have  been  trans- 
planted from  the  Palernian  territory,  they  bear  the  name  of 
"Falernian  :"  but  it  is  a  fact  that  the  Palernian  vine,  when 
transplanted,  rapidly  degenerates.  Some  persons,  too,  have 
made  out  a  Tarentine  variety,  with  a  grape  of  remarkable 
sweetness :  the  grapes  of  the  "  capnios," 89  the  "  bucconiatis,"90 
and  the  "tarrupia,"  grow  on  the  hills  of  Thurii,  and  are 
never  gathered  till  after  the  frost  commences.  Pisae  enjoys 
the  Parian  vine,  and  Mutina  the  prusinian,91  with  a  black 
grape,  the  wine  of  which  turns  pale  within  four  years.  It  is 
a  very  remarkable  thing,  but  there  is  a  grape  here  that  turns 
round  with  the  sun,  in  its  diurnal  motion,  a  circumstance  from 
which  it  has  received  the  name  of  "  strep tos." 92     In  Italy,  the 

sun,  common  in  Italy,  and  more  particularly  in  the  Valley  of  Bevagna,  the 
Mevania  of  Pliny,  are  made. 

83  Perhaps  from  "pumilio,"  a  dwarf. 

84  The  "  royal"  vine,  according  to  Poinsinet,  who  would  derive  it  from 
the  Sclavonic  "ban." 

85  Previously  mentioned,  p.  228. 

86  The  residence  of  Horace,  now  Tivoli. 

87  Baccius  says  that  the  wine  of  this  grape  was  thin  like  water,  and  that 
the  vine  was  trained  on  lofty  trees,  a  mode  of  cultivation  still  followed  in 
the  vicinity  of  Rome.  Laurentum  was  situate  within  a  short  distance  of 
it,  near  Ostia. 

S8  See  B.  hi.  c.  9. 

89  So  called  from  the  smoky  or  intermediate  colour  of  its  grapes.  Pee 
suggests  that  this  may  be  the  slow-ripening  grape  of  France,  called  the 
"  verjus,"  or  "  rognon  de  coq." 

90  Possibly  meaning  the  "  mouthful." 

91  Perhaps  so  called  from  Prusa  in  Bithynia,  a  district  which  bore  ex- 
cellent grapes. 

92  Or  the  "  turning  "  grape.     A  fabulous  story  no  doubt,  originating  in 


Chap.  4.]  YAEIETIES    OF   THE   VINE.  231 

Gallic  vine  is  a  great  favourite,  while  beyond  the  Alps  that  of 
Picenum93  is  preferred.  Virgil  has  made  mention 94  of  the 
Thasian  vine,  the  Mareotis,  the  lagea,  and  several  other  foreign 
varieties,  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  Italy. 

There  are  some  vines,  again,  that  are  remarkable,  not  for 
their  wine,  but  for  their  grapes,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  am- 
brosia,95 one  of  the  "  duracinus  ';96  kind,  a  grape  which  requires 
no  potting,  but  will  keep  perfectly  well  if  left  on  the  vine,  so 
remarkable  is  the  strength  with  which  it  is  endowed  for  with- 
standing the  effects  of  cold,  heat,  and  stormy  weather.  The 
"  orthampelos," 97  too,  is  a  vine  that  requires  neither  tree  nor 
stay,  as  it  is  well  able  to  sustain  its  own  weight.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case  with  the  "  dactylis,"98  the  stem  of  which 
is  no  thicker  than  the  finger.  The  "  coiumbina"99  is  one  of 
those  with  the  finest  clusters,  and  still  more  so  is  the  purple 
"  bimammia  ;*'  it  does  not  bear  in  clusters,1  but  only  secondary 
bunches.  There  is  the  tripedanea,2  too,  a  name  which  it  owes 
to  the  length  of  its  clusters,  and  the  scirpula,3  with  its  shrivelled 
berry ;  the  Rhaetica,4  too,  so  called  in  the  Maritime  Alps,  though 
very  different  from  the  grape  of  that  name  which  is  so  highly 
esteemed,  and  of  which  we  have  previously  spoken ;  for  in 
this  variety  the  clusters  are  small,  the  grapes  lie  closely  packed, 

the  name,  probably.  Fee  suggests  that  it  may  have  originated  in  the  not 
uncommon  practice  of  letting  the  bunches  hang  after  they  were  ripe,  and 
then  twisting  them,  which  was  thought  to  increase  the  juice. 

93  In  the  modern  Marches  of  Ancona. 

94  Georgics,  ii.  91,  et  seq. 

Sunt  Thasia;  vites,  sunt  et  Mareotides  albse  : 
***** 

Et  passo  Psithia  utilior.  tenuisque  Lageos, 
Tentatura  pedes  olim,  vincturaque  linguam, 
Purpurea?,  Preciseque 

95  A  muscatel,  Fee  thinks. 

96  or  "hard-berried."  Fee  thinks  that  the  maroquin,  or  Morocco 
grape,  called  the  "pied  de  poule"  (or  fowl's  foot),  at  Montpellier,  may  be 
the  duracinus. 

97  Or  "upright  vine."  In  Anjou  and  Herault  the  vines  are  of  similar 
character. 

98  The  "finger-like"  vine.  99  The  "pigeon  "  vine. 

1  Though  very  fruitful,  it  does  not  bear  in  large  clusters  (racemi),  but 
only  in  small  bunches  (uvae). 

2  The  "  three-foot"  vine. 

3  Perhaps  meaning  the  "  rush"  grape,  from  its  shrivelled  appearance. 

4  See  c.  3  of  this  Book. 


232  PLINY' 8   NATURAL   HISTOET.  [Book  XIV. 

and  it  produces  but  a  poor  wine.  It  has,  however,  the  thin- 
nest skin  of  all  the  grapes,  and  a  single  stone,5  of  very  dimi- 
nutive size,  which  is  known  as  the  "  Chian  ;"6  one  or  two  of 
the  grapes  on  the  cluster  are  remarkably  large.  There  is  also 
the  black  Aminean,  to  which  the  name  of  Syriaca  is  given  : 
the  Spanish  vine,  too,  the  very  best  of  all  those  of  inferior 
quality. 

The  grapes  that  are  known  as  escariae,7  are  grown  on  trel- 
lises. Of  the  duracinus8  kind,  there  are  those  known  as  the 
white  and  the  black  varieties  ;  the  bumastus,  too,  is  similarly 
distinguished  in  colour.  Among  the  vines  too,  that  have 
not  as  yet  been  mentioned,  there  are  the  ^Egian  and  the 
Ehodian9  kinds,  as  also  the  uncialis,  so  called,  it  would  seem, 
from  its  grape  being  an  ounce  in  weight.  There  is  the  picina10 
too,  the  blackest11  grape  known,  and  the  stephanitis,12  the 
clusters  of  which  Nature,  in  a  sportive  mood,  has  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  garland,  the  leaves  being  interspersed 13  among 
the  grapes;  there  are  the  grapes,  too,  known  as  the  "forenses,"14 
and  which  quickly  come  to  maturity,  recommend  themselves 
to  the  buyer  by  their  good  looks,  and  are  easily  carried  from 
place  to  place. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  known  as  the  "cinerea"15  are 
condemned  by  their  very  looks,  and  so  are  the  rabuscula 16  and 
the  asinusca ;  n  the  produce  of  the  alopecis,18  which  resembles 
in  colour  a  fox's  tail,  is  held  in  less  disesteem.  The  Alexan- 
dria 19  is  the  name  of  a  vine  that  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  Pha- 

5  The  ordinary  number  of  pips  or  stones  is  five.  It  is  seldom  that  we 
find  but  one.     Virgil  mentions  this  grape,  Georg.  ii.  95. 

6  "  Chium."  This  reading  is  doubtful.  Fee  says  that  between  ISTarni 
and  Terni,  eight  leagues  from  Spoleto,  a  small  grape  is  found,  without 
stones.  It  is  called  "uva  passa,"  or  "passerina."  So,  too,  the  Sultana 
raisin  of  commerce. 

7  " Grown  for  the  table."  8  Or  "hard-berry." 

9  Mentioned  by  Virgil,  Georg.  ii.  101.  10  Or  pitch-grape. 

11  Perhaps  the  "noirant,"  or  "teinturier"  of  the  French. 

12  Or  "garland-clustered"  vine. 

13  Fee  says  that  this  is  sometimes  accidentally  the  case,  but  is  not  the 
characteristic  of  any  variety  now  known. 

14  Or  "market-grapes." 

15  The  "ash-coloured."  ™  The  "russet-coloured." 
17  Probably  so  called  from  its  grey  colour,  like  that  of  the  ass. 

is  Or  "fox"  vine.     This  variety  is  unknown. 

13  So  called  from  Alexandria,  in  Troas,  not  in  Egypt.  Phalacra  was 
iu  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Ida. 


Cliap.  5.] 


CULTUBE    OF    THE    VINE.  233 


lacra :  it  is  of  stunted  growth,  and  has  branches  a  cubit  in 
length;  the  grape  is  black,  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  with  a 
berry  that  is  soft,  and  remarkably  small :  the  clusters  hang  in 
a  slanting  direction,  and  are  remarkably  sweet ;  the  leaves  are 
small  and  round,  without  any  division.20  "Within  the  last 
seven  years  there  has  been  introduced  at  Alba  Helvia,21  in  the 
province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  a  vine  which  blossoms  but  a 
single  day,  and  is  consequently  proof  against  all  accidents : 
the  name  given  to  it  is  "  Narbonica,"  and  it  is  now  planted 
throughout  the  whole  of  that  province. 

CHAP.   5.   (4.) EEMAREABLE    FACTS  CONNECTED  WITH   THE 

CULTURE  OF  THE  VINE. 

The  elder  Cato,  who  was  rendered  more  particularly  illus- 
trious by  his  triumph23  and  the  censorship,  and  even  more  so 
by  his  literary  fame,  and  the  precepts  which  he  has  given  to 
the  Eoman  people  upon  every  subject  of  utility,  and  the 
proper  methods  of  cultivation  in  particular  ;  a  man  who,  by 
the  universal  confession,  was  the  first  husbandman  of  his  age 
and  without  a  rival — has  mentioned  a  few  varieties  only  of 
the  vine,  the  very  names  of  some  of  which  are  by  this  utterly 
forgotten.23  His  statement  on  this  subject  deserves  our 
separate  consideration,  and  requires  to  be  quoted  at  length,  in 
order  that  we  may  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  this  tree  that  were  held  in  the  highest  esteem 
in  the  year  of  the  City  of  Rome  600,  about  the  time  of  the 
capture  of  Carthage  and  Corinth,  the  period  of  his  death :  it 
will  show  too,  what  great  advances  civilization  has  made  in 
the  last  two  hundred  and  thirty  years.  The  following  are  the 
remarks  which  he  has  made  on  the  subject  of  the  vine  and  the 
grape. 

20  As  the  leaves  of  the  vine  are  universally  divided,  it  has  been  considered 
by  many  of  the  commentators  that  this  is  not  in  reality  a  vine,  but  the 
Arbutus  uva  ursi  of  Linnaeus.  The  fruit,  however,  of  that  ericaceous 
plant  is  remarkably  acrid,  and  not  sweet,  as  Pliny  states.  Fee  rejects  this 
solution. 

21  Aubenas,  in  the  Vivarais,  according  to  Hardouin  ;  Alps,  according  to 
Brotier.     We  must  reject  this  assertion  as  fabulous. 

22  In  B.C.  194,  for  his  successes  in  Spain. 

23  Mode  of  culture,  locality,  climate,  and  other  extraneous  circumstances, 
work,  no  doubt,  an  entire  change  in  the  nature  of  the  vine. 


234  flint's  natural  history. 


[Book  XIV. 


"Where  the  site  is  considered  to  be  most  favourable  to  the 
growth  of  the  vine,  and  exposed  to  the  warmth  of  the  sun, 
you  will  do  well  to  plant  the  small24  Aminean,  as  well  as  the 
two  eugenia,25  and  the  smaller  helvia.26  On  the  other  hand, 
where  the  soil  is  of  a  denser  nature  or  more  exposed  to  fogs, 
the  greater  Aminean  should  be  planted,  or  else  the  Murgen- 
tine,27  or  the  Apician  of  Lucania.  The  other  varieties  of  the 
grape  are,  for  the  most  part,  adapted  to  any  kind  of  soil ;  they 
are  best  preserved  in  a  lora.28  The  best  for  keeping  by  hang- 
ing, are  the  duracinus  kind,  the  greater  Aminean,  and  the 
Seantian;29  these,  too,  will  make  excellent  raisins  for  keeping 
if  dried  at  the  blacksmith's  forge."  There  are  no  precepts  in 
the  Latin  language  on  this  subject  more  ancient  than  these,  so 
near  are  we  to  the  very  commencement  of  all  our  practical 
knowledge  !  The  Aminean  grape,  of  which  mention  has  been 
made  above,  is  by  Yarro  called  the  "  Seantian." 

In  our  own  times  we  have  but  few  instances  of  any  consum- 
mate skill  that  has  been  manifested  in  reference  to  this  subject : 
the  less  excuse  then  should  we  have  for  omitting  any  particular 
which^  may  tend  to  throw  a  light  upon  the  profits  that  may 
be  derived  from  the  culture  of  the  vine,  a  point  which  on  all 
occasions  is  regarded  as  one  of  primary  importance.  Acilius 
Sthenelus,  a  man  of  plebeian  rank,  and  the.  son  of  a  freedman, 
acquired  very  considerable  repute  from  the  cultivation  of  a  vine- 
yard in  the  territory  of  Momentum,  not  more  than  sixty  jugera 
in  extent,  and  which  he  finally  sold  for  four  hundred  thousand 
sesterces.  Vetulenus  iEgialus  too,  a  freedman  as  well,  ac- 
quired very  considerable  note  in  the  district  of  Liternum,30  in 
Campania,  and,  indeed,  received  a  more  extensive  share  of 
the  public  favour,  from  the  fact  that  he  cultivated  the  spot 

24  Probably  tbe  first  of  the  five  that  he  has  mentioned  in  c.  4. 

25  He  has  only  mentioned  one  sort  in  c.  4. 

26  See  c.  4.  27  gee  c  4> 

28  "We  have  no  corresponding  word  for  this  beverage  in  the  English 
language— a  thin,  poor  liquor,  made  by  pouring  water  on  the  husks  and 
stalks  after  being  fully  pressed,  allowing  them  to  soak,  pressing  them  again, 
and  then  fermenting  the  liquor.  It  was  also  called  "vinum  operarium," 
or  "  labourer's  wine."  As  stated  in  the  present  instance,  grapes  were 
sometimes  stored  in  it  for  keeping. 

23  A  variety  of  the  Aminean,  as  stated  below. 

30  See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 


Chap.  5.]  CULTURE    OF    THE   VINE.  235 

which  had  been  the  place  of  exile  of  Scipio  Africanus.81  The 
greatest  celebrity  of  all,  however,  was  that  which,  by  the 
agency  of  the  same  Sthenelus,  was  accorded  to  Ehemmius 
Palremon,  who  was  also  equally  famous  as  a  learned  gram- 
marian. This  person  bought,  some  twenty  years  ago,  an  estate 
at  the  price  of  six  hundred  thousand  sesterces  in  the  same 
district  of  Momentum,  about  ten  miles  distant  from  the  City  of 
Rome.  The  low  price  of  property 3i  in  the  suburbs,  on  every 
side  of  the  City,  is  well  known ;  but  in  that  quarter  in  particu- 
lar, it  had  declined  to  a  most  remarkable  extent;  for  the 
estate  which  he  purchased  had  become  deteriorated  by  long- 
continued  neglect,  in  addition  to  which  it  was  situate  in  the 
very  worst  part  of  a  by  no  means  favourite  locality.33  Such 
was  the  nature  of  the  property  of  which  he  thus  undertook  the 
cultivation,  not,  indeed,  with  any  commendable  views  or  mten- 
tions  at  first,  but  merely  in  that  spirit  of  vanity  for  which  he 
was  notorious  in  so  remarkable  a  degree.  The  vineyards  were 
all  duly  dressed  afresh,  and  hoed,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Sthenelus  ;  the  result  of  which  was  that  Palsemon,  while  thus 
playing  the  husbandman,  brought  this  estate  to  such  an  almost 
incredible  pitch  of  perfection,  that  at  the  end  of  eight  years 
the  vintage,  as  it  hung  on  the  trees,  was  knocked  down  to  a 
purchaser  for  the  sum  of  four  hundred  thousand  sesterces; 
while  all  the  world  was  running  to  behold  the  heaps  upon  heaps 
of  grapes  to  be  seen  in  these  vineyards.  The  neighbours,  by 
way  of  finding  some  excuse  for  their  own  indolence,  gave  all 
the  credit  of  this  remarkable  success  to  Palsemon's  profound 
erudition;  and  at  last  Annseus  Seneca,34  who  both  held  the 
highest  rank  in  the  learned  world,  and  an  amount  of  power  and 
influence  which  at  last  proved  too  much  for  him — this  same 
Seneca,  who  was  far  from  being  an  admirer  of  frivolity,  was 
seized  with  such  vast  admiration  of  this  estate,  as  not  to  feel 
ashamed  at  conceding  this  victory  to  a  man  who  was  other- 
wise the  object  of  his  hatred,  and  who  would  be  sure  to  make 
the  very  most  of  it,  by  giving  him  four  times  the  original  cost 

31  The  elder  Africanus.  He  retired  in  voluntary  exile  to  his  country- 
Beat  at  Liternum,  where  he  died. 

32  Mercis. 

33  The  suggestion  of  Sillig  has  heen  adopted,  for  the  ordinary  reading 
is  evidently  corrupt,  and  absurd  as  well — "  not  in  the  very  worst  part  of  a 
favourite  locality" — just  the  converse  of  the  whole  tenor  of  the  story. 

34  The  philosopher,  and  tutor  of  Nero. 


236  pliny's  natural  histoky.  [Book  XIV. 

for  those  very  vineyards,  and  that  within  ten  years  from  the 
time  that  he  had  taken  them  under  his  management.  This 
was  an  example  of  good  husbandry  worthy  to  be  put  in 
practice  upon  the  lands  of  Csecuba  and  of  Setia ;  for  since  then 
these  same  lands  have  many  a  time  produced  as  much  as  seven 
culei  to  the  jugerum,  or  in  other  words,  one  hundred  and  forty 
amphorae  of  must.  That  no  one,  however,  may  entertain  the 
belief  that  ancient  times  were  surpassed  on  this  occasion,  I 
would  remark  that  the  same  Cato  has  stated  in  his  writings,  that 
the  proper  return  was  seven  culei  to  the  jugerum  :  all  of  them 
so  many  instances  only  tending  most  convincingly  to  prove 
that  the  sea,  which  in  our  rashness  we  trespass  upon,  does  not 
make  a  more  bounteous  return  to  the  merchant,  no,  not  even 
the  merchandize  that  we  seek  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  and 
the  Indian  Seas,  than  does  a  well-tilled  homestead  to  the 
agriculturist. 

CHAP.  6. THE  MOST  ANCIENT  WINES. 

The  wine  of  Maronea,35  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  appears  to 
have  been  the  most  celebrated  in  ancient  times,  as  we  learn 
from  the  writings  of  Homer.  I  dismiss,  however,  all  the  fa- 
bulous stories  and  various  traditions  which  we  find  relative  to 
its  origin,  except,  indeed,  the  one  which  states  that  Aristseus,36  a 
native  of  the  same  country,  was  the  first  person  that  mixed 
honey37  with  wine,  natural  productions,  both  of  them,  of  the 
highest  degree  of  excellence.  Homer38  has  stated  that  the 
Maronean  wine  was  mixed  with  water  in  the  proportion  of 
twenty  measures  of  water  to  one  of  wine.  The  wine  that  is 
still  produced  in  the  same  district  retains  all  its  former 
strength,  and  a  degree  of  vigour  that  is  quite  insuperable.39 
Mucianus,  who  thrice  held  the  consulship,  and  one  of  our 
most  recent  authors,  when  in  that  part  of  the  world  was 
witness  himself  to  the  fact,  that  with  one  sextarius  of  this 
wine  it  was  the  custom  to  mix  no  less  than  eighty  sextarii  of 

35  Said  to  have  been  so  called  from  Maron,  a  king  of  Thrace,  who  dwelt 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Thracian  Ismarus.  See  B.  iv.  c.  18.  Homer  men- 
tions this  wine  in  the  Odyssey,  B.  ix.  c.  197,  et  seq.  It  was  red,  honey- 
sweet,  fragrant.  The  place  is  still  called  Marogna,  in  Roumelia,  a  country 
the  wines  of  which  are  still  much  esteemed. 

36  See  B.  vii.  c.  57.  37  Thus  making  "mulsuni." 
3S  B.  ix.  c.  208.  33  Indomitus. 


Chap.  6.]  THE   MOST   ANCIEKT   WINES.  237 

water  :  he  states,  also,  that  this  wine  is  black,40  has  a  strong 
bouquet,  and  is  all  the  richer  for  being  old. 

The  Pramnian  wine,  too,  which  Homer 41  has  also  similarly 
eulogized,  still  retains  its  ancient  fame  :  it  is  grown  in  the 
territory  of  Smyrna,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  shrine  of  the 
Mother12  of  the  Gods. 

Among  the  other  wines  now  known,  we  do  not  find  any 
that  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  in  ancient  times.  In  the 
year  of  the  consulship  of  L.  Opimius,  when  C.  Gracchus,43  the 
tribune  of  the  people,  engaging  in  sedition,  was  slain,  the 
growth  of  every  wine  was  of  the  very  highest  quality.  In 
that  year,  the  weather  was  remarkable  for  its  sereneness,  and 
the  ripening  of  the  grape,  the  "coctura," 44  as  they  call  it, 
was  fully  effected  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  This  was  in  the 
year  of  the  City  633.  There  are  wines  still  preserved  of  this 
year's  growth,  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago;  they  have 
assumed  the  consistency  of  honey,  with  a  rough  taste  ;  for 
such,  in  fact,  is  the  nature  of  wines,  that,  when  extremely 
old,  it  is  impossible  to  drink  them  in  a  pure  state ;  and  they 
require  to  be  mixed  with  water,  as  long  keeping  renders  them 
intolerably  bitter.45  A  very  small  quantity  of  the  Opimian 
wine,  mixed  with  them,  will  suffice  for  the  seasoning  of  other 
wines.  Let  us  suppose,  according  to  the  estimated  value  of 
these  wines  in  those  days,  that  the  original  price  of  them  was 
one  hundred  sesterces  per  amphora  :  if  we  add  to  this  six  per 
cent,  per  annum,  a  legal  and  moderate  interest,  we  shall 
then  be  able  to  ascertain  what  was  the  exact  price  of  the 
twelfth  part  of  an  amphora  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Caius  Ca9sar,  the  son  of  Germanicus,  one  hundred  and  sixty 
years  after  that  consulship.  In  relation  to  this  fact,  we  have 
a  remarkable  instance,46  when  we  call  to  mind  the  life  of  Pom- 

40  By  "  black  "  wines  lie  means  those  that  had  the  same  colour  as  our 
port.  41  II.  xi.  638.     Od.  x.  234. 

42  Cybele.  A  wine  called  "  Pramnian  "  was  also  grown  in  the  island  of 
Icaria,  in  Lesbos,  and  in  the  territory  of  Ephesus.  The  scholiast  on  Ni- 
cander  says  that  the  grape  of  the  psythia  was  used  in  making  it.  Dios- 
corides  says  that  it  was  a  "protropum,"  first-class  wine,  made  of  the  juice 
that  voluntarily  flowed  from  the  grapes,  in  consequence  of  their  own  pres- 
sure. M  B.C.  121. 

44  "Cooking,"  literally,  or  "boiling." 

45  The  wines  of  Burgundy,  in  particular,  become  bitter  when  extremely 
old.  46  See  B.  vii.  c.  18. 


238  plint's  natueal  history.  [Book  XIV. 

ponius  Secundus,  the  poet,  and  the  banquet  which  he  gave 
to  that  prince47 — so  enormous  is  the  capital  that  lies  buried  in 
our  cellars  of  wine  !  Indeed,  there  is  no  one  thing,  the  value 
of  which  more  sensibly  increases  up  to  the  twentieth  year,  or 
which  decreases  with  greater  rapidity  after  that  period,  sup- 
posing that  the  value  of  it  is  not  by  that  time  greatly  en- 
hanced.48 Yery  rarely,  indeed,  up  to  the  present  day,  has  it 
been  known  for  a  single49  piece  of  wine  to  cost  a  thousand 
sesterces,  except,  indeed,  when  such  a  sum  may  have  been  paid 
in  a  fit  of  extravagance  and  debauchery.  The  people  of 
Yienne,  it  is  said,  are  the  only  ones  who  have  set  a  higher  price 
than  this  upon  their  "  picata,"  wines,  the  various  kinds  of 
which  we  have  already  mentioned  ;M  and  this,  it  is  thought, 
they  only  do,  vying  with  each  other,  and  influenced  by  a  sort 
of  national  self-esteem.  This  wine,  drunk  in  a  cool  state,  is 
generally  thought  to  be  of  a  colder51  temperature  than  any 
other. 

CHAP.  7.  (5.) THE  NATURE  OF  WINES. 

It  is  the  property  of  wine,  when  drunk,  to  cause  a  feeling 
of  warmth  in  the  interior  of  the  viscera,  and,  when  poured 
upon  the  exterior  of  the  body,  to  be  cool  and  refreshing.  It 
will  not  be  foreign  to  my  purpose  on  the  present  occasion  to 
state  the  advice  which  Androcydes,  a  man  famous  for  his 
wisdom,  wrote  to  Alexander  the  Great,  with  the  view  of  put- 
ting a  check  on  his  intemperance  :  "  When  you  are  about  to 
drink  wine,  0  king  !"  said  he,  "remember  that  you  are  about 
to  drink  the  blood  of  the  earth  :  hemlock  is  a  poison  to  man, 
wine  a  poison52  to  hemlock."  And  if  Alexander  had  only  fol- 
lowed this  advice,  he  certainly  would  not  have  had  to  answer 

47  Caligula. 

48  By  some  remarkable  and  peculiar  quality,  such  as  in  the  Opimian 
wine.  49  "  Testa,"  meaning  the  amphora. 

50  See  c.  3  of  the  present  Book,  where  these  "picata,"  or  "pitched- 
wines,"  have  been  further  described. 

51  On  the  contrary,  Fee  says,  the  coldest  wines  are  those  that  contain 
the  least  alcohol,  whereas  those  of  Vienne  (in  modern  Dauphine)  contain 
more  than  the  majority  of  wines. 

52  He  implies  that  wine  is  an  antidote  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  hem- 
lock. This  is  not  the  case,  but  it  is  said  by  some  that  vinegar  is.  It  is 
the  plant  hemlock  (cicuta)  that  is  meant,  and  not  the  fatal  draught  that 
was  drunk  by  Socrates  and  Philopcemen.  See  further  in  B.  xxiii.  c.  23, 
and  B.  xxv.  c.  95. 


Chap.  8.]  FIFTY  KINDS  OP  WINES.  239 

for  slaying  his  friends53  in  his  drunken  fits.  In  fact,  we  may- 
feel  ourselves  quite  justified  in  saying  that  there  is  nothing 
more  useful  than  wine  for  strengthening  the  body,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  there  is  nothing  more  pernicious  as  a  luxury, 
if  we  are  not  on  our  guard  against  excess. 

CHAP.  8.  (6.) FIFTY  KINDS  OF  GENEEOTJS  WINES. 

Who  can  entertain  a  doubt  that  some  kinds  of  wine  are 
more  agreeable  to  the  palate  than  others,  or  that  even  out 
of  the  very  same  vat54  there  are  occasionally  produced  wines 
that  are  by  no  means  of  equal  goodness,  the  one  being  much 
superior  to  the  other,  whether  it  is  that  it  is  owing  to  the 
cask,55  or  to  some  other  fortuitous  circumstance  ?  Let  each 
person,  therefore,  constitute  himself  his  own  judge  as  to  which 
kind  it  is  that  occupies  the  pre-eminence.  Li  via56  Augusta, 
who  lived  to  her  eighty-second  year,57  attributed  her  longevity 
to  the  wine  of  Pucinum,68  as  she  never  drank  any  other.  This 
wine  is  grown  near  a  bay  of  the  Adriatic,  not  far  from  Mount 
Timavus,  upon  a  piece  of  elevated  rocky  ground,  where  the 
sea-breeze  ripens  a  few  grapes,  the  produce  of  which  supplies 
a  few  amphorae  :  there  is  not  a  wine  that  is  deemed  superior 
to  this  for  medicinal  purposes.  I  am  strongly  of  opinion  that 
this  is  the  same  wine,  the  produce  of  the  Adriatic  Gulf,  upon 
which  the  Greeks  have  bestowed  such  wonderful  encomiums, 
under  the  name  of  Praetetianum. 

The  late  Emperor  Augustus  preferred  the  Setinum  to  all 
others,  and  nearly  all  the  emperors  that  have  succeeded  him 
have  followed  his  example,  having  learnt  from  actual  expe- 
rience that  there  is  no  danger  of  indigestion  and  flatulence 
resulting  from  the  use  of  this  liquor  :  this  wine  is  grown  in 
the  country59  that  lies  just  above  Forum  Appii.60  In  former 
times  the  Csecubum  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  the  most 

53  Clitus  and  Callisthenes.  5i  Lacus. 

55  The  testa  or  amphora,  made  of  earth. 

56  As  the  wife  of  Augustus  is  meant,  this  reading  appears  preferable  to 
"  Julia." 

57  Dion  Cassius  says  "  eighty-sixth." 

58  See  B.  iii.  c.  22,  and  B.  xvii.  c.  3.  Pucinum  was  in  Istria,  and  the 
district  is  said  still  to  produce  good  wine  ;  according  to  Dalechamps,  the 
place  is  called  Pizzino  d' Istria. 

59  The  hills  of  Setia,  looking  down  on  the  Pomptine  Marshes :  now 
Sezza,  the  wine  of  which  is  of  no  repute. 

eo  See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 


240  PLINY  S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIY. 

generous  of  all  the  wines;  it  was  grown  in  some  marshy 
swamps,  planted  with  poplars,  in  the  vicinity61  of  the  Gulf  of 
Amyclse.  This  vineyard  has,  however,  now  disappeared,  the 
result  of  the  carelessness  of  the  cultivator,  combined  with  its 
own  limited  extent,  and  the  works  on  the  canal  which  Nero 
commenced,  in  order  to  provide  a  navigation  from  Lake  Aver- 
nus  to  Ostia. 

The  second  rank  belonged  to  the  wine  of  the  Falernian  ter- 
ritory, of  which  the  Faustianum  was  the  most  choice  variety  ; 
the  result  of  the  care  and  skill  employed  upon  its  cultivation. 
This,  however,  has  also  degenerated  very  considerably,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  growers  being  more  solicitous  about  quantity63 
than  quality.  The  Falernian63  vineyards  begin  at  the  bridge  of 
Campania,  on  the  left-hand  as  you  journey  towards  the  Urbana 
Colonia  of  Sylla,  which  was  lately  a  township  of  the  city  of 
Capua.  As  to  the  Faustian  vineyards,  they  extend  about  four 
miles  from  a  village  near  CaBdiciae,64  the  same  village  being  six 
miles  from  Sinuessa.  There  is  now  no  wine  known  that  ranks 
higher  than  the  Falernian  ;  it  is  the  only  one,  too,  among  all 
the  wines  that  takes  fire  on  the  application  of  llame.65  There 
are  three  varieties  of  it — the  rough,  the  sweet,  and  the  thin. 
Some  persons  make  the  following  distinctions  :  the  Caucinum, 
they  say,  grows  on  the  summit  of  this  range  of  hills,  the  Faus- 
tianum on  the  middle  slopes,  and  the  Falemum  at  the  foot : 
the  fact,  too,  should  not  be  omitted,  that  none  of  the  grapes 
that  produce  these  more  famous  wines  have  by  any  means  an 
agreeable  flavour. 

To  the  third66  rank  belonged  the  various  wines  of  Alba,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  City,  remarkable  for  their  sweetness,  and  some- 

6-1  See  B.  iii.  c.  9.  Between  Fundi  and  Setia;  a  locality  now  of  no 
repute  for  its  wines.  In  B.  xxiii.  c.  19,  Pliny  says,  that  the  Csecuban  vine 
was  extinct :  but  in  B.  xvii.  c.  3,  he  says  that  in  the  Pomptine  Marshes  it 
was  to  be  found. 

62  This  was  the  case,  it  has  been  remarked,  with  Madeira  some  years  ago. 

63  This  is  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  ancient  wines,  as  being  more 
especially  the  theme  of  the  poets. 

64  See  B.  xi.  c.  97.  The  wines  of  the  Falernian  district  are  no  longer 
held  in  any  esteem ;  indeed,  all  the  Campanian  wines  are  sour,  and  of  a 
disagreeable  flavour. 

65  It  appears  to  have  been  exceedingly  rich  in  alcohol. 

66  But  in  B.  xxiii.  c.  20,  he  assigns  the  first  rank  to  the  Albanum  ;  pos- 
sibly, however,  as  a  medicinal  wine.  The  wines  of  Latium  are  no  longer 
held  in  esteem. 


Chap.  8.]  FIFTY  KINDS   OF  WINES.  241 

times,  though  rarely,  rough67  as  well :  the  Surrentine68  wines, 
also,  the  growth  of  only  stayed  vines,  which  are  especially 
recommended  to  invalids  for  their  thinness  and  their^  whole- 
someness.  Tiberius  Caesar  used  to  say  that  the  physicians  had 
conspired  thus  to  dignify  the  Surrentinum,  which  was,  in  fact, 
only  another  name  for  generous  vinegar  ;  while  Caius  Csesar, 
who  succeeded  him,  gave  it  the  name  of  "  noble  vappa."69 
Tying  in  reputation  with  these  are  the  Massic  wines,  from  the 
spots  which  look  from  Mount  Gaurus  towards  Puteoli  and 
Baia3.70  As  to  the  wines  of  Stata,  in  the  vicinity  of  Falernum, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  they  formerly  held  the  very  highest 
rank,  a  fact  which  proves  very  clearly  that  every  district  has 
its  own  peculiar  epochs,  just  as  all  other  things  have  their  rise 
and  their  decadence.  The  Calenian71  wines,  too,  from  the  same 
neighbourhood,  used  to  be  preferred  to  those  last  mentioned, 
as  also  the  Fundanian,72  the  produce  of  vines  grown  on  stays, 
or  else  attached  to  shrubs.  The  wines,  too,  of  Yeliternum'3 
and  Priverna,74  which  were  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  the  City, 
used  to  be  highly  esteemed.  As  to  that  produced  at  Signia,75 
it  is  by  far  too  rough  to  be  used  as  a  wine,  but  is  very  useful 
as  an  astringent,  and  is  consequently  reckoned  among  the 
medicines  for  that  purpose. 

The  fourth  rank,  at  the  public  banquets,  was  given  by  the 
late  Emperor  Julius — he  was  the  first,  in  fact,  that  brought 

87  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  21. 

68  From  Surrentum,  the  promontory  forming  the  southern  horn  of  the 
Bay  of  Naples.  Ovid  and  Martial  speak  in  praise  of  these  wines ;  they 
were  destitute  of  richness  and  very  dry,  in  consequence  of  which  they  re- 
quired twenty-five  years  to  ripen. 

69  Or  "  dead  vinegar."  "  Vappa"  was  vinegar  exposed  to  the  air,  and  so 
destitute  of  its  properties,  and  quite  insipid. 

70  Excellent  wines  are  still  produced  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place.  Mas- 
sicum  was  one  of  the  perfumed  wines.  Gaurus  itsellproduced  the  "  Gau- 
ranum,"  in  small  quantity,  hut  of  high  quality,  full-bodied  and  thick. 

71  For  the  Calenian  Hills,  see  B.  hi.  c.  9 ;  see  also  B.  xxiii.  c.  12,  for 
some  further  account  of  the  wines  of  Stata.  The  wines  of  that  district  are 
now  held  iu  no  esteem. 

72  From  Fundi.     See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 

73  Now  Castel  del  Volturno  :  although  covered  with  vineyards,  its  wines 
are  of  no  account.  This  wine  always  tasted  as  if  mixed  with  some  foreign 
substance. 

74  Now  Piperno.    It  was  a  thin  and  pleasant  wine. 

75  Now  Segni,  in  the  States  of  the  Church. 

VOL.    IU.  B 


242  plint's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XIV. 

them  into  favour,  as  we  find  stated  in  his  Letters76— to  the 
Mamertine  wines,  the  produce  of  the  country  in  the  vicinity 
of  Messana,77  in  Sicily.  The  finest  of  these  was  the  Potu- 
lanum,78  so  called  from  its  original  cultivator,  and  grown  on 
the  spots  that  lie  nearest  to  the  mainland  of  Italy.  The  Tau- 
romenitanum  also,  a  wine  of  Sicily,  enjoys  a  high  repute,  and 
flaggons79  of  it  are  occasionally  passed  off  for  Mamertmuin. 

Among  the  other  wines,  we  find  mentioned  upon  the  Upper 
Sea  those  of  Praetutia  and  Ancona,  as  also  those  known  as 
the  "Palmensia,"80  not  improbably  because  the  cluster  springs 
from  a  single  shoot.81  In  the  interior  we  find  the  wines  of 
Caesena82  and  that  known  as  the  Meecenatian,83  while  in  the 
territory  of  Verona  there  are  the  Rhaetian  wines,  only  inferior, 
in  the  estimation  of  Virgil,  to  the  Falernian.84  Then,  too,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  Gulf85  we  find  the  wines  of  Adria.86  _  On 
the  shores  of  the  Lower  Sea  there  are  the  Latmiensian8' 
wines,  the  Graviscan,88  and  the  Statonian  :89  in  Etruria,  the 
wines  of  Luna  bear  away  the  palm,  and  those  of  Genua9  m 
Liguria.  Massilia,  which  lies  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the 
Alps,  produces  two  varieties  of  wine,  one  of  which  is  richer 
and  thicker  than  the  other,  and  is  used  for  seasoning  other 
wines,  being  generally  known  as  "  succosum."91  The  repu- 
te Written  to  the  Senate,  also  to  Cicero.  We  learn  from  Suetonius  that 
they  were  partly  written  in  cipher. 

"  Messina,  at  the  present  day,  exports  wines  of  very  good  quality,  ana 
which  attain  a  great  age. 

78  It  was  sound,  light,  and  not  without  hody. 

™  "Lagenoe."  The  same  spot,  now  Taormina  in  Sicily,  between  Latama 
and  Messina,  still  produces  excellent  wines. 

«>  See  B.  iii.  c.  18.  Fee  says  that  this  is  thought  to  have  been  the 
wine  of  Syrol,  of  last  century,  grown  near  Ancona. 

si  "  Palma."  Notwithstanding  this  suggestion,  it  is  more  generally  sup- 
posed that  they  had  their  name  from  the  place  called  Palma,  near  Marano, 
on  the  Adriatic.     Its  wines  are  still  considered  of  agreeable  flavour. 

sa  The  wines  of  modern  Cezena  enjoy  no  repute,  owing,  probably,  to  the 
mode  of  making  them. 

83  Probably  so  called  because  it  was  Drought  into  fashion  by  Maecenas. 

a*  See  Georg.  ii.  95.  The  wines  of  the  Tyrol,  the  ancient  Rhsetia,  are 
still  considered  as  of  excellent  quality. 

85  Of  Adria,  or  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

86  See  B.  iii.  c.  20.     These  wines  are  of  little  repute. 

87  In  Latium.     See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 

88  From  Graviscse.     See  B.  iii.  c.  8. 

89  See  B  ii.  c.  96,  B.  iii.  c.  9,  and  B.  xxxvi.  c.  49. 

so  The  wines  of  Genoa  are  of  middling  quality  only,  and  but  little  known. 
9i  Or  "juicy"  wine. 


Chap.  8.] 


FIFTY   KINDS   OF   WINES.  243 


tation  of  the  wine  of  Beterrse92  does  not  extend  beyond  the 
Gallic  territories  ;93  and  as  for  the  others  that  are  produced  in 
Gallia  Narbonensis,  nothing  can  be  positively  stated,  for  the 
growers  of  that  country  have  absolutely  established  manufac- 
tories for  the  purposes  of  adulteration,  where  they  give  a  dark 
hue  to  their  wines  by  the  agency  of  smoke ;  I  only  wish  I 
could  say,  too,  that  they  do  not  employ  various  herbs  and 
noxious  drugs  for  the  same  purpose  ;94  indeed,  these  dealers  are 
even  known  to  use  aloes  for  the  purpose  of  heightening  the 
flavour  and  improving  the  colour  of  their  wines. 

The  regions  of  Italy  that  are  at  a  greater  distance  from  the 
Ausonian  Sea,  are  not  without  their  wines  of  note,  such  as 
those  of  Tarentum,95  Servitia,96  and  Consentia,97  and  those,  again, ^ 
of  Tempsa,  Babia,  and  Lucania,  among  which  the  wines  of 
Thurii  hold  the  pre-eminence.  But  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
of  them,  owing  to  the  fact  that  Messala98  used  to  drink  it,  and 
was  indebted  to  it  for  his  excellent  health,  was  the  wine 
of  Lagara,"  which  was  grown  not  far  from  Grumentum.1  In 
Campania,  more  recently,  new  growths  under  new  names  have 
gained  considerable  credit,  either  owing  to  careful  cultivation, 
or  else  to  some  other  fortuitous  circumstances :  thus,  for  in- 
stance, we  find  four  miles  from  Neapolis  the  Trebellian,2  near 

92  Now  Bsziers,  in  the  south  of  France.  The  wines  of  this  part  are 
considered  excellent  at  the  present  day.  That  of  Frontignan  grows  m  its 
vicinity.  Fee  is  inclined  to  think,  from  Pliny's  remarks  here,  that  the 
ancients  and  the  moderns  differed  entirely  in  their  notions  as  to  what  con- 
stitutes good  or  bad  wine.  .       . 

w  He  means,  beyond  modern  Provence,  and  Languedoc :  districts  fa- 
mous for  their  excellent  wines,  more  particularly  the  latter. 

9i  Fee  deems  all  this  quite  incredible.  Our  English  experience,  however, 
tells  us  that  it  is  by  no  means  so ;  much  of  the  wine  that  is  drunk  in  this 
country  is  indebted  for  flavour  as  well  as  colour  to  anything  but  the  grape. 

95  The  wines  of  modern  Otranto  are  ordinarily  of  good  quality^ 

96  Baccius  reads  "  Seberiniana,"  but  is  probably  wrong.  If  he  is  not,  it 
mio-ht  allude  to  the  place  now  known  as  San  Severmo,  and  which  produces 
excellent  wine.  Fee  thinks  that  these  wines  were  grown  m  the  territory 
of  Salerno,  which  still  enjoys  celebrity  for  its  muscatel  wmes      _ 

97  See  B.  iii.  c.  10.  the  wines  of  modern  Cosenza  still  enjoy  a  high 
reputation.  .  „    . 

9*  M.  Valerius  Messala  Corvinus,  the  writer  and  partisan  ot  Augustus. 

See  end  of  B.  ix.  .  .. 

99  A  place  supposed  to  have  been  situated  near  I  hum. 

1  See  B.  iii.  c.  15.  „, 

2  Said  by  Galen  to  be  very  wholesome,  as  well  as  pleasant,  lhe  wines 
of  the  vicinity  of  Naples  are  still  held  in  high  esteem. 

E  2 


244  pltny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

Capua  the  Cauline,3  wine,  and  the  wine  of  Trebula4  grown  in 
the  territory  so  called,  though  but  of  a  common  sort :  Campania 
boasts  of  all  these,  as  well  as  of  her  Trifoline5  wines.  As  to 
the  wines  of  Pompeii,6  they  have  arrived  at  their  full  perfection 
in  ten  years,  after  which  they  gain  nothing  by  age  :  they  are 
found  also  to  be  productive  of  headache,  which  often  lasts 
so  long  as  the  sixth  hour7  of  the  next  day. 

These  illustrations,  if  I  am  not  greatly  mistaken,  will  go  far 
to  prove  that  it  is  the  land  and  the  soil  that  is  of  primary 
importance,  and  not  the  grape,  and  that  it  is  quite  superfluous 
to  attempt  to  enumerate  all  the  varieties  of  every  kind,  seeing 
that  the  same  vine,  transplanted  to  several  places,  is  productive 
of  features  and  characteristics  of  quite  opposite  natures.  The 
vineyards  of  Laletanum8  in  Spain9  are  remarkable  for  the 
abundance  of  wine  they  produce,  while  those  of  Tarraco10  and 
of  Lauron11  are  esteemed  for  the  choice  qualities  of  their 
wines  :  those,  too,  of  the  Balearic  Isles12  are  often  put  in  com- 
parison with  the  very  choicest  growths  of  Italy. 

I  am  by  no  means  unaware  that  most  of  my  readers  will  be 
of  opinion  that  I  have  omitted  a  vast  number  of  wines,  seeing 
that  every  one  has  his  own  peculiar  choice ;  so  much  so,  that 
wherever  we  go,  we  hear  the  same  story  told,  to  the  effect 
that  one  of  the  freedmen  of  the  late  Emperor  Augustus,  who 
was  remarkable  for  his  judgment  and  his  refined  taste  in  wines, 
while  employed  in  tasting  for  his  master's  table,  made  this 
observation  to  the  master  of  the  house  where  the  emperor 
was  staying,  in  reference  to  some  wine  the  growth  of  that 
particular  country:  "  The  taste  of  this  wine,"  said  he,   "is 

3  Galen  savs  that  it  was  very  similar  to  the  Falernian. 

4  See  B.  ii'i.  c.  9. 

5  The  Trifoline  territory  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Curaae.  It  is  possible 
that  the  wine  may  have  had  its  name  from  taking  three  years  to  come  to 
maturity ;  or  possibly  it  was  owing  to  some  peculiarity  in  the  vine. 

6  They  have  been  already  mentioned  in  c.  4.     See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 

7  Twelve  o'clock  in  the  day. 

8  See  B.  iii.  c.  4, 

9  In  Catalonia,  which  still  produces  abundance  of  wine,  but  in  general 
of  inferior  repute. 

10  The  wines  of  Tarragona  are  still  considered  good. 

II  A  place  in  the  province  of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  destroyed  by  Ser- 
torius. 

12  They  still  enjoy  a  high  repute.  The  fame  of  their  Malvoisie  has 
extended  all  over  the  world. 


Chap.  9.]  FOREIGN  WINES.  245 

new  to  me,  and  it  is  by  no  means  of  first-rate  quality ;  the 
emperor,  however,  you  will  see,  will  drink  of  no  other."13 
Indeed  I  have  no  wish  to  deny  that  there  may  be  other  wines 
deserving  of  a  very  high  reputation,  but  those  which  I  have 
already  enumerated  are  the  varieties  upon  the  excellence  of 
which  the  world  is  at  present  agreed. 

CHAP.  9.  (7.) THIRTY-EIGHT  VARIETIES  OF  FOREIGN  WINES. 

We  will  now,  in  a  similar  manner,  give  a  description  of  the 
varieties  found  in  the  parts  beyond  sea.  After  the  wines 
mentioned  by  Homer,  and  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,14 
those  held  in  the  highest  esteem  were  the  wines  of  Thasos 
and  Chios,15  and  of  the  latter  more  particularly  the  sort  known 
as  "  Arvisium."16  By  the  side  of  these  has  been  placed  the 
wine  of  Lesbos,17  upon  the  authority  of  Erasistratus,  a  famous 
physician,  who  flourished  about  the  year  of  the  City  of  Rome 
450.  At  the  present  day,  the  most  esteemed  of  all  is  the  wine 
of  ClazomenaB,18  since  they  have  learned  to  season  it  more 
sparingly  with  sea-water.  The  wine  of  Lesbos  has  naturally 
a  taste  of  sea- water.  That  from  Mount  Tmolus19  is  not  so 
much  esteemed  by  itself20  for  its  qualities  as  a  wine,  as  for  its 
peculiar  sweetness.  It  is  on  account  of  this  that  it  is  mixed 
with  other  wines,  for  the  purpose  of  modifying  their  harsh 
flavour,  by  imparting  to  them  a  portion  of  its  own  sweetness ; 
while  at  the  same  time  it  gives  them  age,  for  immediately 
after  the  mixture  they  appear  to  be  much  older  than  they 
really   are.     Next   in   esteem  after  these   are  the  wines  of 

13  He  means  to  illustrate  the  capricious  tastes  that  existed  as  to  the 
merits  of  wines.  u  In  c.  6  of  this  Book. 

15  The  Chian  held  the  first  rank,  the  Thasian  the  second. 

16  From  Arvisium,  or  Ariusium,  a  hilly  district  in  the  centre  of  the 
island.-    The  wine  of  Chios  still  retains  its  ancient  celebrity. 

17  It  was  remarkable  for  its  sweetness,  and  aromatics  were  sometimes 
mixed  with  it.  Homer  calls  it  harmless.  Lesbos  still  produces  choice 
wines.  .  . 

18  Near  Smyrna.    Probably  similar  to  the  Pramnian  wine,  mentioned 

in  c.  6. 

19  See  B.  v.  c.  30.  This  wine  is  mentioned  again  in  the  next  page  ;  it  is 
generally  thought,  that  he  is  wrong  in  making  the  Tmolites  and  the  Meso- 
gites  distinct  wines,  for  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  identical. 

20  If  drunk  by  itself,  and  not  as  a  flavouring  for  other  wines. 


246  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

Sicyon,21  Cyprus/22  Telmessus,23  Tripolis,24  Berytus,25  Tyre,26 
and  Sebennys  ;  this  last  is  grown  in  Egypt,  being  the  produce 
of  three  varieties  of  grape  of  the  very  highest  quality,  known 
as  the  Thasian,27  the  sethalus,28  and  the  peuce.29  Next  in 
rank  are  the  hippodamantian30  wine,  the  Mystic,31  the  can- 
tharite,32  the  protropum33  of  Cnidos,  the  wine  of  the  catace- 
caumene,34  the  Petritan,35  and  the  Myconian;36  as  to  the 
Mesogitic,37  it  has  been  found  to  give  head-ache,  while  that  of 
Ephesus  is  far  from  wholesome,  being  seasoned  with  sea-water 
and  defrutum.38  It  is  said  that  the  wine  of  Apamea39  is  re- 
markably well  adapted  for  making  mulsum,40  like  that  of  Prae- 
tutia  in  Italy :  for  this  is  a  quality  peculiar  to  only  certain 
kinds  of  wine,  the   mixture  of  two   sweet  liquids  being  in 

21  Bacchus  had  a  temple  there. 

22  The  wines  of  Cyprus  are  the  most  choice  of  all  the  Grecian  wines  at 
the  present  day.  23  In  Lycia. 

24  In  Syria.  "Wine  is  no  longer  made  there,  but  the  grapes  are  excel- 
lent, and  are  dried  for  raisins. 

25  Now  Beyrout.  It  does  not  seem  that  wine  is  made  there  now.  The 
Mahometan  religion  may  have  tended  to  the  extinction  of  many  of  these 
wines. 

26  At  the  village  of  Sour,  on  the  site  of  ancient  Tyre,  the  grape  is  only 
cultivated  for  raisins. 

27  See  also  c.  22  :  probably  introduced  from  Thasos. 

28  The  "smoky"  grape.  29  The  "pitchy"  grape. 

80  A  strong  wine,  Hardouin  thinks,  from  whence  its  name — "strong 
enough  to  subdue  a  horse." 

31  From  the  small  island  of  Mystus,  near  Cephallenia. 

82  So  called  from  the  vine  the  name  of  which  was  "  canthareus." 

33  Made,  as  already  stated,  from  the  juice  that  flowed  spontaneously  from 
the  grapes.    See  also  p.  250. 

34  Or  the  "burnt  up"  country,  a  volcanic  district  of  Mysia,  which  still 
retains  its  ancient  fame  for  its  wine.  Virgil  alludes  to  this  wine  in 
Georg.  iv.  1.  380  :— 

— Cape  Mseonii  carchesia  Bacchi. 

35  Perhaps  from  Petra  in  Arabia :  though  Fee  suggests  Petra  in  the 
Balearic  Islands. 

36  See  B.  iv.  c.  22.  In  the  island  of  Myconos  in  the  Archipelago  an  ex- 
cellent wine  is  still  grown. 

37  From  Mount  Mesogis,  which  divides  the  tributaries  of  the  Cayster 
from  those  of  the  Meander.  It  is  generally  considered  the  same  as  the 
Tmolites. 

38  Must  or  grape-juice  boiled  down  to  one  half. 
»  See  B.  v.  c.  29. 

40  "  Mulsum,"  or  honied  wine,  was  of  two  kinds ;  honey  mixed  with 
wine,  and  honey  mixed  with  must  or  grape-juice. 


Chap.  10.] 


SALTED   WINES.  217 


general  not  attended  with  good  results.  The  protagion41  is 
quite  gone  out  of  date,  a  wine  which  the  school  of  Asclepiades 
has  reckoned  as  next  in  merit  to  those  of  Italy.  The  physician 
Apollodorus,  in  the  work  which  he  wrote  recommending  King 
Ptolemy  what  wines  in  particular  to  drink— for  in  his  time 
the  wines  of  Italy  were  not  generally  known— has  spoken  in 
high  terms  of  that  of  Naspercene  in  Pontus,  next  to  which  he 
places  the  Oretic,42  and  then  the  (Eneatian,43  the  Leucadian,44 
the  Ambraciotic,45  and  the  Peparethian,46  to  which  last  he  gives 
the  preference  over  all  the  rest,  though  he  states  that  it  en- 
joyed an  inferior  reputation,  from  the  fact  of  its  not  being 
considered  fit  for  drinking  until  it  had  been  kept  six  years. 

CHAP.    10.  (8.) — SEVEN  KINDS  OF  SALTED  WINES. 

Thus  far  we  have  treated  of  wines,  the  goodness  of  which  is 
due  to  the  country  of  their  growth.  In  Greece  the  wine  that 
is  known  by  the  name  of  "  bion,"  and  which  is  administered 
for  its  curative  qualities  in  several  maladies  (as  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  remark  when  we  come  to  speak  on  the  subject  of 
Medicine47),  has  been  justly  held  in  the  very  highest  esteem. 
This  wine  is  made  in  the  following  manner :  the  grapes  are 
plucked  before  they  are  quite  ripe,  and  then  dried  in  a  hot 
sun :  for  three  days  they  are  turned  three  times  a  day,  and  on 
the  fourth  day  they  are  pressed,  after  which  the  juice  is  put 
in  casks, 48  and  left  to  acquire  age  in  the  heat  of  the  sun.49 

The  people  of  Cos  mix  sea- water  in  large  quantities  with 
their  wines,  an  invention  which  they  first  learned  from  a  slave, 
who  adopted  this  method  of  supplying  the  deficiency  that  had 
been  caused  by  his  thievish  propensities.  When  this  is  mixed 
with  white  must,  the   mixture   receives  the  name  of  "leu- 

41  From  its  Greek  name,  it  would  seem  to  mean  "  of  first  quality." 

«  So  called  from  a  place  in  Eubcea,  the  modern  Negropont.  See.  B.  iv. 
c.  20.     Negropont  produces  good  wines  at  the  present  day. 

43  The  locality  is  unknown. 

«  From  Leucadia,  or  Leucate  ;  see  B.  iv.  c.  2  ;  the  vine  was  very  abun- 
dant there. 

45  From  Ambracia.     See  B.  iv.  c  2. 

«  From  the  island  of  Peparethus.  See.  B.  iv.  c.  23,  where  he  says  that 
from  its  abundance  of  vines  it  was  called  ivoivog,  or  "  Evenus." 

47  B.  xxiii.  c.  1,  and  c.  26.  48  "  Cadis." 

49  Fee  remarks  that  this  method  is  still  adopted  in  making  several  of 
the  liqueurs. 


248  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

cocoum."50  In  other  countries  again,  they  follow  a  similar 
plan  in  making  a  wine  called  "  tethalassomenon." 51  They 
make  a  wine  also  known  as  "  thalassites,"52  by  placing  vessels 
full  of  must  in  the  sea,  a  method  which  quickly  imparts  to  the 
wine  all  the  qualities  of  old  age.53  In  our  own  country  too, 
Cato  has  shown  the  method  of  making  Italian  wine  into  Coan  : 
in  addition  to  the  modes  of  preparation  above  stated,  he  tells  us 
that  it  must  be  left  exposed  four  years  to  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
in  order  to  bring  it  to  maturity.  The  Rhodian54  wine  is 
similar  to  that  of  Cos,  and  the  Phorinean  is  of  a  still  salter 
flavour.  It  is  generally  thought  that  all  the  wines  from 
beyond  sea  arrive  at  their  middle  state  of  maturity  in  the 
course  of  six55  or  seven  years. 

CHAP.   11.  (9.) EIGHTEEN  VARIETEIS  OF  SWEET  WINE. 

RAISIN- WINE  AND  HEPSEMA. 

All  the  luscious  wines  have  but  little56  aroma :  the  thinner 
the  wine  the  more  aroma  it  has.  The  colours  of  wines  are 
four,  white,"  brown,58  blood-coloured,59  and  black.60  Psythium61 
and  melampsythium62  are  varieties  of  raisin- wine  which  have 
the  peculiar  flavour  of  the  grape,  and  not  that  of  wine.  Scy- 
belites63  is  a  wine  grown  in  Galatia,  and  Aluntium64  is  a 
wine  of  Sicily,  both  of  which  have  the  flavour  of  mulsum.65 

ro  "White  wine  of  Cos.  Fee  thinks  that  Pliny  means  to  say  that  the  sea 
water  turns  the  must  of  a  white  or  pale  straw  colour,  and  is  of  opinion  that 
he  has  heen  wrongly  informed. 

51  "  Sea -water  "  wine.  52  "  Sea-seasoned  "  wine. 

53  Fee  says,  that  if  the  vessels  were  closed  hermetically  this  would  have 
little  or  no  appreciable  effect ;  if  not,  it  would  tend  to  spoil  the  wine. 

54  Athenseus  says  that  the  Rhodian  wine  will  not  mix  so  well  with  sea- 
water  as  the  Coan.  Fee  remarks  that  if  Cato's  plan  were  followed,  the 
wine  would  become  vinegar  long  before  the  end  of  the  four  years. 

65  Sillig  thinks  that  the  proper  reading  is  "  in  six"  only. 

56  The  sweet  wines,  in  modern  times,  have  the  most  bouquet  or  aroma. 

57  "  Albus,"  pale  straw-colour.  58  "  Fulvus,"  amber-colour. 

59  Bright  and  glowing,  like  Tent  and  Burgundy. 

60  it  Niger,"  the  colour  of  our  port. 

61  Supposed  to  be  a  species  of  Pramnian  wine,  mentioned  in  c.  6.  This 
was  used,  as  also  the  Aminean,  for  making  omphacium,  as  mentioned  in  B. 
xii.  c.  60.    See  also  c.  18  of  this  Book. 

62  "  Black  psythian." 

63  Mentioned  by  Galen  among  the  sweet  wines. 

64  See  B.  iii.  c.  14.  Now  Solana  in  Sicily,  which  produces  excellent 
wjue<  65  Honied  wine. 


Chap.  11.] 


VARIETIES    OF    SWEET   WINE.  243 


As  to  sineum,  by  some  known  as  "hepsema,"  and  which  in 
our  language  is  called  "  sapa,"66  it  is  a  product  of  art  and  not 
of  Nature,  being  prepared  from  must  boiled  down  to  one- third  : 
when  must  is  boiled  down  to  one-half  only,  we  give  it  the 
name  of    "  defrutum."      All  these  mixtures  have  been  de- 
vised for  the  adulteration  of  honey.67     As  to  those  varieties 
which  we  have  previously  mentioned,   their   merits   depend 
upon  the  grape,   and  the  soil  in  which  it  is  grown.     Next 
after  the  raisin-wine  of  Crete,68  those  of  Cilicia  and  Africa  are 
held  in  the  highest  esteem,  both  in  Italy  as  well  as  the  ad- 
joining provinces.     It  is  well  known  that  it  is  made  of  a  grape 
to  which  the  Greeks  have  given  the  name  of  "  stica,"  and  which 
by  us  is  called  "  apiana  :"69  it  is  also  made  of  the  scirpula.' 
The  grapes  are  left  on  the  vine  to  dry  in  the  sun,  or  else  are 
boiled  in  the  dolium.71     Some  persons  make  this  wine  of  the 
sweet  and  early  white72    grape  :    they  leave   the   grapes   to 
dry  in  the  sun,  until  they  have  lost  pretty  nearly  halt  their 
weight,  after  which  they  crush  them  and  subject  them  to  a 
gentle  pressure.     They  then  draw  off  the  juice,   and  add  to 
the  pulp  that  is  left  an  equal  quantity  of  well-water,  the  pro- 
duct of  which  is  raisin-wine  of  second  quality.73     The  more 
careful  makers  not  only  do  this,  but  take  care  also  after  drying 
the  grapes  to  remove  the  stalks,  and  then  steep  the  raisins  in 
wine  of  good  quality  until  they  swell,  after  which  they  press 
them      This  kind  of  raisin- wine  is  preferred  to  all  others : 
with  the  addition  of  water,  they  follow   the  same  plan  in 
making  the  wine  of  second  quality. 

The  liquor  to  which  the  Greeks  give  the  name  of  aigleu- 
cos  ,,u  is  of  middle  quality,  between  the  sirops  and  whatsis 
properly  called  wine;  with  us  it  is  called  "  semper  mustum.' " 
It  is  only  made  by  using  great  precaution,  and  taking  care 
that  the  must  does  not  ferment;76  such  being  the  state  ol  the 
ee  This  was  evidently  a  kind  of  grape  sirop,  or  grape  jelly. _  "Rob" 
is  pernaps,  as  Hardouin  suggests,  a  not  inappropriate  name  tor  it. 
£>  When  cold,  they  would  have  nearly  the  same  consistency. 

68  The  raisin  wine  of  Crete  was  the  most  prized  of  all  as  a  class. 

69  Mentioned  in  c.  4.     Probably  a  muscatel  grape. 

70  See  c.  4  of  this  Book.  .  .     ,    . 
«  Or  "  vat."  The  common  reading  was  "  oleo,"  which  would  imply  that 

thev  were  plunged  into  boiling  oil.     Columella  favours  the  latter  reading, 
B  xii.  c.  16.  72  The  reading  is  probably  detective  here, 

''a  passumsecundarium.  m  Or  " always  sweet." 

75  «  Always  must."  76  Fervere,  "  boil,"  or  «  effervesce. 


250  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

must  in  its  transformation  into  wine.  To  attain  this  object,  the 
must  is  taken  from  the  vat  and  put  into  casks,  which  are  im- 
mediately plunged  into  water,  and  there  left  to  remain  until 
the  winter  solstice  is  past,  and  frosty  weather  has  made  its 
appearance.  There  is  another  kind,  again,  of  natural  aigleucos, 
which  is  known  in  the  province  of  Narbonensis  by  the  name 
of  "  dulce,"77  and  more  particularly  in  the  district  of  the 
Vocontii.  In  order  to  make  it,  they  keep  the  grape  hanging 
on  the  tree  for  a  considerable  time,  taking  care  to  twist  the 
stalk.  Some,  again,  make  an  incision  in  the  bearing  shoot,  as 
deep  as  the  pith,  while  others  leave  the  grapes  to  dry  on  tiles. 
The  only  grape,  however,  that  is  used  in  these  various  pro- 
cesses is  that  of  the  vine  known  as  the  "  helvennaca."7" 

Some  persons  add  to  the  list  of  these  sweet  wines  that 
known  as  "  diachyton."79  It  is  made  by  drying  grapes  in  the 
sun,  and  then  placing  them  for  seven  days  in  a  closed  place 
upon  hurdles,  some  seven  feet  from  the  ground,  care  being 
taken  to  protect  them  at  night  from  the  dews  :  on  the  eighth 
day  they  are  trodden  out :  this  method,  it  is  said,  produces  a 
liquor  of  exquisite  bouquet  and  flavour.  The  liquor  known  as 
melitites80  is  also  one  of  the  sweet  wines  :  it  differs  from 
mulsum,  in  being  made  of  must ;  to  five  congii  of  rough-fla- 
voured must  they  put  one  congius  of  honey,  and  one  cyathus 
of  salt,  and  they  are  then  brought  to  a  gentle  boil :  this  mix- 
ture is  of  a  rough  flavour.  Among  these  varieties,  I  ought  to 
place  what  is  known  as  "  protropum  ;"81  such  being  the  name 
given  by  some  to  the  must  that  runs  spontaneously  from  the 
grapes  before  they  are  trodden  out.  Directly  it  flows  it  is 
put  into  flaggons,  and  allowed  to  ferment ;  after  which  it  is 
left  to  ripen  for  forty  days  in  a  summer  sun,  about  the  rising 
of  the  Dog-star. 

77  "  Sweet "  drink.  Fee  seems  to  think  that  this  sweet  wine  must  have 
been  something  similar  to  champagne.  Hardouin  says  that  it  corresponds 
to  the  vin  doux  de  Limoux,  or  blanquette  de  Limoux,  and  the  vin  Mus- 
cat d'Azile. 

78  See  c.  3  of  this  Book. 

79  "Poured,"  or  "strained  through." 

80  "  Honey  wine."  A  disagreeable  medicament,  Fee  thinks,  rather  than 
a  wine. 

81  Somewhat  similar  to  the  vin  de  premiere  goutte  of  the  French.  It 
wouid  seem  to  have  been  more  of  a  liqueur  than  a  wine.  Tokay  is  made 
in  a  somewhat  similar  manner. 


Chap.  13.]       WHEN  WINES  WERE  FIRST  MADE  IN  ITALY.         251 
CHAP.   12.    (10.) THREE  VARIETIES  OF  SECOND-KATE  WINE. 

Those  cannot  properly  be  termed  wines,  which^  by  the 
Greeks  are  known  under  the  name  of  "  deuteria,"83  and  to 
which,  in  common  with  Cato,  we  in  Italy  give  the  name  of 
"  lora,';83  being  made  from  the  husks  of  grapes  steeped  in 
water.  Still,  however,  this  beverage  is  reckoned  as  making 
one  of  the  "  labourers'"84  wines.  There  are  three  varieties  of 
it :  the  first85  is  made  in  the  following  manner  : — After  the 
must  is  drawn  off,  one-tenth  of  its  amount  in  water  is  added 
to  the  husks,  which  are  then  left  to  soak  a  day  and  a  night, 
and  then  are  again  subjected  to  pressure.  A  second  kind, 
that  which  the  Greeks  are  in  the  habit  of  making,  is  prepared 
by  adding  one- third  in  water  of  the  quantity  of  must  that  has 
been  drawn  off,  and  after  submitting  the  pulp  to  pressure,  the 
result  is  reduced  by  boiling  to  one-third  of  its  original  quan- 
tity. A  third  kind,  again,  is  pressed  out  from  the  wine-lees ; 
Cato  gives  it  the  name  of  "  fsecatum."86  None  of  these  be- 
verages, however,  will  keep  for  more  than  a  single  year. 

CHAP.   13.    (11.) AT  WHAT  PERIOD  GENEROUS  WINES  WERE    FIRST 

COMMONLY  MADE  IN  ITALY. 

"While  treating  of  these  various  details,  it  occurs  to  me  to 
mention  that  of  the  eighty  different  kinds  throughout  the 
whole  earth,  which  may  with  propriety  be  reckoned  in  the 
class  of  generous87  wines,  fully  two- thirds88  are  the  produce 
of  Italy,  which  consequently  in  this  respect  far  surpasses  any 
other  country :  and  on  tracing  this  subject  somewhat  higher 
up,  the  fact  suggests  itself,  that  the  wines  of  Italy  have  not 
been  in  any  great  favour  from  an  early  period,  their  high 

82  Or  "second"  press  wines.  83  De  Re  Rust.  c.  153. 

84  Vinum  operarium. 

*5  This  method  is  still  adopted,  Fee  says,  in  making  "  piquette,"  or 
"  small  wine,"  throughout  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe. 
86  Or  "  wine-lee  drink."     It  would  make  an  acid  beverage,  of  disagree- 

"7  "  Nobilia."  In  c.  29  he  speaks  of  195  kinds,  and,  reckoning  all  the 
varieties,  double  that  number. 

&8  Fee  observes  that  the  varieties  of  the  modern  wines  are  quite  innu- 
merable. He  remarks  also  that  Pliny  does  not  speak  of  the  Asiatic  wines 
mentioned  by  Athenaeus,  which  were  kept  in  large  bottles,  hung  in  the 
chimney  corner ;  where  the  liquid,  by  evaporation,  acquired  the  consistency 
of  salt.     The  wines  of  other  countries  evidently  were  little  known  to  Pliny. 


252  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

repute  having  only  been  acquired  since  the  six  hundredth  year 
of  the  City. 

CHAP.   14.    (12.) — THE    INSPECTION    OF  WINE    ORDERED    BY    KING 

ROMULUS. 

Romulus  made  libations,  not  with  wine  but  with  milk ;  a 
fact  which  is  fully  established  by  the  religious  rites  which 
owe  their  foundation  to  him,  and  are  observed  even  to  the 
present  day.  The  Posthumian  Law,  promulgated  by  King 
Numa,  has  an  injunction  to  the  following  effect: — "  Sprinkle 
not  the  funeral  pyre  with  wine ;"  a  law  to  which  he  gave  his 
sanction,  no  doubt,  in  consequence  of  the  remarkable  scarcity 
of  that  commodity  in  those  days.  By  the  same  law,  he  also 
pronounced  it  illegal  to  make  a  libation  to  the  gods  of  wine  that 
was  the  produce  of  an  unpruned  vine,  his  object  being  to  compel 
the  husbandmen  to  prune  their  vines ;  a  duty  which  they 
showed  themselves  reluctant  to  perform,  in  consequence  of  the 
danger  which  attended  climbing  the  trees.89  M.  Varro  in- 
forms us,  that  Mezentius,  the  king  of  Etruria,  succoured  the 
Rutuli  against  the  Latini,  upon  condition  that  he  should  re- 
ceive all  the  wine  that  was  then  in  the  territory  of  Latium. 

(13.)  At  Rome  it  was  not  lawful  for  women  to  drink  wine. 
Among  the  various  anecdotes  connected  with  this  subject,  we 
find  that  the  wife  of  Egnatius  Mecenius 90  was  slain  by  her  hus- 
band with  a  stick,  because  she  had  drunk  some  wine  from  the  vat, 
and  that  he  was  absolved  from  the  murder  by  Eomulus.  Fabius 
Pictor,  in  his  Book  of  Annals,  has  stated  that  a  certain  lady, 
for  having  opened  a  purse  in  which  the  keys  of  the  wine-cellar 
were  kept,  was  starved  to  death  by  her  family :  and  Cato  tells 
us,  that  it  was  the  usage  for  the  male  relatives  to  give  the 
females  a  kiss,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they  smelt  of 
"  temetum ;"  for  it  was  by  that  name  that  wine  was  then 
known,  whence  our  word  "  temulentia,"  signifying  drunken- 
ness. Cn.  Domitius,  the  judge,  once  gave  it  as  his  opinion, 
that  a  certain  woman  appeared  to  him  to  have  drunk  more 
wine  than  was  requisite  for  her  health,  and  without  the  know- 
ledge of  her  husband,  for  which  reason  he  condemned  her  to 
lose  her  dower.     For  a  very  long  time  there  was  the  greatest 

89  "  Circa  pericula  arbusti."     This  is  probably  the  meaning  of  this  very 
elliptical  passage.     See  p.  218. 

90  Called  Metellus,  by  Valerius  Maximus,  B.  yi.  c.  3. 


Chap.  15.]  WINES   OF  THE   ANCIENT   EOMANS.  253 

economy  manifested  at  Eome  in  the  use  of  this  article.  L.  Pa- 
pirius,91  the  general,  who,  on  one  occasion,  commanded  against 
the  Samnites,  when  about  to  engage, vowed  an  offering  to  Jupiter 
of  a  small  cupfull  of  wine,  if  he  should  gain  the  victory.  In  fact, 
among  the  gifts  presented  to  the  gods,  we  find  mention  made 
of  offerings  of  sextarii  of  milk,  but  never  of  wine. 

The  same  Cato,  while  on  his  voyage  to  Spain,  from  which 
he  afterwards  returned  triumphant,92  would  drink  of  no  other 
wine  but  that  which  was  served  out  to  the  rowers — very  dif- 
ferent, indeed,  to  the  conduct  of  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
giving  to  their  guests  even  inferior  wine 93  to  that  which  they 
drink  themselves,  or  else  contrive  to  substitute  inferior  in  the 
course  of  the  repast.94 

CHAP.  15. WINES  DRUNK  BY  THE  ANCIENT  EOMANS. 

The  wines  that  were  the  most  esteemed  among  the  ancient 
Romans  were  those  perfumed  with  myrrh,95  as  mentioned  in  the 
play  of  Plautus,  entitled  the  "  Persian,"96  though  we  find  it  there 
stated  that  calamus 97  ought  to  be  added  to  it.  Hence  it  is, 
that  some  persons  are  of  opinion  that  they  were  particularly 
fond  of  aromatites : "  but  Fabius  Dossennus  quite  decides 
the  question,  in  the  following  line  :  —  "I  sent  them  good 
wine,  myrrh- wine  ;"99  and  in  his  play  called  "  Acharistio,"  we 
find  these  words — "  Bread  and  pearled  barley,  myrrh- wine 
too."  I  find,  too,  that  Scaevola  and  L.  iElius,  and  Ateius 
Capito,  were  of  the  same  opinion ;  and  then  we  read  in  the 
play  known  as  the  "  Pseudolus  :'n — "  But  if  it  is  requisite  for 
him  to  draw  forth  what  is  sweet  from  the  place,  has  he  aught 
of  that?"  to   which  Charinus  makes   answer,   "  Do  you  ask 

91  See  B.  xvii.  c.  11. 

92  Over  the  Celtiberi. 

93  The  younger  Pliny,  B.  ii.  Ep.  2,  censures  this  stingy  practice.  See 
also  Martial,  B.  iii.  Epig.  60. 

94  That  this,  however,  was  not  uncommonly  done,  we  may  judge  from  the 
remark  made  by  the  governor  of  the  feast,  John  ii.  10,  to  the  bridegroom. 

95  Called  "  myrrhina."  Fee  remarks  that  the  flavour  of  myrrh  is  acrid 
and  bitter,  its  odour  strong  and  disagreeable,  and  says  that  it  is  difficult,  to 
conceive  how  the  ancients  could  drink  wine  with  this  substance  in  solution. 

96  As  the  "Persa"  has  come  down  to  us,  we  find  no  mention  of  myrrh 
in  the  passage  alluded  to. 

w  See  B.  xii.  c.  49.     This  is  mentioned  in  the  Persa,  A.  i.  sc.  3,  1.  7. 

9s  Aromatic  or  perfumed  wines.  "  Murrhinam. 

1  The  Cheat  or  Impostor :  a  play  of  Plautus.    See  A.  ii.  sc.  4, 1.  51,  et  seq. 


254  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

the  question  ?  He  has  myrrh  wine,  raisin  wine,  def rutum,2 
and  honey;"  from  which  it  would  appear  that  myrrh  wine 
was  not  only  reckoned  among  the  wines,  but  among  the  sweet 
wines  too. 

CHAr.   16.   (14.) SOME   REMARKABLE    FACTS    CONNECTED    WITH 

WINE-LOFTS.       THE    OPIMIAN    WINE. 

The  fact  of  the  existence  of  the  Opimian  wine  gives  un- 
doubted proof  that  there  were  wine-lofts,3  and  that  wine  was 
racked  off  in  the  year  of  Rome  633,  Italy  being  already  alive 
to  the  blessings  she  enjoyed.  Still,  however,  the  several 
varieties  that  are  now  so  celebrated  were  not  so  in  those  days ; 
and  hence  it  is  that  all  the  wines  that  were  grown  at  that 
period  have  only  the  one  general  name  of  "  Opimian"  wines, 
from  the  then  consul  Opimius.  So,  too,  for  a  long  time  after- 
wards, and,  indeed,  so  late  as  the  times  of  our  grandfathers,  the 
wines  from  beyond  sea  were  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  even 
though  Falernian  was  already  known,  a  fact  which  we  learn 
from  the  line  of  the  Comic  writer,4  "  I  shall  draw  five  cups  of 
Thasian  and  two  of  Falernian." 

P.  Licinius  Crassus,  and  L.  Julius  Caesar,  who  were  Cen- 
sors in  the  year  from  the  Building  of  the  City  665,  issued  an 
edict  forbidding  the  sale  of  either  Greek  or  Aminean  wine  at 
a  higher  price  than  eight  asses  the  quadrantal5 — for  such,  in 
fact,  are  the  exact  words  of  the  edict.  Indeed,  the  Greek 
wines  were  so  highly  valued,  that  not  more  than  a  single  cup 
was  served  to  a  guest  during  the  repast. 

CHAP.   17. AT   WHAT    PERIOD    FOUR    KINDS    OF   WINE  WERE    FIRST 

SERVED    AT    TABLE. 

M.  Varro  gives  us  the  following  statement  as  to  the  wines 
that  were  held  in  the  highest  esteem  at  table  in  his  day: 
"L,  Lucullus,  when  a  boy,  never  saw  an  entertainment  at  his 
father's  house,  however  sumptuous  it  might  be,  at  which  Greek 

2  Must  boiled  down  to  half  its  original  quantity. 

3  Apothecas.  The  "  apothecse"  were  rooms  at  the  top  of  the  house,  in 
which  the  wines  were  placed  for  the  purpose  of  seasoning.  Sometimes  a 
current  of  smoke  was  directed  through  them.  They  were  quite  distinct 
from  the  "  cella  vinaria,"  or  «  wine-cellar."  The  Opimian  wine  is  men- 
tioned in  c.  4. 

4  This  writer  is  unknown.  5  Or  amphora. 


Chap.  18.]  USES   OF   THE   WTLD    TINE.  255 

wine  was  handed  round  more  than  once  during  the  repast : 
whereas  he  himself,  when  he  returned  from  Asia,  distributed 
as  a  largess  among  the  people  more  than  a  hundred  thousand 
eongiaria6  of  the  same  wine.  C.  Sentius,  whom  we  have  seen 
Praetor,  used  to  say  that  Chian  wine  never  entered  his  house 
until  his  physician  prescribed  it  to  him  for  the  cardiac7  dis- 
ease. On  the  other  hand,  Hortensius  left  ten  thousand  casks 
of  it  to  his  heir."     Such  is  the  statement  made  by  Varro. 

(15.)  And  besides,  is  it  not  a  well-known  fact  that  Caesar, 
when  Dictator,  at  the  banquet  given  on  the  occasion  of  his 
triumph,  allotted  to  each  table  an  amphora  of  Falernian  and  a 
cadus  of  Chian  ?  On  the  occasion,  too,  of  his  triumph  for  his 
victories  in  Spain,  he  put  before  the  guests  both  Chian  as  well 
as  Falernian ;  and  again,  at  the  banquet  given  on  his  third 
consulship,8  he  gave  lalernian,  Chian,  Lesbian,  and  Mamer- 
tine ;  indeed,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  this  was  the  first 
occasion  on  which  four  different  kinds  of  wine  were  served  at 
table.  It  was  after  this,  then,  that  all  the  other  sorts  came 
into  such  very  high  repute,  somewhere  about  the  year  of  the 
City  700. 

CHAP.   18.  (16.) THE    USES    OF    THE   WILD    VINE.       WHAT    JUICES 

AEE    NATURALLY    THE    COLDEST    OF    ALL. 

I  am  not  surprised,  then,  that  for  these  many  ages  there 
have  been  invented  almost  innumerable  varieties  of  artificial 
wines,  of  which  I  shall  now  make  some  mention ;  they  are  all 
of  them  employed  for  medicinal  purposes.  We  have  already 
stated  in  a  former  Book  how  omphacium,9  which  is  used  for 
unguents,  is  made.  The  liquor  known  as  "  cenanthinum  "  is 
made  from  the  wild  vine,10  two  pounds  of  the  flowers  of  which 
are  steeped  in  a  cadus  of  must,  and  are  then  changed  at  the 
end  of  thirty  days.     In  addition  to  this,   the  root  and  the 

6  Vessels  containing  a  congius,  or  the  eighth  of  an  amphora,  nearly  six 
pints  English. 

7  As  to  this  malady,  see  B.  xi.  c.  71. 

8  b.c.  46.  9  B.  xii.  c.  61. 

10  Or  "labrusca."  "  (Enanthinum  "  means  "  made  of  vine  flowers."  The 
•wild  vine  is  not  a  distinct  species  from  the  cultivated  vine  :  it  is  only  a 
variety  of  it,  known  in  botany  as  the  Vitis  silvestris  labrusca  of  Tournefort. 
Fee  thinks  that  as  the  must  could  only  be  used  in  autumn,  when  the  wild 
vine  was  not  flowering,  the  flowers  of  it  must  have  been  dried. 


256  pltnt's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

husks  of  the  grapes  are  employed  in  dressing  leather.  The 
grapes,  too,  a  little  after  the  blossom  has  gone  off,  are  sin- 
gularly efficacious  as  a  specific  for  cooling  the  feverish  heat  of 
the  body  in  certain  maladies,  being,  it  is  said,  of  a  nature  re- 
markable for  extreme  coldness.  A  portion  of  these  grapes 
wither  away,  in  consequence  of  the  heat,  before  the  rest, 
which  are  thence  called  solstitial13  grapes;  indeed,  the  whole 
of  them  never  attain  maturity ;  if  one  of  these  grapes,  m 
an  unripe  state,  is  given  to  a  barn-door  fowl  to  eat,  it  is  pro- 
ductive of  a  dislike  to  grapes  for  the  future.14 

CHAP.   19. SIXTY-SIX  VARIETIES  OF  ARTIFICIAL  WINE. 

The  first  of  the  artificial  wines  has  wine  for  its  basis;  it  is 
called  "  adynamon,"15  and  is  made  in  the  following  manner. 
Twenty  sextarii  of  white  must  are  boiled  down  with  half  that 
quantity  of  water,  until  the  amount  of  the  water  is  lost  _  by 
evaporation.  Some  persons  mix  with  the  must  ten  sextarii  of 
sea- water  and  an  equal  quantity  of  rain-water,  and  leave  the 
whole  to  evaporate  in  the  sun  for  forty  days.  This  beverage 
is  given  to  invalids  to  whom  it  is  apprehended  that  wine  may 
prove  injurious. 

The  next  kind  of  artificial  wine  is  that  made  of  the  ripo 
grain  of  millet ; 16  a  pound  and  a  quarter  of  it  with  the  straw 
is  steeped  in  two  congii  of  must,  and  the  mixture  is  poured  on* 
at  the  end  of  six  months.  We  have  already  stated17  how 
various  kinds  of  wine  are  made  from  the  tree,  the  shrub,  and 
the  herb,  respectively  known  as  the  lotus. 

From  fruit,  too,  the  following  wines  are  made,  to  the  list  of 
which  we  shall  only  add  some  necessary  explanations  : — First 
of  all,  we  find  the  fruit  of  the  palm18  employed  for  this  pur- 

13  "  Solstitiales."  Because  they  withstand  the  heat  of  the  solstice.  Mar- 
cellus  Empiricus  calls  them  "  caniculati,"  because  they  bear  the  heat  of  the 
Dog-star. 

u  Fee  remarks  that  this  assertion  is  quite  erroneous. 

15  From  the  Greek,  meaning  "  without  strength."  The  mixture,  Fee 
remarks,  would  appear  to  be  neither  potable  nor  wholesome. 

16  See  B.  xviii.  c.  24.  A  kind  of  beer  might  be  made  with  it,  Fee  says ; 
but  this  mixture  must  have  been  very  unpalatable. 

"  See  B.  xiii.  c.  32. 

18  A  vinous  drink  maybe  made  in  the  manner  here  stated ;  but  the  palm- 
wine  of  the  peoples  of  Asia  and  Africa  is  only  made  of  the  fermented  sap 
of  the  tree.     See  B.  xiii.  c.  9. 


Cbap.  19.]  VARIETIES   OF   ARTIFICIAL   WIKE.  257 

pose  by  the  Parthians  as  well  as  the  Indians,  and,  indeed, 
throughout  all  the  countries  of  the  East.  A  modius  of  the 
kind  of  ripe  date  called  "chydaeae"19  is  added  to  three  congii 
of  water,  and  after  being  steeped  for  some  time,  they  are 
subjected  to  pressure.  Sycites20  is  a  preparation  similarly 
made  from  figs :  some  persons  call  it  "  palmiprimum,"21  others, 
again,  "  catorehites : "  if  sweetness  is  not  the  maker's  object, 
instead  of  water  there  is  added  the  same  quantity  of  husk 
juice22  of  grapes.  Of  the  Cyprian  fig23  a  very  excellent  vinegar, 
too,  is  made,  and  of  that  of  Alexandria24  a  still  superior. 

A  wine  is  made,  too,  of  the  pods  of  the  Syrian  carob,25  of 
pears,  and  of  all  kinds  of  apples.  That  known  as  "  rhoites"26 
is  made  from  pomegranates,  and  other  varieties  are  prepared 
from  cornels,  medlars,  sorb  apples,  dried  mulberries,  and  pine- 
nuts  ;27  these  last  are  left  to  steep  in  must,  and  are  then  pressed ; 
the  others  produce  a  sweet  liquor  of  themselves.  "We  shall 
have  occasion  before  long  to  show  how  Cato28  has  pointed  out 
the  method  of  making  myrtites  :29  the  Greeks,  however,  adopt 
a  different  method  in  making  it.  They  first  boil  tender  sprigs 
of  myrtle  with  the  leaves  on  in  white  must,  and  after  pound- 
ing them,  boil  down  one  pound  of  the  mixture  in  three  congii 
of  must,  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  couple  of  congii.  The  be- 
verage that  is  prepared  in  this  manner  with  the  berries  of 
wild  myrtle  is  known  as  "  myrtidanum ;" 30  it  will  stain  the 
hands. 

Among  the  garden  plants  we  find  wines  made  of  the  follow- 
ing kinds :  the  radish,   asparagus,  cunila,  origanum,  parsley- 

19  He  says  "caryotae,"  and  not  chydsese,  in  B.  xiii.  c.  4.  The  modius 
was  something  more  than  our  peck. 

20  From  the  Greek  <tvkt),  a  "  fig."  This  wine  was  made,  Fee  thinks, 
from  the  produce  of  some  variety  of  the  sycamore.     See  B.  xiii.  c.  14. 

21  "  Prime  palm  "  apparently. 

22  Tortivum,  probably :  the  second  squeezing. 

23  See  B.  xiii.  c.  15.  m  See  B.  xiii.  c.  14. 

25  See  B.  xiii.  c.  16. 

26  From  poa,  a  "pomegranate." 

27  Dioscorides  calls  it  "  strobilites."  Fee  says  that  they  could  he  of  no 
service  in  producing  a  vinous  drink. 

28  See  B.  xy.  c.  37.  ™  Or  "myrtle  wine." 

30  Myrtle  will  not  make  a  wine,  but  simply  a  medicament,  in  which  wine 
is  the  menstruum. 

VOL.    III.  s 


258  PLINY'S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XIV. 

seed,  abrotonum,31  wild  mint,  rue,32  catmint,33  wild  thyme,** 
and  horehound.35  A  couple  of  handfuls  of  these  ingredients 
are  put  into  a  cadus  of  must,  as  also  one  sextarius  of  sapa,36  and 
half  a  sextarius  of  sea- water.  A  wine  is  made  of  the  naphew37 
turnip  by  adding  two  drachms  of  naphew  to  two  sextarii  of 
must.  A  wine  is  made  also  from  the  roots  of  squills.'9  Among 
the  flowers,  that  of  the  rose  furnishes  a  wine :  the  leaves  are 
put  in  a  linen  cloth  and  then  pounded,  after  which  they  are 
thrown  into  must  with  a  small  weight  attached  to  make  them 
sink  to  the  bottom,  the  proportion  being  forty  drachms  of  leaves 
to  twenty  sextarii  of  must ;  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  kept 
must  not  be  opened  before  the  end  of  three  months.  A  wine, 
too,  is  made  of  Gallic  nard,39  and  another  kind  of  the  wild40 
variety  of  that  plant. 

I  find,  also,  that  various  kinds  of  aromatites41  are  pre- 
pared, differing  but  very  little  in  their  mode  of  composition 
from  that  of  the  unguents,  being  made  in  the  first  instance, 
as  I  have  already  stated,42  of  myrrh,  and  then  at  a  later  period 
of  Celtic  nard,43  calamus,  and  aspalathus,44  of  which  cakes  are 
made,  and  are  then  thrown  into  either  must  or  sweet  wine. 
Others,  again,  make  these  wines  of  calamus,  scented  rush,40 
costus,46  Syrian  nard,47  amomum,48  cassia,49  cinnamon,  saffron,50 
palm-dates,  and  foal-foot,51  all  of  which  are  made  up  into  cakes 
in  a  similar  manner.  Other  persons,  again,  put  half  a  pound 
of  nard  and  malobathrum52  to  two  congii  of  must ;  and  it  is 
in  this  manner  that  at  the  present  day,  with  the  addition  of 

31  Artemisia  abrotonum  of  Linnaeus.       32  Ruta  graveolens  of  Linnaeus. 
33  Nepeta  cataria  of  Linnaeus.  34  Thymus  serpyllum  of  Linnaeus. 

35  Marrubium  vulgare  of  Linnaeus. 

36  Grape-juice  boiled  down  to  one-tbird. 

37  Brassica  napus  of  Linnaeus.  a8  Scilla  marina  of  Linnaeus. 

39  Nardus  Gallicus,  or  Valeriana  Celtica  of  Linnaeus.  _  See  B.  xii.  c.  2G. 

40  Nardus  silvestris  or  baccaris.  41  Aromatic  wines. 
42  In  c.  15  of  this  Book.  43  Valeriana  Celtica. 

44  Convolvulus  scoparius  of  Linnaeus. 

45  Andropogon  scbcenanthus  of  Linnaeus. 

46  Costus  Indicus  of  Linnaeus. 

47  Andropogon  nardus  of  Linnaeus. 

48  See  B.  xiii.  c,  2.  49  See  B.  xii.  c.  43, 

50  Crocus  sativus  of  Linnaeus. 

51  Asarum  Europaeum  of  Linnaeus. 

52  See  B.  xii.  c.  59. 


Chap.  19.]  VARIETIES    OF    ARTIFICIAL   WINE.  259 

pepper  and  honey,  the  wines  are  made  by  some  known  as  con- 
fection wines,53  and  by  others  as  peppered54  wines.  We  find 
mention  made  of  nectarites  also,  a  beverage  extracted  from  a 
herb  known  to  some  as  "  helenion," 55  to  others  as  "  Me- 
dica,"56  and  to  others,  again,  as  symphyton,57  Idaea,  Orestion, 
or  nectaria,  the  root  of  which  is  added  in  the  proportion  of 
forty  drachms  to  six  sextarii  of  must,  being  first  similarly 
placed  in  a  linen  cloth. 

As  to  other  kinds  of  herbs,  we  find  wormwood  wine,58  made 
of  Pontic  wormwood  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  forty 
sextarii  of  must,  which  is  then  boiled  down  until  it  is  reduced 
to  one  third,  or  else  of  slips  of  wormwood  put  in  wine.  In  a 
similar  manner,  hyssop  wine 59  is  made  of  Cilician  hyssop,60  by 
adding  three  ounces  of  it  to  two  congii  of  must,  or  else  by 
pounding  three  ounces  of  hyssop,  and  adding  them  to  one 
congius  of  must.  Both  of  these  wines  may  be  made  also  in 
another  method,  by  sowing  these  plants  around  the  roots  of 
vines.  It  is  in  this  manner,  too,  that  Cato  tells  us  how  to 
make  hellebore61  wine  from  black  hellebore  ;  and  a  similar 
method  is  used  for  making  scammony 63  wine.  The  vine  has  a 
remarkable  propensity63  of  contracting  the  flavour  of  any  plant 
that  may  happen  to  be  growing  near  it ;  and  hence  it  is  that 
in  the  marshy  lands  of  Patavium,  the  grape  has  the  peculiar 
flavour  of  the  willow.  So,  in  like  manner,  we  find  at  Thasos 
hellebore  planted  among  the  vines,  or  else  wild  cucumber,  or 
scammony ;  the  wine  that  is  produced  from  these  vines  is 
known  by  the  name  of  "  phthorium,"  it  being  productive  of 
abortion. 

53  Condita.  54  Piperata. 

55  Inula  helenium  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxi.  c.  91. 

56  Medicago  sativa  of  Linnaeus. 

57  Symphytum  officinale  of  Linnaeus,  being  all  different  varieties. 

58  "  Absinthites ;"  made  of  the  Artemisia  Pontica  orLinnseus.  A  medi- 
cinal wine  is  still  prepared  with  wormwood ;  and  "  apsinthe,"  a  liqueur 
much  esteemed  in  France,  is  made  from  it. 

i9  Hyssopites. 

60  Hyssopites  officinalis  of  Linnaeus. 

61  Helleborites.  62  Scammonites. 

63  Fee  says  that  this  is  not  the  fact ;  and  queries  whether  the  vulgar 
notion  still  entertained  on-  this  subject,  may  not  be  traced  up  to  our  author.. 
It  is  a  not  uncommon  belief  that  roses  smell  all  the  sweeter  if  onions  are 
planted  near  them. 


260  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIY. 

"Wines  are  made,  too,  of  other  herbs,  the  nature  of  which  will 
be  mentioned  in  their  respective  places,  the  stcechas64  for 
instance,  the  root  of  gentian,65  tragoriganum,66  dittany,67  foal- 
foot,68 daucus,69  elelisphacus,70  panax,71  acorus,72  conyza,73 
thyme,74  mandragore,75  and  sweet  rush.76  "We  find  the  names 
mentioned,  also,  of  scyzinum,77  itaaomelis,  and  lectisphagites, 
compounds  of  which  the  receipt  is  now  lost. 

The  wines  that  are  made  from  the  shrubs  are  mostly  ex- 
tracted from  the  two  kinds  of  cedar,78  the  cypress,79  the  laurel,80 
the  juniper,81  the  terebinth,82  and  in  Gaul  the  lentisk.83  To 
make  these  wines,  they  boil  either  the  berries  or  the  new  wood 
of  the  shrub  in  must.  They  employ,  also,  the  wood  of  the 
dwarf  olive,84  the  ground-pine,85  and  the  germander86  for  a 
similar  purpose,  adding  at  the  same  time  ten  drachms  of  the 
flower  to  a  congius  of  must. 

64  Lavendula  stoechas  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxvii.  c.  107. 

65  Gentiana  lutea  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xxv.  c.  34.  Gentian  wine  is 
still  made. 

66  Thymus  tragoriganum  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xx.  c.  68. 

67  Origanum  dictamnus  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxv.  c.  63. 
6S  Asarum  Europaeum  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xii.  c.  27. 

69  Query,  if  not  carrot  ?     See  B.  xxv.  c.  64. 

70  A  variety  of  salvia  or  sage  :  it  will  be  mentioned  again,  further  on. 

71  Laserpitium  hirsutum  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxv.  cc.  11,  12,  and  13. 

72  Acorus  calamus  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxv.  c.  100. 

73  See  B.  xxi.  c.  32.  ?4  See  B.  xxi.  c.  31. 

.  75  Atrapora  mandragora  of  Linnaeus.     This  wine  would  act  as  a  narcotic 
poison,  it  would  appear. 

76  Andropogon  schoenanthus  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxi.  c.  72. 

77  The  origin  and  meaning  of  these  names  are  unknown. 

73  See  B.  xii.  c.  11.  Juniperus  Lycia,  and  Juniperus  Phcenicea  of 
Linnaeus. 

79  Cupressus  sempervirens  of  Linnaeus. 

80  Laurus  nobilis  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xv.  c.  39. 
S1  Juniperus  communis  of  Linnaeus. 

83  See  B.  xiii.  c.  12.     The  Pistacia  terebinthus  of  Linnaeus. 

83  See  B.  xii.  c.  36.     The  Pistacia  lentiscus  of  Linnaeus. 

84  "  Chamelaea."  The  Granium  Cnidium,  Daphne  Cnidium,  and  Daphne 
cneorum  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xiii.  c.  35.  Venomous  plants,  which,  taken 
internally,  would  be  productive  of  dangerous  results. 

35  Chamaepitrys.  The  Teucrium  chamaepitrys  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xxv. 
c.  20. 

86  Chamaedrys.  The  Teucrium  chamaedrys  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xxiv. 
c.  80.     Dioscorides  mentions  most  of  these  so-called  wines. 


Chap.  21.]  OXYMELI.  261 

CHAP.  20.  (17.) HYDE01IELI,  OR  MELICEATOX. 

There  is  a  wine  also  made  solely  of  honey  and  water.87  For 
this  purpose  it  is  recommended  that  rain-water88  should  be 
kept  for  a  period  of  five  years.  Those  who  shew  greater  skill, 
content  themselves  with  taking  the  water  just  after  it  has 
fallen,  and  boiling  it  down  to  one  third,  to  which  they  then 
add  one  third  in  quantity  of  old  honey,  and  keep  the  mixture 
exposed  to  the  rays  of  a  hot  sun 89  for  forty  days  after  the 
rising  of  the  Dog-star ;  others,  however,  rack  it  off  in^  the 
course  of  ten  days,  and  tightly  cork  the  vessels  in  which  it  is 
kept.  This  beverage  is  known  as  "hydromeli,"  and  with  age 
acquires  the  flavour  of  wine.  It  is  nowhere  more  highly 
esteemed  than  in  Phrygia.90 

CHAP.  21. OXYMELI. 

Vinegar91  even  has  been  mixed  with  honey;  nothing,  in 
fact,  has  been  left  untried  by  man.  To  this  mixture  the  name 
of  oxymeli  has  been  given ;  it  is  compounded  of  ten  pounds  of 
honey,  five  semi-sextarii  of  old  vinegar,  one  pound  of  sea-salt, 
and  five  sextarii  of  rain-water.  This  is  boiled  gently  till  the 
mixture  has  bubbled  in  the  pot  some  ten  times,92  after  which  it 
is  drawn  off,  and  kept  till  it  is  old ; 93  all  these  wines,  how- 
ever, are  condemned94  by  Themison,  an  author  of  high  autho- 
rity. And  really,  by  Hercules !  the  use  of  them  does  ap- 
pear to  be  somewhat  forced,95  unless,  indeed,  we  are  ready  to 
maintain  that  these  aromatic  wines  are  so  many  compounds 
taught  us  by  Nature,  as  well  as  those  that  are  manufactured  of 
perfumes,  or  that  shrubs  and  plants  have  been  generated  only 
for  the  purpose  of  being  swallowed  in  drink.  However,  ail 
these  particulars,  when  known,  are  curious  and  interesting, 
and  show  how  successfully  the  human  intellect  has  pried  into 
every  secret. 

87  M-ead,  or  metheglin.     See  B.  xxii.  c.  51. 

88  There  is  no  ground,  Fee  says,  for  this  recommendation. 

89  Stoves  are  now  used  for  this  purpose. 

90  "  Hydromelum,"  on  the  other  hand,  made  of  water  and  apples,  was 
the  same  as  our  modern  cider.  91  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  9. 

93  "  Subfervefactis."     "  Just  come  on  the  boil." 

93  The  oxymel  of  modern  times  contains  no  salt,  and  is  only  used  as  a 
medicament. 

94  As  drinks,  no  doubt ;  and  with  good  reason,  as  to  most  of  them. 

95  Coactus. 


262  plint's  NATURAL  HISTOBY.  [Book  XIV. 

None  of  these  wines,  however,  will  keep  beyond  a  year,96 
with  the  sole  exception  of  those  which  we  have  spoken  of  as 
requiring  age  ;  many  of  these,  indeed,  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
do  not  improve  after  being  kept  so  little  as  thirty  days. 

CHAP.  22.  (18.) TWELVE  KINDS  OE  WINE  WITH  MIKACTTLOUS 

rilOPEKTIES. 

There  are  some  miraculous  properties,  too,  in  certain  wines. 
It  is  said  that  in  Arcadia  there  is  a  wine  grown  which  is 
productive  of  fruitfulness97  in  women,  and  of  madness  in  men  ; 
while  in  Achaia,  and  more  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Cary- 
nia,  there  is  a  wine  which  causes  abortion  ;  an  effect  which  is 
equally  produced  if  a  woman  in  a  state  of  pregnancy  happens 
only  to  eat  a  grape  of  the  vine  from  which  it  is  grown,  although 
in  taste  it  is  in  no  way  different  from  ordinary  grapes  :  again, 
it  is  confidently  asserted  that  those  who  drink  the  wine  of 
Trcezen  never  bear  children.  Thasos,  it  is  said,  produces  two 
varieties  of  wine  with  quite  opposite  properties.  By  one  kind 
sleep  is  produced,98  by  the  other  it  is  prevented.  There  is 
also  in  the  same  island  a  vine  known  as  the  "  theriaca,"99  the 
wine  and  grapes  of  wrhich  are  a  cure  for  the  bites  of  serpents. 
The  libanian  vine1  also  produces  a  wine  with  the  smell  of 
frankincense,  with  which  they  make  libations  to  the  gods,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  produce  of  that  known  as  "  aspendios,2" 
is  banished  from  all  the  altars :  it  is  said,  too,  that  this  last 
vine  is  never  touched  by  any  bird. 

The  Egyptians  call  by  the  name  of  "Thasian,"3  a  certain 
grape  of  that  country,   remarkable  for  its  sweetness  and  its 

96  Our  medicinal  wines  will  mostly  keep  longer  than  this,  owing  probably 
to  the  difference  in  the  mode  of  making  the  real  wines  that  form  their 
basis. 

91  There  is  little  doubt  that  this  is  fabulous  :  wine  taken  in  excess,  we 
know,  is  productive  of  loss  of  the  senses,  frenzy  in  the  shape  of  delirium 
tremens. 

9lJ  This  is  not  unlikely ;  for,  as  Fee  remarks,  the  red  wines,  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  alcohol,  act  upon  the  brain  and  promote  sleep,  while 
the  white  wines,  charged  with  carbonic  gas,  are  productive  of  wakefulness. 

99  Or  healing  vine.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  11. 

1  "Iibanios."  Probably  incense  was  put  in  this  wine,  to  produce  the 
flavour. 

2  From  a,  "  not,"  and  airkpinv,  "  to  make  libation." 

3  See  c.  9  of  this  Book.     It  was  introduced,  probably,  from  Thasos. 


Chap.  21.]  now  MUST  is  puepaeed.  263 

laxative  qualities.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  in  Lycia  a 
certain  grape  which  proves  astringent  to  the  stomach  when 
relaxed.  Egypt  has  a  wine,  too,  known  as  "  ecbolas,"4  which 
is  prod  active  of  abortion.  There  are  some  wines,  which  at 
the  rising  of  the  Dog-star  change  their  nature  in  the  wine- 
lofts5  where  they  are  kept,  and  afterwards  recover6  their 
original  quality.  The  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  wines  when 
carried  across  the  seas :  those  that  are  able  to  withstand  the 
motion  of  the  waves,  appear  afterwards  to  be  twice  as  old 7  as 
they  really  are. 

CUAP.   23.   (19.) WHAT  WINES  IT  IS  NOT  LAWFUL  TO   USE  IN    THE 

BACKED  BITES. 

As  religion  is  the  great  basis  of  the  ordinary  usages  of  life. 
I  shall  here  remark  that  it  is  considered  improper  to  offer 
libations  to  the  gods  with  any  wines  which  are  the  produce  of 
an  unpruned  vine,  or  of  one  that  has  been  struck  by  lightning, 
or  near  to  which  a  dead  man  has  been  hung,  or  of  grapes  that 
have  been  trodden  out  by  sore  feet,  or  made  of  must  from 
husks  that  have  been  cut,8  or  from  grapes  that  have  been 
polluted  by  the  fall  of  any  unclean  thing  upon  them.  The 
Greek  wines  are  excluded  also  from  the  sacred  ministrations, 
because  they  contain  a  portion  of  water. 

The  vine  itself  is  sometimes  eaten ;  the  tops  of  the  shoots9 
are  taken  off  and  boiled,  and  are  then  pickled  in  vinegar 10 
and  brine. 

CHAP.   24. HOW  MUST  IS  USUALLY  PEEPAEED. 

It  will  be  as  well  now  to  make  some  mention  of  the  methods 

4  From  UfiaWo),  u  to  eject."  5  Apothecis. 

6  He  alludes  to  the  working  of  wines  in  periods  of  extreme  heat ;  also 
in  the  spring. 

7  Of  our  modern  wines,  Madeira  and  Bourdeaux  improve  by  being  carried 
across  'sea.  Burgundy,  if  any  thing,  deteriorates,  by  the  diminution  of  its 
bouquet. 

8  After  the  grapes  had  been  trodden  and  pressed,  the  husks  were  taken 
out  and  their  edges  cut,  and  then  again  subjected  to  pressure  :  the  result 
was  known  as  u  tortivum,"  or  "  circumcisivum,"  a  wine  of  very  inferior 
quality. 

:'  He  alludes  to  the  young  shoots,  which  have  an  agreeable  acidity, 
owing  to  acetic  and  tartaric  acids. 

10  Acetic  acid ;  the  result,  no  doubt,  of  the  faulty  mode  of  manufacture 
universally  prevalent ;  their  wines  contained  evidently  but  little  alcohol. 


264  pliny's  natural  histoby.  [Book  XIV. 

used  in  preparing  wines  ;  indeed,  several  of  trie  Greeks  have 
written  separate  treatises  on  this  subject,  and  have  made  a 
complete  art  of  it,  such,  for  instance,  as  Euphronius,  Aristo- 
machus,  Commiades,  and  Hieesius.  The  people  of  Africa  are 
in  the  habit  of  neutralizing  such  acidity  u  as  may  be  found 
with  gypsum,  and  in  some  parts  with  lime.  The  people  of 
Greece,  on  the  other  hand,  impart  briskness  to  their  wines 
when  too  flat,  with  potters'  earth,  pounded  marble,  salt,  or 
sea- water  ;  while  in  Italy,  again,  brown  pitch  is  used  for  that 
purpose  in  some  parts,  and  it  is  the  universal  practice  both 
there  as  well  as  in  the  adjoining  provinces  to  season  their  new 
wines  with  resin  :  sometimes,  too,  they  season  them  with  old 
wine-lees  or  vinegar.12  They  make  various  medicaments,  also, 
for  this  purpose  with  the  must  itself.  They  boil  it  down  till 
it  becomes  quite  sweet,  and  has  lost  a  considerable  portion  of 
its  strength  ;  though  thus  prepared,  they  say  it  will  never  last 
beyond  a  single  year.  In  some  places  they  boil  down  the 
must  till  it  becomes  sapa,13  and  then  mix  it  with  their  wines 
for  the  purpose  of  modifying  their  harshness.  Both  for 
these  kinds  of  wines,  as,  indeed,  all  others,  they  always  employ 
vessels  which  have  themselves  received  an  inner  coat  of  pitch ; 
the  method  of  preparing  them  will  be  set  forth  in  a  succeeding 
Book.14 

CHAP.  25.    (20.) PITCH   AND    EESIN. 

Of  the  trees  from  which  pitch  and  resin  distil,  there  are 
some  which  grow  in  the  East,  and  others  in  Europe :  the  pro- 
vince of  Asia,15  which  lies  between  the  two,  has  also  some  of 
both  kinds.  In  the  East,  the  very  best  commodity  of  this 
kind,  and  of  the  finest  quality,  is  that  produced  by  the  tere- 
binth,16 and,  next  to  it,  that  from  the  lentisk,17  which  is  also 
known  as  the  mastich.  The  next  in  quality  to  these  is  the  juice 
of  the  cypress,18  being  of  a  more  acrid  flavour  than  any  other. 

11  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  24,  and  B.  xxxvi.  c.  48. 

12  A  process  very  likely,  as  Fe'e  remarks,  to  turn  the  wines  speedily  to 
vinegar. 

13  Down  to  one-third.  This  practice  of  using  boiled  grape-juice  as  a 
seasoning,  is  still  followed  in  Spain  in  making  some  of  the  liqueurs;  but  it 
is  not  generally  recommended. 

14  B.  xvi.  c.  21.  15  Asia  Minor,  namely. 
16  B.  xiii.  c.  12.  "  B.  xii.  c.  37. 

18  It  produces  but  a  very  minute  quantity  of  resin,  which  is  no  longer 
an  article  of  commerce. 


Chap.  25.]  PITCH  AX3   EESIN.  265 

All  the  above  juices  are  liquid  and  of  a  resinous  nature  only, 
but  that  of  the  cedar  19  is  comparatively  thick,  and  of  a  proper 
consistency  for  making  pitch.  The  Arabian  resin »  is  of  a 
pale  colour,  has  an  acrid  smell,  and  its  fumes  are  stifling  to 
those  employed  in  boiling  it.  That  of  Judaea  is  of  a  harder 
nature,  and  has  a  stronger  smell  than  that  from  the  terebinth-1 
even.  The  Syrian22  resin  has  all  the  appearance  of  Attic 
honey,  but  that  of  Cyprus  is  superior  to  any  other ;  it  is  the^ 
colour  of  honey,  and  is  of  a  soft,  fleshy  nature.  The  resin  of 
Colophon23  is  yellower  than  the  other  varieties,  but  when 
pounded  it  turns  white;  it  has  a  stifling  smell,  for  which 
reason  the  perfumers  do  not  employ  it.  That  prepared  in 
Asia  from  the  produce  of  the  pitch-tree  is  very  white,  and  is 
known  by  the  name  of  "  spagas." 

All  the  resins  are  soluble  in  oil  ;25  some  persons  are  of  opi- 
nion also  that  potters'  chalk  may  be  so  dissolved  :26  I  feel 
ashamed 27  to  avow  that  the  principal  esteem  in  which  the 
resins  are  held  among  us  is  as  depilatories  for  taking  the  hair 
off  men's  bodies. 

The  method  used  for  seasoning  wines  is  to  sprinkle  pitch 
in  the  must  during  the  first  fermentation,  which  never  lasts 
beyond  nine  days  at  the  most,  so  that  a  bouquet  is  imparted 
to  the  wine,28  with,  in  some  degree,  its  own  peculiar  piquancy 
of  flavour.  It  is  generally  considered,  that  this  is  done  most 
effectually  by  the  use  of  raw  flower 29  of  resin,  which  imparts 
a  considerable  degree  of  briskness  to  wine  :  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  thought  that  crapula 30  itself,  if  mixed,  tends 

19  See  B.  xiii.  c.'ll,  and  B.  xvi.  c.  21.  Not  the  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
probably,  which  only  gives  a  very  small  quantity  of  resin,  but  one  of  the 
junipers. 

20  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  have  been  the  resin  of  the  Arabian  tere- 
binth. 

21  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  22. 

22  Perhaps  from  the  Pistacia  terebinthus  of  Linnaeus. 

23  This  was  made  from  the  terebinth  :  but  the  modern  resin  of  Colophon 
is  extracted  from  varieties  of  the  coniferae. 

25  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  22. 

26  Earths  are  not  soluble  in  oils. 

27  As  being  a  mark  of  extreme  effeminacy. 

2S  The  greater  the  quantity  of  alcohol,  the  more  resin  the  wine  would 
be  able  to  hold  in  solution. 

»  See  B.  xvi.  c.  22. 

30  "  Crapula"  properly  means  head-ache,  and  what  is  not  uncommonly 
known  as  "  seedness."     Besined  wine  was  thought  to  be  productive  of 


266  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

to  mitigate  the  harshness  of  the  wine  and  subdue  its  asperity, 
and  when  the  wine  is  thin  and  fiat,  to  give  it  additional 
strength  and  body.  It  is  in  Liguria  more  particularly,  and 
the  districts  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Padus,  that  the  utility  is 
recognized  of  mixing  crapula  with  the  must,  in  doing  which 
the  following  rule  is  adopted :  with  wines  of  a  strong  and 
generous  nature  they  mix  a  larger  quantity,  while  with  those 
that  are  poor  and  thin  they  use  it  more  sparingly.  There  are 
some  who  would  have  the  wine  seasoned  with  both  crapula 
and  flower  of  resin  at  the  same  time.31  Pitch  too,  when  used 
for  this  purpose,  has  much  the  same  properties  as  must  when 
so  employed. 

In  some  places,  the  must  is  subject  to  a  spontaneous  fermen- 
tation a  second  time  :  when  this  unfortunately  happens  it  loses 
all  its  flavour,  and  then  receives  the  name  of  "  vappa,"32  a  word 
which  is  applied  as  an  opprobrious  appellation  even  to  worth- 
less men  of  degenerate  spirit :  in  vinegar,  on  the  other  hand, 
notwithstanding  its  tart  and  acrid  taste,  there  are  very  con- 
siderable virtues,  and  without  it  we  should  miss  many  of  the 
comforts 33  of  civilized  life. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  already  stated,  the  treatment 
and  preparation  of  wines  are  the  object  of  such  remarkable  at- 
tention, that  we  find  some  persons  employing  ashes,  and  others 
gypsum  and  other  substances  of  which  we  have  already34 
spoken,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  its  condition  :  the  ashes,35 
however,  of  the  shoots  of  vines  or  of  the  wood  of  the  quercus,  are 
in  general  preferred  for  this  purpose.    It  is  recommended  also, 

these  effects,  and  hence  obtained  the  name.  This  kind  of  wine  was  used 
itself,  as  we  see  above,  in  seasoning  the  other  kinds.  Fee  remarks,  that 
in  reality  resins  have  no  such  effect  as  imparting  body  to  weak  wines. 

31  The  whole  of  this  passage  is  hopelessly  corrupt,  and  we  can  only 
guess  at  the  meaning. 

32  We  have  already  stated  that  "  vappa  "  is  properly  vinegar,  which 
has  been  exposed  to  the  air  and  has  lost  its  flavour.  In  this  fresh  che- 
mical change,  which  he  calls  a  second  fermentation,  the  wine  becomes 
vinegar ;  and  probably  in  the  cases  he  mentions,  for  some  peculiar  reason, 
its  speedy  transition  to  "  vappa  "  could  not  be  arrested. 

33  Mixed  with  water,  it  was  the  "  posca,"  or  common  drink  of  the  Roman 
soldiers  ;  and  it  was  used  extensively  both  by  Greeks  and  Romans  in  their 
cooking,  and  at  meals. 

34  In  c.  24. 

35  By  the  mixture  of  ashes,  Fee  says,  the  wines  would  lose  their  colour, 
and  have  a  detestable  alkaline  flavour. 


Chap.  25.] 


PITCH   AND   EESIN.  267 


to  take  sea-water  far  out  at  sea,  and  to  keep  it  in  reserve,86 
to  be  employed  for  this  purpose  :  at  all  events,  it  ought  to  be 
taken  up  in  the  night  and  during  the  summer  solstice,  while 
the  north-east  wind  is  blowing  ;  but  if  taken  at  the  time  of 
the  vintage,  it  should  be  boiled  before  being  used. 

The  pitch  most  highly  esteemed  in  Italy  for  preparing 
vessels  for  storing  wine,  is  that  which  comes  from  Eruttium. 
It  is  made  from  the  resin  that  distils  from  the  pitch-tree ;  that 
which  is  used  in  Spain  is  held  in  but  little  esteem,  being  the 
produce  of  the  wild  pine  ;  it  is  bitter,  dry,  and  of  a  disagree- 
able smell.  While  speaking  of  the  wild  trees  in  a  succeeding 
Book,37  we  shall  make  mention  of  the  different  varieties  of  pitch, 
and  the  methods  used  in  preparing  it.  The  defects  in  resin, 
besides  those  which38  we  have  already  mentioned,  area  certain 
degree  of  acridity,  or  a  peculiar  smoky  flavour,  while  the  great 
fault  in  pitch  is  the  being  over-burnt.  The  ordinary  test 
of  its  goodness  is  a  certain  luminous  appearance  when  broken 
to  pieces ;  it  ought  to  stick,  too,  to  the  teeth,  with  a  pleasant, 
tart  flavour. 

In  Asia,  the  pitch  which  is  most  esteemed  is  that  of  Mount 
Ida,  in  Greece  of  Pieria;  but  Yirgil39  gives  the  preference  to 
the  Narycian40  pitch.  The  more  careful  makers  mix  with 
the  wine"  black  mastich,  which  comes  from  Pontus,41  and  resem- 
bles bitumen  in  appearance,  as  also  iris42-root  and  oil.  As  to 
coating  the  vessels  with  wax,  it  has  been  found  that  the  wine 
is  apt  to  turn  acid  :43  it  is  a  better  plan  to  put  wine  in  vessels 
that  have  held  vinegar,  than  in  those  which  have  previously 
contained  sweet  wine  or  mulsum.  Cato44  recommends  that 
wines  should  be  got  wp—concinnari  is  his  word— by  putting 
of  lie-ashes  boiled  down  with  defrutum,  one-fortieth  part  to  the 
culeus,  or  else  a  pound  and  a  half  of  salt,  with  pounded 
marble  as  well :  he  makes  mention  of  sulphur  also,  but  only  gives 
the  very  last  place  to  resin.  When  the  fermentation  of  the  wine 
is  coming  to  an  end,  he  recommends  the  addition  of  the  must 

36  A  perfect  absurdity,  Fee  remarks. 
3?  B.  xvi.  cc.  16—23. 

38  Bitterness,  driness,  and  a  disagreeable  smell. 

39  Georg.  ii.  498.  40  See  B.  iv.  c.  12. 
4i  See  ii.  xii.  c.  36. .                      43  See  B.  xxi.  e.  19. 

43  Bees'  wax,  Fee  remarks,  would  not  have  this  effect,  but  vinegar 
vessels  would. 

«  De  Be  Bust.  c.  23. 


268  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XIV. 

to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  "  tortivum,"  45  meaning  that 
which  is  pressed  out  the  very  last  of  all.  For  the  purpose  of 
colouring  wine  we  also  add  certain  substances  as  a  sort  of  pig- 
ment, and  these  have  a  tendency  to  give  it  a  body  as  well. 
Ey  such  poisonous  sophistications  is  this  beverage  compelled* 
to  suit  our  tastes,  and  then  we  are  surprised  that  it  is  inju- 
rious in  its  effects ! 

It  is  a  proof  that  wine  is  beginning  to  turn  bad,  if  a  plate  of 
lead,  on  being  put  in  it,  changes  its  colour.46 

CHAP.  26. VINEGAR LEES    OF    WINE. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  wine,  among  the  liquids,  to  become 
mouldy,  or  else  to  turn  to  vinegar.  There  are  whole  volumes 
which  treat  of  the  various  methods  of  preventing  this. 

The  lees  of  wine  when  dried  will  take  fire  and  burn  without 
the  addition  of  fuel :  the  ashes  so  produced  have  very  much  the 
nature  of  nitre,47  and  similar  virtues  ;  the  more  so,  indeed,  the 
more  unctuous  they  are  to  the  touch. 

CHAP.  27.  (21.) — WINE- VESSELS — WLNE-CELLARS. 

The  various  methods  of  keeping  and  storing  wines  in  the 
cellar  are  very  different.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  Alps,  they  put 
their  wines  in  wooden  vessels  hooped  around  ;48  during  their 
cold  winters,  they  even  keep  lighted  fires,  to  protect  the  wines 
from  the  effects  of  the  cold.  It  is  a  singular  thing  to  men- 
tion, but  still  it  has  been  occasionally  seen,  that  these  vessels 
have  burst  asunder,  and  there  has  stood  the  wine  in  frozen 
masses  ;  a  miracle  almost,  as  it  is  not  ordinarily  the  nature  of 
wine  to  freeze,  cold  having  only  the  effect  of  benumbing  it. 
In  more  temperate  climates,  they  place  their  wines  in  dolia,49 
which  they  bury  in  the  earth,  either  covering  them  entirely  or 
in  part,  according  to  the  temperature.  Sometimes,  again,  they 
expose  their  wines  in  the  open  air,  while  at  others  they  are 
placed  beneath  sheds  for  protection  from  the  atmosphere. 

45  The  second  "  squeezings." 

46  If  the  wine  is  turning  to  vinegar,  suhacetate  of  lead  will  be  formed. 

47  They  are  tartrates,  and  have  no  affinity  at  all  with  nitre. 

48  Casks,  in  fact,  similar  to  those  used  in  France  at  the  present  day.    In 
Spain  they  use  earthen  jars  and  the  skins  of  animals. 

49  Oblong  earthen  vessels,  used  as  vats. 


Chap.  27.]  WINE-VESSELS.  269 

The  following  are  among  the  rules  given  for  the  proper 
management  of  wines : — One  side  of  the  wine-cellar,  or,  at 
all  events,  the  windows,  ought  to  face  the  north-east,  or  at  least 
due  east.  All  dunghills  and  roots  of  trees,  and  everything  of 
a  repulsive  smell,  ought  to  be  kept  at  as  great  a  distance  as 
possible,  wine  being  very  apt  to  contract  an  odour.  Fig-trees 
too,  either  wild  or  cultivated,  ought  not  to  be  planted  in  the 
vicinity.  Intervals  should  also  be  left  between  the  vessels, 
in  order  to  prevent  infection,  in  case  of  any  of  them  turning 
bad,  wine  being  remarkably  apt  to  become  tainted.  The 
shape,  too,  of  the  vessels  is  of  considerable  importance :  those 
that  are  broad  and  bellying 51  are  not  so  good.52  We  find  it  re- 
cpmm ended  too,  to  pitch  them  immediately  after  the  rising  of 
the  Dog-star,  and  then  to  wash  them  either  with  sea  or  salt 
water,  after  which  they  should  be  sprinkled  with  the  ashes  of 
tree-shoots  or  else  with  potters'  earth  ;  they  ought  then  to  be 
cleaned  out,  and  perfumed  with  myrrh,  a  thing  which  ought 
to  be  frequently  done  to  the  wine-cellars  as  well.  Weak, 
thin  wines  should  be  kept53  in  dolia  sunk  in  the  ground,  while 
those  in  which  the  stronger  ones  are  kept  should  be  more  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  The  vessels  ought  on  no  account  to  be  entirely 
filled,  room  being  left  for  seasoning,  by  mixing  either  raisin 
wine  or  else  defrutum  flavoured  with  saffron ;  old  pitch  and 
sapa  are  sometimes  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  lids,  too, 
of  the  dolia  ought  to  be  seasoned  in  a  similar  manner,  with 
the  addition  of  mastich  and  Bruttian  pitch. 

It  is  strongly  recommended  never  to  open  the  vessels,  ex- 
cept in  fine  weather ;  nor  yet  while  a  south  wind  is  blowing, 
or  at  a  full  moon. 

The  flower54  of  wine  when  white  is  looked  upon  as  a  good 
sign ;  but  when  it  is  red,  it  is  bad,  unless  that  should  happen 
to  be  the  colour  of  the  wine.  The  vessels,  too,  should  not  be 
hot  to  the  touch,  nor  should  the  covers  throw  out  a  sort  of 
sweat.  When  wine  very  soon  flowers  on  the  surface  and 
emits  an  odour,  it  is  a  sign  that  it  will  not  keep. 

As  to  defrutum  and  sapa,  it  is  recommended  to  commence 
boiling  them  when  there  is  no  moon  to  be  seen,  or,  in  other 

si  "Ventruosa."    He  means  "round.''        52  As  oblong  ones,  probably. 

53  While  fermenting,  and  before  racking  off. 

54  Flos  vini,  the  Mycoderma  vini  of  Desmazieres,  a  mould  or  pellicule 
which  forms  on  the  surface,  and  afterwards  falls  and  is  held  in  suspension. 


270  plint's  natural  histort.  [BookXIY. 

words,  at  the  conjunction  of  that  planet,  and  at  no  other  time. 
Leaden55  vessels  should  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  not  copper56 
ones,  and  walnuts  are  generally  thrown  into  them,  from  a 
notion  that  they  absorb57  the  smoke.  In  Campania  they  ex- 
pose the  very  finest  wines  in  casks  in  the  open  air,  it  being  the- 
opinion  that  it  tends  to  improve  the  wine  if  it  is  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  sun  and  moon,  the  rain  and  the  winds. 

CHAP.   28.   (22.) DRUNKENNESS. 

If  any  one  will  take  the  trouble  duly  to  consider  the  matter, 
he  will  find  that  upon  no  one  subject  is  the  industry  of  man 
kept  more  constantly  on  the  alert  than  upon  the  making  of  wine ; 
as  if  Nature  had  not  given  us  water  as  a  beverage,  the  one,  in 
fact,  of  which  all  other  animals  make  use.  We,  on  the  other 
hand,  even  go  so  far  as  to  make  our  very  beasts  of  burden 
drink58  wine  :  so  vast  are  our  efforts,  so  vast  our  labours,  and 
so  boundless  the  cost  which  we  thus  lavish  upon  a  liquid 
which  deprives  man  of  his  reason  and  drives  him  to  frenzy 
and  to  the  commission  of  a  thousand  crimes  !  So  great,  how- 
ever, are  its  attractions,  that  a  great  part  of  mankind  are  of 
opinion  that  there  is  nothing  else  in  life  worth  living  for. 
Nay,  what  is  even  more  than  this,  that  we  may  be  enabled  to 
swallow  all  the  more,  we  have  adopted  the  plan  of  diminishing 
its  strength  by  pressing  it  through69  filters  of  cloth,  and  have 
devised  numerous  inventions  whereby  to  create  an  artificial 
thirst.  To  promote  drinking,  we  find  that  even  poisonous 
mixtures  have  been  invented,  and  some  men  are  known  to 
take  a  dose  of  hemlock  before  they  begin  to  drink,  that  they 
may  have  the  fear  of  death  before  them  to  make  them  take 
their  wine:60  others,   again,  take  powdered  pumice61  for  the 

55  Vessels  of  lead  are  never  used  for  this  purpose  at  the  present  day ;  as 
that  metal  would  oxidize  too  rapidly,  and  liquids  would  have  great  diffi- 
culty in  coming  to  a  boil.     A  slow  fire  must  have  been  used  by  the  ancients. 

56  They  were  thought  to  give  a  bad  flavour  to  the  sapa  or  defrutum. 

57  A  mere  puerility,  as  Fee  remarks. 

53  He  does  not  state  the  reason,  nor  does  it  appear  to  be  known.  At 
the  present  day  warmed  wine  is  sometimes  given  to  a  jaded  horse,  to  put 
him  on  his  legs  again. 

59  Though  practised  by  those  who  wished  to  drink  largely,  this  was  con- 
sidered to  diminish  the  flavour  of  delicate  wines. 

eo  See  B.  xxii.  c.  23,  and  B.  xxv.  c.  95  ;  also  c.  7  of  the  present  Book. 
Wine  is  no  longer  considered  an  antidote  to  cicuta  or  hemlock. 

6i  See  B.  xxxvi.  c.  42. 


Chap.  28.]  DEUNKENKESS.  271 

same  purpose,   and  various  other  mixtures,   "which   I  should 
feel  quite  ashamed  any  further  to  enlarge  upon. 

We  see  the  more  prudent  among  those  who  are  given  to  this 
habit  have  themselves  parboiled  in  hot-baths,  from  whence  they 
are  carried  away  half  dead.  Others  there  are,  again,  who  can- 
not wait  till  they  have  got  to  the  banqueting  couch,62  no,  not 
so  much  as  till  they  have  got  their  shirt  on,63  but  all  naked 
and  panting  as  they  are,  the  instant  they  leave  the  bath  they 
seize  hold  of  large  vessels  filled  with  wine,  to  show  off,  as  it 
were,  their  mighty  powers,  and  so  gulp  down  the  whole  of  the 
contents  only  to  vomit  them  up  again  the  very  next  moment. 
This  they  will  repeat,  too,  a  second  and  even  a  third  time, 
just  as  though  they  had  only  been  begotten  for  the  purpose  of 
wasting  wine,  and  as  if  that  liquor  could  not  be  thrown  away 
without  having  first  passed  through  the  human  body.  It  is 
to  encourage  habits  such  as  these  that  we  have  introduced  the 
athletic  exercises64  of  other  countries,  such  as  rolling  in  the 
mud,  for  instance,  and  throwing  the  arms  back  to  show  off  a 
brawny  neck  and  chest.  Of  all  these  exercises,  thirst,  it  is 
said,  is  the  chief  and  primary  object. 

And  then,  too,  what  vessels  are  employed  for  holding  wine  ! 
carved  all  over  with  the  representations  of  adulterous  intrigues, 
as  if,  in  fact,  drunkenness  itself  was  not  sufficiently  capable  of 
teaching  us  lessons  of  lustfulness.  Thus  we  see  wines  quaffed 
out  of  impurities,  and  inebriety  invited  even  by  the  hope  of  a 
reward, — invited,  did  I  say  ? — -may  the  gods  forgive  me  for 
saying  so,  purchased  outright.  We  find  one  person  induced 
to  drink  upon  the  condition  that  he  shall  have  as  much  to  eat 
as  he  has  previously  drunk,  while  another  has  to  quaff  as 
many  cups  as  he  has  thrown  points  on  the  dice.  Then  it  is 
that  the  roving,  insatiate  eyes  are  setting  a  price  upon  the 
matron's  chastity ;  and  yet,  heavy  as  they  are  with  wine,  they 
do  not  fail  to  betray  their  designs  to  her  "husband.  Then 
it  is  that  all  the  secrets  of  the  mind  are  revealed  ;  one  man  is 
heard  to  disclose  the  provisions  of  his  will,  another  lets  fall 
some  expression  of  fatal  import,  and  so  fails  to  keep  to  himself 
words  which  will  be  sure  to  come  home  to  him  with  a  cut 

62  This  seems  to  be  the.  meaning  of  "  lectuni ;"  but  the  passage  is  ob- 
scure. 6i  Tunicam. 

61  He  satirizes,  probably,  some  kind  of  gymnastic  exercises  that  had 
been  introduced  to  promote  the  speedy  passage  of  the  wine  through  the  body. 


272  PLINY1 8   FATUEAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIV. 

throat.  And  how  many  a  man  has  met  his  death  in  this  fashion ! 
Indeed,  it  has  become  quite  a  common  proverb,  that  "  in  wine65 
there  is  truth." 

Should  he,  however,  fortunately  escape  all  these  dangers, 
the  drunkard  never  beholds  the  rising  sun,  by  which  his  life 
of  drinking  is  made  all  the  shorter.  From  wine,  too,  comes 
that  pallid  hue,56  those  drooping  eyelids,  those  sore  eyes,  those 
tremulous  hands,  unable  to  hold  with  steadiness  the  over- 
flowing vessel,  condign  punishment  in  the  shape  of  sleep  agi- 
tated by  Furies  during  the  restless  night,  and,  the  supreme 
reward  of  inebriety,  those  dreams  of  monstrous  lustfulness  and 
of  forbidden  delights.  Then  on  the  next  day  there  is  the  breath 
reeking  of  the  wine-cask,  and  a  nearly  total  obliviousness  of 
everything,  from  the  annihilation  of  the  powers  of  the  memory. 
And  this,  too,  is  what  they  call  "  seizing  the  moments  of  life!'r67 
whereas,  in  reality,  while  other  men  lose  the  day  that  has  gone 
before,  the  drinker  has  already  lost  the  one  that  is  to  come. 

They  first  began,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  Claudius,  some 
forty  years  ago,  to  drink  fasting,  and  to  take  whets  of  wine 
before  meals ;  an  outlandish68  fashion,  however,  and  only  pa- 
tronized by  physicians  who  wished  to  recommend  themselves 
by  the  introduction  of  some  novelty  or  other. 

It  is  in  the  exercise  of  their  drinking  powers  that  the  Par- 
thians  look  for  their  share  of  fame,  and  it  was  in  this  that 
Alcibiades  among  the  Greeks  earned  his  great  repute.  Among 
ourselves,  too,  Novellius  Torquatus  of  Mediolanum,  a  man 
who  held  all  the  honours  of  the  state  from  the  prefecture  to  the 
pro-consulate,  could  drink  off  three  congii69  at  a  single  draught, 
a  feat  from  which  he  obtained  the  surname  of  "Tricon- 
gius  :"  this  he  did  before  the  eyes  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius, 
and  to  his  extreme  surprise  and  astonishment,  a  man  who  in 
his  old  age  was  very  morose,70  and  indeed  very  cruel  in  gene- 
ral ;  though  in  his  younger  days  he  himself  had  been  too 
much  addicted  to  wine.  Indeed  it  was  owing  to  that  recom- 
mendation that  it  was  generally  thought  that  L.  Piso  was 

G5  it  jn  y[no  Veritas," 

00  Fee  remarks  that  this  is  one  proof  that  the  wine  of  the  ancients  was 
essentially  different  in  its  nature  from  ours.  In  our  day  wine  gives  any- 
thing but  a  "pallid"  hue. 

67  "  Rapere  vitam."  6S  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  23. 

69  Three  gallons  and  three  pints !  !  There  must  have  been  some  jugglery 
in  this  performance. 

70  Probably  towards  those  guilty  of  excesses  in  wine. 


Chap.  28.]  DETJNKEXNESS.  2?3 

selected  by  him  to  have  the  charge  and  custody71  of  the  City  of 
Home ;  he  having  kept  up  a  drinking-bout  at  the  residence  of 
Tiberius,  just  after  he  had  become  emperor,  two  days  and  two 
nights  without  intermission.  In  no  point,  too,  was  it  gene- 
rally said  that  Drusus  Caesar  took  after  his  father  Tiberius 
more  than  this.72  Torquatus  had  the  rather  uncommon  glory — 
for  this  science,  too,  is  regulated  by  peculiar  laws  of  its  own — 
of  never  being  known  to  stammer  in  his  speech,  or  to  relieve 
the  stomach  by  vomiting  or  urine,  while  engaged  in  drinking. 
He  was  always  on  duty  at  the  morning  guard,  was  able  to 
empty  the  largest  vessel  at  a  single  draught,  and  yet  to  take 
more  ordinary  cups  in  addition  than  any  one  else ;  he  was  al- 
ways to  be  implicitly  depended  upon,  too,  for  being  able  to  drink 
without  taking  breath  and  without  ever  spitting,  or  so  much 
as  leaving  enough  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup  to  make  a  plash 
upon  the  pavement  ;73  thus  showing  himself  an  exact  observer 
of  the  regulations  which  have  been  made  to  prevent  all  shirk- 
ing on  the  part  of  drinkers. 

Tergilla  reproaches  Cicero,  the  son  of  Marcus  Cicero,  with 
being  in  the  habit  of  taking  off  a  couple  of  congii  at  a  single 
draught,  and  with  having  thrown  a  cup,  when  in  a  state  of 
drunkenness,  at  M.  Agrippa  ;n  such,  in  fact,  being  the  ordinary 
results  of  intoxication.  But  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
Cicero  was  desirous  in  this  respect  to  eclipse  the  fame  of  M. 
Antonius,  the  murderer  of  his  father ;  a  man  who  had,  before 
the  time  of  the  younger  Cicero,  shown  himself  so  extremely 
anxious  to  maintain  the  superiority  in  this  kind  of  qualifica- 
tion, that  he  had  even  gone  so  far  as  to  publish  a  book  upon 
the  subject  of  his  own  drunkenness.75  Daring  in  this  work  to 
speak  in  his  own  defence,  he  has  proved  very  satisfactorily,  to 
my  thinking,  how  many  were  the  evils  he  had  inflicted  upon 
the  world  through  this  same  vice  of  drunkenness.  It  was  but 
a  short  time  before  the  battle  of  Actiuni  that  he  vomited  forth 

71  As'  Praefectus  Urbis.  72  Love  of  drinking. 

73  The  mode  of  testing  whether  any  "heeltaps"  were  left  or  not.  It 
was  this  custom,  probably,  that  gave  rise  to  the  favourite  game  of  the 
cottabus. 

74  Dr.  Middleton,  in  his  Life  of  Cicero,  in  his  unlimited  partiality  for  the 
family,  quotes  this  as  an  instance  of  courage  and  high  spirit. 

75  According  to  Paterculus,  he  was  fond  of  driving  about  in  a  chariot, 
crowned  with  ivy,  a  golden  goblet  in  his  hand,  and  dressed  like  Bacchus, 
by  which  title  he  ordered  himself  to  be  addressed. 

Vol.    III.  1' 


274  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XIY. 

this  book  of  his,  from  which  we  have  no  great  difficulty  in 
coming  to  the  conclusion,  that  drunk  as  he  already  was  with 
the  blood  of  his  fellow-citizens,  the  only  result  was  that  he 
thirsted  for  it  all  the  more.  Tor,  in  fact,  such  is  the  infallible 
characteristic  of  drunkenness,  the  more  a  person  is  in  the 
habit  of  drinking,  the  more  eager  he  is  for  drink  ;  and  the 
remark  of  the  Scythian  ambassador  is  as  true  as  it  is  well 
known— the  more  the  Parthians  drank,  the  thirstier  they  were 
for  it. 

CHAP.  29. LIQUORS  WITH  THE  STRENGTH  OE  WINE  MADE  FROM 

WATER  AND  CORN. 

The  people  of  the  Western  world  have  also  their  intoxi- 
cating drinks,  made  from  corn  steeped  in  water.76  These 
beverages  are  prepared  in  different  ways  throughout  Gaul 
and  the  provinces  'of  Spain;  under  different  names,  too, 
though  in  their  results  they  are  the  same.  The  Spanish 
provinces  have  even  taught  us  the  fact  that  these  liquors  are 
capable  of  beiug  kept  till  they  have  attained  a  considerable 
age.  EgjTpt,77  too,  has  invented  for  its  use  a  very  similar  beve- 
rage made  from  corn;  indeed,  in  no  part  of  the  world  is 
drunkenness  ever  at  a  loss.  And  then,  besides,  they  take  these 
drinks  unmixed,  and  do  not  dilute  them  with  water,  the  way 
that  wine  is  modified ;  and  yet,  by  Hercules  !  one  really  might 
have  supposed  that  there  the  earth  produced  nothing  but  corn 
for  the  peoj)le's  use.  Alas!  what  wondrous  skill,  and  yet 
how  misplaced !  means  have  absolutely  been  discovered  for 
getting  drunk  upon  water  even. 

There  are  two  liquids  that  are  peculiarly  grateful  to  the 
human  body,  wine  within  and  oil  without;  both  of  them 
the  produce  of  trees,  and  most  excellent  in  their  respective 
kinds.  Oil,  indeed,  we  may  pronounce  an  absolute  necessary, 
nor  has  mankind  been  slow  to  employ  all  the  arts  of  invention 
in  the  manufacture  of  it.  How  much  more  ingenious,  how- 
ever, man  has  shown  himself  in  devising  various  kinds  of 
drink  will  be  evident  from  the  fact,  that  there  are  no  less 

76  He  alludes  to  beer,  or  ratlier  sweet  wort,  for  hops  were  not  used  till 
the  latter  part,  probably,  of  the  middle  ages.  Lupines  were  sometimes  used 
for  flavouring  beer. 

77  Diodorus  Siculus  says  that  the  Egyptian  beer  was  nearly  equal  to 
wine  in  strength  and  flavour. 


STJMMAltr.  275 

than  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  different  kinds  of  it ;  in- 
deed, if  all  the  varieties  are  reckoned,  they  will  amount  to 
nearly  double  that  number.  The  various  kinds  of  oil  are 
much  less  numerous — we  shall  proceed  to  give  an  account  of 
them  in  the  following  Book. 

Summary. — Remarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
five  hundred  and  ten. 

Roman  authors  quoted. — Cornelius  Yalerianus,78  Virgil,79 
Celsus,80  Cato  the  Censor,81  Saserna,82  father  and  son,  Scrofa,83 
M.  Varro,84  D.  Silanus,85  Fabius  Pictor,86  Trogus,87  Hyginus,88 
Flaccus  Yerrius,89  Grsecinus,90  Julius  Atticus,91  Columella, 9- 
Massurius  Sabinus,93  Fenestella,94  Tergilla,95  Maccius  Plautus,96 
Flavius,97   Dossennus,98    Scaevola,"    JElius,1    Ateius    Capito,2 

78  See  end  of  B.  hi.  "  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

80  See  end  of  B.  vii.  8l  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

82  See  end  of  B.  x.  83  See  end  of  B.  xi. 

84  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

85  Decimus  Junius  Silanus.  He  was  commissioned  by  the  senate,  about 
B.C.  146,  to  translate  into  Latin  the  twenty-eight  books  of  Mago,  the 
Carthaginian,  on  Agriculture.  See  B.  xviii.  c.  5. 

86  See  end  of  B.  x.  87  See  end  of  B.  vii. 
88  See  end  of  B.  iii.  89  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

90  Julius  Grrecinus.  He  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  orators  of 
his  time.  Having  refused  to  accuse  M.  Julius  Silanus,  he  was  put  to  death 
a.d.  39.     He  wrote  a  work,  in  two  books,  on  the  culture  of  the  vine. 

91  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Celsus  and  Columella,  the  latter  of  whom 
states  that  he  wrote  a  work  on  a  peculiar  method  of  cultivating  the  vine. 
See  also  B.  xvii.  c.  18.  9~  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

93  See  end  of  B.  vii.  u  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

95  Nothing  is  known  of  him.  He  may  possibly  have  written  on  Hus- 
bandry, and  seems  to  have  spoken  in  dispraise  of  the  son  of  Cicero.  See 
c   28  of  the  present  Book. 

9fi  The  famous  Roman  Comic  poet,  bom  B.C.  184.  Twenty  of  his  come- 
dies are  still  in  existence. 

97  For  Alfius  Flavius,  see  end  of  B.  ix. ;  for  Cneius  Flavius,  see  end  of 
B.  xii. 

9s  Or  Dorsenus  Fabius,  an  ancient  Comic  dramatist,  censured  by  Horace 
for  the  buffoonery  of  his  characters,  and  the  carelessness  of  his  productions. 
In  the  loth  Chapter  of  this  Book,  Pliny  quotes  a  line  from  his  Acharistio. 

99  Q.  Mutius  Sctevola,  consul  B.C.  95,  and  assassinated  by  C.  Flavius 
Fimbria,  having  been  proscribed  by  the  Marian  faction.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  the  Roman  law,  and  Cicero  was  in  the  number  of  his  disciples. 

1  Sextus  iElius  Paetus  Catus.  a  celebrated  jurisconsult,  and  consul  n.u 
198.     He  wrote  a  work  ou  the  Twelve  Tables. 

2  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

T  2 


276  pltny's  NATUKAL  HISTOKY.  [Book  XIV. 

Cotta  Messalinus,     L.   Piso,4    Pompeius  Lenaeus,5  Pabianus,6 
Sextius  Niger,7  Vibius  Eufus.8 

Foreign  authors  quoted.— Hesiod,9  Theophrastus, 10  Aris- 
totle,11 Democritus,12  King  Hiero,13  King  Attaius  Philometor,14 
Archytas,15  Xenophon,16  Amphilochus17  of  Athens,  Anaxipolis18 
of  Thasos,  Apollodorus19  of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes20  of  Miletus, 
Antigonus21  of  Cymae,  Agathocles22  of  Chios,  Apollonius23  of 
Perganius,  Aristander4  of  Athens,  Botrys25  of  Athens,  Bacchius26 
of  Miletus,  Bion27  of  Soli,  Chorea28  of  Athens,  Chaeristus29  of 
Athens,  Diodorus30  of  Priene,  Dion31  of  Colophon,  Epigenes32 
of  Rhodes,  Euagon33  of  Thasos,  Euphronius34  of  Athens,  An- 
drotiori35  who  wrote  on  agriculture,  iEsehrion36  who  wrote  on 
agriculture,  Lysimachus37  who  wrote  on  agriculture,  Dio- 
nysius38  who  translated  Mago,  Diophanes39  who  made  an 
Epitome  of  the  work  of  Dionysius,  Asclepiades40  the  Physician, 
Onesicritus,41  King  Juba.42 

3  Son  of  Corvinus  Messala.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  bad  re- 
pute :  of  his  writings  nothing  seems  to  be  known. 

5  See  end  of  B.  ii.  » 

4  A  freedman  of  Pompey,  by  whose  command  he  translated  into  Latin 
the  work  of  Mithridates  on  Poisons.  After  Pompey's  death,  he  maintained 
himself  by  keeping  a  school  at  Rome. 

6  For  Fabianus  Papirius,  see  end  of  B.  ii.  Fabianus  Sabinus  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  same  person. 

7  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

8  He  is  mentioned  by  the  elder  Seneca,  but  nothing  whatever  is  known 
of  him. 

9  See  end  of  B.  vii.  10  See  end  of  B.  in. 

11  See  end  of  B.  ii.  12  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

13  See  end  of  B.  viii.  u  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

J5  See  end  of  B.  viii.  16  See  end  of  B.  iv. 

17  See  end  of  B.  viii.  18  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

19  See  end  of  B.  viii.  20  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

21  See  end  of  B.  viii.  22  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

23  See  end  of  B.  viii.  24  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

2s  See  end  of  B.  xiii.  26  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

27  See  end  of  B.  vi.  28  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
29  Supposed  to  have  been  a  writer  on  Agriculture,  but  nothing  farther  is 

known  of  him.  30  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

31  See  end  of  B.  viii.  32  See  end  of  B.  ii. 

33  See  end  of  B.  x.  -  34  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

55  See  end  of  B.  viii.  36  See  end  of  B.  vm. 

37  See  end  of  B.  viii.  38  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

39  See  end  of  B.  viii.  4ft  See  end  of  B  vii. 

41  See  end  of  B.  ii.  42  See  end  of  B.  v. 


277 


BOOK  XV. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  FRUIT-TREES. 

CHAF.  1  .  (1.) THE  OLIVE. HOW  LONG  IT  EXISTED  ONLY  IN  GREECE. 

AT  WHAT  PERIOD  IT  WAS   EIRST    INTRODUCED  INTO  ITALY,  SPAIN, 
AND  AFRICA. 

Theophrastf/s,1  one  of  the  most  famous  among  the  Greek 
writers,  who  flourished  about  the  year  440  of  the  City  of 
Rome  has  asserted  that  the  olive1*  does  not  grow  at  a  distance 
of  more  than  forty2  miles  from  the  sea.  Fenestella  tells  us 
that  in  the  year  of  Rome  173,  being  the  reign  of  Tarquinms 
Priscus,  it  did  not  exist  in  Italy,  Spain,  or  Africa;3  whereas 
at  the  present  day  it  has  crossed  the  Alps  even,  and  has  been 
introduced  into  the  two  provinces  of  Gaul  and  the  middle  of 
Spain.  In  the  year  of  Rome  505,  Appius  Claudius,  grandson 
of  Appius  Claudius  Ccecus,  and  L.  Junius  being  consuls,  twelve 
pounds  of  oil  sold  for  an  as  ;  and  at  a  later  period,  in  the  year 
680  M  Seius,  son  of  Lucius,  the  curule  sedile,  regulated  the 
price  of  olive  oil  at  Rome,  at  the  rate  of  ten  pounds  for  the  as, 
for  the  whole  year.  A  person  will  be  the  less  surprised  at 
this  when  he  learns  that  twenty-two  years  after,  in  the  third 
consulship  of  Cn.  Pompeius,  Italy  was  able  to  export  olive  oil 
to  the  provinces. 

Hesiod,4  who  looked  upon  an  acquaintance  with  agriculture 

i  Hist.  Plant,  iv.  c.  . 

i*  The  Olea  Europaea  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxi.  c.  di. 

2  This  has  not  been  observed  to  be  the  fact.  It  has  been  known  to 
srrow  in  ancient  Mesopotamia,  more  than  one  hundred  leagues  from  the  sea 

3  It  is  supposed  that  it  is  indigenous  to  Asia,  whence  it  was  introduced 
into  Africa  and  the  South  of  Europe.  There  is  little  doubt  that  long 
before  the  period  mentioned  by  Pliny,  it  was  grown  m  Africa  by  the  Car- 
thaginians,and  in  the  South  of  Gaul,  at  the  colony  of  Massilia. 

4°This  work  of  Hesiod  is  no  longer  in  existence  ;  but  the  assertion  is 
exaggerated,  even  if  he  alludes  to  the  growth  of  the  tree  from  seed.  *  ee 
remarks  that  a  man  who  "has  sown  the  olive  at  twenty,  may  gather  excel- 
lent fruit  before  he  arrives  at  old  age.  It  is  more  generally  propagated 
by  slips  or  sets.  If  the  trunk  is  destroyed  by  accident,  the  roots  will  throw 
out  fresh  suckers. 


273  PLINY' S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book    XV. 

as  conducive  in  the  very  highest  degree  to  the  comforts  of  life, 
has  declared  that  there  was  no  one  who  had  ever  gathered  fruit 
from  the  olive-tree  that  had  been  sown  by  his  own  hands,  so 
slow  was  it  in  reaching  maturity  in  those  times ;  whereas,  now 
at  the  present  day,  it  is  sown  in  nurseries  even,  and  if  trans- 
planted will  bear  fruit  the  following  year. 

CHAP.   2. THE  NATURE  OF  THE  OLIVE,  AND  OF  NEW  OLIVE  OIL. 

Fabianua  maintains  that  the  olive  will  grow5  neither  in 
very  cold  climates,  nor  yet  in  very  hot  ones.  Virgil6  has 
mentioned  three  varieties  of  the  olive,  the  orchites,7  the 
radius,8  and  the  posia ; 9  and  says  that  they  require  no  raking 
or  pruning,  nor,  in  fact,  any  attention  whatever.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  in  the  case  of  these  plants,  soil  and  climate  are  the 
things  of  primary  importance ;  but  still,  it  is  usual  to  prune 
them  at  the  same  time  as  the  vine,  and  they  are  improved  by 
lopping  between  them  every  here  and  there.  The  gathering  of 
the  olive  follows  that  of  the  grape,  and  there  is  even  a  greater 
degree  of  skill  required  in  preparing 10  oil  than  in  making 
wine ;  for  the  very  same  olives  will  frequently  give  quite 
different  results.  The  first  oil  of  all,  produced  from  the  raw  n 
olive  before  it  has  begun  to  ripen,  is  considered  preferable 
to  all  the  others  in  flavour  ;  in  this  kind,  too,  the  first 12  drop- 
pings of  the  press  are  the  most  esteemed,  diminishing  gradually 
in  goodness  and  value ;  and  this,  whether  the  wicker-work 13 
basket  is  used  in  making  it,  or  whether,  following  the  more 

5  This  is  the  case.  "We  may  remark  that  the  tree  will  grow  in  this 
country,  but  the  fruit  never  comes  to  maturity. 

6  Georg.  ii.  85,  also  ii.  420. 

'  Probably  the  Olea  maximo  fructu  of  Tournefort.  It  has  its  name 
from  the  Greek  opxiQ,  the  "testis,"  a  name  by  which  it  is  still  known  in 
some  parts  of  Provence. 

8  Or  "shuttle"    olive.     Probably  the  modern  pickoline,  or  long  olive. 

9  Probahly  the  Olca  media  rotunda  praecox  of  Tournefort.  It  is 
slightly  bitter. 

10  This  is  so  much  the  case,  that  though  the  olives  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal are  among  the  finest,  their  oils  are  of  the  very  worst  quality. 

11  It  does  not  appear  that  the  method  of  preparing  oil  by  the  use  of 
boiling  water  was  known  to  the  ancients.  Unripe  olives  produce  an  ex- 
cellent oil,  but  in  very  small  quantities.  Hence  they  are  rarely  used  for 
the  purpose. 

12  Called  "virgin,"  or  "native"  oil  in  France,  and  very  highly  esteemed. 

13  Sporta. 


Chap.  3.]  OLIVE   OIL.  279 

recent  plan,  the  pulp  is  put  in  a  stick  strainer,  with  narrow 
spikes  and  interstices.14  The  riper  the  beny,  the  more  unctu- 
ous the  juice,  and  the  less  agreeable  the  taste.15  To  obtain  a 
result  both  abundant  and  of  excellent  flavour,  the  best  time  to 
gather  it  is  when  the  berry  is  just  on  the  point  of  turning 
black.     In  this  state  it  is   called    "  druppa"  by  us,  by  the 

Greeks,  "drypetis." 

In  addition  to  these  distinctions,  it  is  of  importance  to 
observe  whether  the  berry  ripens  in  the  press  or  while  on  the 
branch ;  whether  the  tree  has  been  watered,  or  whether  the 
fruit  has  been  nurtured  solely  by  its  own  juices,  and  has 
imbibed  nothing  else  but  the  dews  of  heaven. 

CHAP.  3.  (2.) OLIVE  OIL  :    THE  COUNTRIES  IN  WHICH  IT  IS 

PRODUCED,  AND  ITS  VARIOUS  QUALITIES. 

It  is  not  with  olive  oil  as  it  is  with  wine,  for  by  age  it  ac- 
quires a  bad  flavour,16  and  at  the  end  of  a  year  it  is  already 
old.  This,  if  rightly  understood,  is  a  wise  provision  on  the 
part  of  Nature :  wine,  which  is  only  produced  for  the  drunkard, 
she  has  seen  no  necessity  for  us  to  use  when  new ;  indeed, 
by  the  fine  flavour  which  it  acquires  with  age,  she  rather 
invites  us  to  keep  it ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  she  has  not  willed 
that  we  should  be  thus  sparing  of  oil,  and  so  has  rendered  its 
use  common  and  universal  by  the  very  necessity  there  is  of  using 
it  while  fresh. 

In  the  production  of  this  blessing  as  well,17  Italy  holds  the 
highest  rank  among  all  countries,18  and  more  particularly  the 
territory  of  Yenafrum,19  that  part  of  it  in  especial  which 
produces  the  Licinian  oil ;  the  qualities  of  which  have  conferred 
upon  the  Licinian  olive  the  very  highest  renown.     It  is  our 

l*  "  Exilibus  regulis."  A  kind  of  wooden  strainer,  apparently  invented 
to  supersede  the  wicker,  or  basket  strainer. 

is  It  is  more  insipid  the  riper  the  fruit,  and  the  less  odorous. 

16  By  absorbing  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  It  may  be  preserved  two  or 
three  years  even,  in  vessels  hermetically  closed.  The  oil  of  trance  keeps 
better  than  any  other. 

"  As  well  as  the  grape.  .  _    .    . 

is  In  consequence  of  the  faulty  mode  of  manufacture,  the  oil  ot  Italy  is 
now  inferior  to  that  of  France.     The  oil  of  Aix  is  particularly  esteemed. 

is  In  Campania.  See  B.  xvii.  c.  3.  Horace  and  Martial  speak  m 
praise  of  the  Venafran  olive.  Hardouin  suggests  that  Licmius  Crussus 
may  have  introduced  the  Licinian  olive. 


280  flint's  natural  history.  [Book  XY. 

unguents  which  have  brought  this  oil  into  such  great  esteem, 
the  peculiar  odour  of  it  adapting  itself  so  well  to  the  full 
developement  of  their  qualities;  at  the  same  time  its  delicate  fla- 
vour equally  enlists  the  palate  in  its  behalf.  In  addition  to 
this,  birds  will  never  touch  the  berry  of  the  Licinian  olive. 

Next  to  Italy,  the  contest  is  maintained,  and  on  very  equal 
terms,  between  the  territories  of  Istria  and  of  Baetica.  The 
next  rank  for  excellence  is  claimed  by  the  other  provinces  of 
our  Empire,  with  the  exception  of  Africa,20  the  soil  of  which 
is  better  adapted  for  grain.  That  country  Nature  has  given 
exclusively  to  the  cereals ;  of  oil  and  wine  she  has  all  but 
deprived  it,  securing  it  a  sufficient  share  of  renown  by  its 
abundant  harvests.  As  to  the  remaining  particulars  connected 
with  the  olive,  they  are  replete  with  erroneous  notions,  and  I 
shall  have  occasion  to  show  that  there  is  no  part  of  our  agri- 
cultural economy  upon  which  people  have  been  more  gene- 
rally mistaken. 

(3.)  The  olive  is  composed  of  a  stone,  oil,  flesh,  and 
amurca  :21  the  last  being  a  bitter  liquid,  principally  composed 
of  water ;  hence  it  is  that  in  seasons  of  drought  it  is  less  plen- 
tiful, and  more  abundant  when  rains 22  have  prevailed.  The 
oil  is  a  juice  peculiar  to  the  olive,  a  fact  more  particularly 
stated  in  reference  to  its  unripe  state,  as  we  have  already 
mentioned  when  speaking  of  omphacium.23  This  oil  continues 
on  the  increase  up  to  the  rising  of  Arcturus,24  or  in  other 
words,  the  sixteenth  day  before  the  calends  of  October ; 25  after 
which  the  increase  is  in  the  stone  and  the  flesh.  When  drought 
has  been  followed  by  abundant  rains,  the  oil  is  spoilt,  and 
turns  to  amurca.  It  is  the  colour  of  this  amurca  that  makes 
the  olive  turn  black;  hence,  when  the  berry  is  just  beginning 
to  turn  that  colour,  there  is  but  little  amurca  in  it,  and  before 
that  period  none  at  all.  It  is  an  error  then,  on  the  part  of 
persons,  to  suppose  that  that  is  the  commencement  of  maturity, 

20  The  heat  of  Africa  is  unfavourable  to  the  olive. 

21  The  faeces,  marc,  or  lees.  This  is  a  crude  juice  contained  in  the 
cellular  tissue  of  the  fruit,  known  as  viridine  or  chlorophyUe. 

22  This  is  owing,  Fee  says,  to  a  sort  of  fermentation,  which  alters  the 
tissue  of  the  cells  containing  the  oil,  displaces  the  constituent  elements, 
and  forms  others,  such  as  mucus,  sugar,  acetic  acid,  ammoniac,  &c.  "When 
ripe,  the  olive  contains  four  oils ;  that  of  the  skin,  the  flesh,  the  stone, 
and  the  kernel. 

m  In  B.  xii.  c.  60.  24  See  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 

25  16th  of  September. 


Chap.  4.]  FIFTEEN    VARIETIES    OF    OLIYES.  281 

which  is  in  reality  only  the  near  approach  of  corruption.  A 
second  error,  too,  is  the  supposition  that  the  oil  increases  pro- 
portionably  to  the  flesh  of  the  berry,  it  being  the  fact  that  the 
oil  is  all  the  time  undergoing  a  change  into  flesh,  and  the  stone 
is  growing  larger  and  larger  within.  It  is  for  this  reason 
more  particularly,  that  care  is  taken  to  water  the  tree  at  this 
period  ;  the  real  result  of  all  this  care  and  attention,  as  well  as 
of  the  fall  of  copious  rains,  being,  that  the  oil  in  reality  is 
absorbed  as  the  berry  increases  in  size,  unless  fine  dry  weather 
should  happen  to  set  in,  which  naturally  tends  to  contract  the 
volume  of  the  fruit.  According  to  Theophrastus,26  heat  is  the 
sole  primary  cause  of  the  oleaginous  principle ;  for  which  reason 
it  is,  that  in  the  presses,27  and  in  the  cellars  even,  great  fires 
are  lighted  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  oil. 

A  third  error  arises  from  misplaced  economy :  to  spare  the 
expense  of  gathering,  people  are  in  the  habit  of  waiting  till  the 
berry  falls  from  the  tree.  Others,  again,  who  wish  to  follow  a 
middle  course  in  this  respect,  beat  the  fruit  off  with  poles,  and 
so  inflict  injury  on  the  tree  and  ensure  loss  in  the  succeeding 
year ;  indeed,  there  was  a  very  ancient  regulation  in  existence 
relative  to  the  gathering  of  the  olive — "  Neither  pull  nor 
beat  the  olive-tree.28"  Those  who  would  observe  a  still  greater 
degree  of  precaution,  strike  the  branches  lightly  with  a  reed  on 
one  side  of  them ;  but  even  then  the  tree  is  reduced  to  bearing 
fruit  but  once  in  two  years,29  in  consequence  of  the  injury  done 
to  the  buds.  Not  less  injurious,  however,  are  the  results  of 
waiting  till  the  berries  fall  from  the  tree  ;  for,  by  remaining  on 
it  beyond  the  proper  time,  they  deprive  the  crop  that  is  coming 
on  of  its  due  share  of  nutriment,  by  occupying  its  place :  a 
clear  proof  of  which  is,  that  if  they  are  not  gathered  before  the 
west  winds  prevail,  they  are  found  to  have  acquired  renewed 
strength,  and  are  all  the  later  before  they  fall. 

CHAP.  4. FIFTEEN  VARIETIES  OF  OLIVES. 

The  first  olive  that  is  gathered  after  the  autumn  is  that 

*s  De  Causis,  B.  i.  c.  23. 

27  This  cannot  possibly  increase  the  oil,  but  it  would  render  it  more 
fluid,  and  thereby  facilitate  its  escape  from  the  cells  of  the  berry. 

28  But  Cato,  Be  Bust.  c.  144,  adds  the  very  significant  words,  "  injussu 
domini  aut  eustodis."     "  Without  the  leave  of  the  owner  or  the  keeper." 

29  It  is  found  that  the  olive,  after  an  abundant  season,  will  not  bear  in 
the  following  year  ;  probably  the  result  of  exhaustion. 


282  PLI^y's   KATTJRAL   HISTOftY.  [Book  XV. 

known  as  the  "  posia,'"30  the  berry  of  which,  owing  to  a  vicious 
method  of  cultivation,  and  not  any  fault  on  the  part  of  Na- 
ture, has  the  most  flesh  upon  it.  Next  to  this  is  the  orchites, 
which  contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  oil,  and  then,  after 
that,  the  radius.  As  these  are  of  a  peculiarly  delicate  nature, 
the  heat  very  rapidly  takes  effect  upon  them,  and  the  amurca 
they  contain  causes  them  to  fall.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
gathering  of  the  tough,  hard-skinned  olive  is  put  off  so  late  as 
the  month  of  March,  it  being  well  able  to  resist  the  effects  of 
moisture,  and,  consequently,  very  small.  Those  varieties  known 
as  the  Licinian,  the  Cominian,  the  Contian,  and  the  Sergian, 
by  the  Sabines  called  the  "  royal"31  olive,  do  not  turn  black 
before  the  west  winds  prevail,  or,  in  other  words,  before  the 
sixth  day  before32  the  ides  of  February.  At  this  period  it  is 
generally  thought  that  they  begin  to  ripen,  and  as  a  most  ex- 
cellent oil  is  extracted  from  them,  experience  would  seem  to 
give  its  support  to  a  theory  which,  in  reality,  is  altogether 
wrong.  The  growers  say  that  in  the  same  degree  that  cold 
diminishes  the  oil,  the  ripeness  of  the  berry  augments  it; 
whereas,  in  reality,  the  goodness  of  the  oil  is  owing,  not  to 
the  period  at  which  the  olives  are  gathered,  but  to  the  natural 
properties  of  this  peculiar  variety,  in  which  the  oil  is  remark- 
ably slow  in  turning  to  amurca. 

A  similar  error,  too,  is  committed  by  those  who  keep  the 
olives,  when  gathered,  upon  a  layer  of  boards,  and  do  not 
press  the  fruit  till  it  has  thrown  out  a  sweat ;  it  being  the 
fact  that  every  hour  lost  tends  to  diminish  the  oil  and  increase 
the  amurca :  the  consequence  is,  that,  according  to  the  ordi- 
nary computation,  a  modius  of  olives  yields  no  more  than  six 
pounds  of  oil.  No  one,  however,  ever  takes  account  of  the 
quantity  of  amurca  to  ascertain,  in  reference  to  the  same 
kind  of  berry,  to  what  extent  it  increases  daily  in  amount. 
Then,  again,  it  is  a  very  general  error33  among  practical  per- 
sons to  suppose  that  the  oil  increases  proportionably  to  the 
increased  size  of  the  berry  ;  and  more  particularly  so  when  it 
is  so  clearly  proved  that  such  is  not  the  case,  with  reference  to 

30  More  commonly  spelt  "  pausia." 

31  "  Regia."     It  is  impossible  to  identify  these  varieties. 
82  8th  of  February. 

33  Tbis  assertion  of  Pliny  is  not  generally  true.  The  large  olives  of 
Spain  yield  oil  very  plentifully. 


Chap.  4.]  FIFTEEN   VARIETIES    OF    OLIVES.  283 

the  variety  known  as  the  royal  olive,  by  some  called  majorina, 
and  by  others  phaulia  ;34  this  berry  being  of  the  very  largest 
size,  and  yet  yielding  a  minimum  of  juice.  In  Egypt,35  too, 
the  berries,  which  are  remarkably  meaty,  are  found  to  produce 
but  very  little  oil ;  while  those  of  Decapolis,  in  Syria,  are  so 
extremely  small,  that  they  are  no  bigger  than  a  caper ;  and 
yet  they  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  flesh.36  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  olives  from  the  parts  beyond  sea  are  preferred 
for  table  to  those  of  Italy,  though,  at  the  same  time,  they  are 
very  inferior  to  them  for  making  oil. 

In  Italy,  those  of  Picenum  and  of  Sidicina37  are  considered 
the  best  for  table.  These  are  kept  apart  from  the  others  and 
steeped  in  salt,  after  which,  like  other  olives,  they  are  put  in 
amurca,  or  else  boiled  wine ;  indeed,  some  of  them  are  left  to 
float  solely  in  their  own  oil,38  without  any  adventitious  mode 
of  preparation,  and  are  then  known  as  colymbades  :  sometimes 
the  berry  is  crushed,  and  then  seasoned  with  green  herbs  to 
flavour  it.  Even  in  an  unripe  state  the  olive  is  rendered  fit 
for  eating  by  being  sprinkled  with  boiling  water  ;  it  is  quite 
surprising,  too,  how  readily  it  will  imbibe  sweet  juices,  and 
retain  an  adventitious  flavour  from  foreign  substances.  With 
this  fruit,  as  with  the  grape,  there  are  purple39  varieties,  and 
the  posia  is  of  a  complexion  approaching  to  black.  Besides 
those  already  mentioned,  there  are  the  superba40  and  a  remark- 
ably luscious  kind,  which  dries  of  itself,  and  is  even  sweeter 
than  the  raisin :  this  last  variety  is  extremely  rare,  and  is  to 

34  Probably  a  member  of  the  variety  known  to  naturalists  as  the  Olea 
fructu  majori,  carne  crassa,  of  Tournefort,  the  royal  olive  or  "  triparde  "  of 
the  French.  The  name  is  thought  to  be  from  the  Greek  cpdvXog,  the 
fruit  being  considered  valueless  from  its  paucity  of  oil. 

35  There  are  but  few  olive-trees  in  either  Egypt  or  Decapolis  at  the 
present  day,  and  no  attempts  are  made  to  extract  oil  from  them. 

36  "  Carnis."     He  gives  this  name  to  the  solid  part,  or  pericarp. 

37  See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 

38  These  methods  are  not  now  adopted  for  preserving  the  olive.  The 
fruit  are  first  washed  in  an  alkaline  solution,  and  then  placed  in  salt  and 
water.  The  colymbas  was  so  called  from  Ko\vfif3d<D}  "to  swim,"  in  its 
own  oil,  namely.  ^  Dioscorides  descants  on  the  medicinal  properties  of  the 
colymbades.     ±5.  i.  c.  140. 

39  There  are  several  varieties  known  of  this  colour,  and  more  particularly 
the  fruit  of  the  Olea  atro-rubens  of  Gouan. 

40  The  Spanish  olive,  Hardouin  says.  Fee  thinks  that  the  name  "  super- 
ba," "haughty,"  is  given  figuratively,  as  meaning  rough  and  austere. 


284  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

be  found  in  Africa  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Emerita41  in  Lusi- 
tania.  .  .  .         , 

The  oil  of  the  olive  is  prevented  from  getting42  thick  and 
rancid  by  the  admixture  of  salt.  By  making  an  incision  in 
the  bark  of  the  tree,  an  aromatic  odour  may  be  imparted  to 
the  oil.  Any  other  mode  of  seasoning,  such,  for  instance,  as 
those  used  with  reference  to  wine,  is  not  at  all  gratifying  to 
the  palate ;  nor  do  we  find  so  many  varieties  in  oil  as  there 
are  in  the  produce  of  the  grape,  there  being,  in  general,  but 
three  different  degrees  of  goodness.  In  fine  oil  the  odour  is 
more  penetrating,  but  even  in  the  very  best  it  is  but  short- 
lived. 

CHAP.  5.  (4.) — THE  NATURE  OF  OLIVE  OIL. 

It  is  one  of  the  properties  of  oil  to  impart  warmth  to  the 
body,  and  to  protect  it  against  the  action  of  cold ;  while  at 
the  same  time  it  promotes  coolness  in  the  head  when  heated. 
The  Greeks,  those  parents  of  all  vices,  have  abused  it  by  mak- 
ing it  minister  to  luxury,  and  employing  it  commonly  in  the 
gymnasium  :  indeed,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  gover- 
nors of  those  establishments  have  sold  the  scrapings44  of  the 
oil  used  there  for  a  sum  of  eighty  thousand  sesterces.  The 
majesty  of  the  Eoman  sway  has  conferred  high  honour  upon 
the  olive  :  crowned  with  it,  the  troops  of  the  Equestrian  order 
are  wont  to  defile  upon  the  ides  of  July  ;45  it  is  used,  too,  by 
the  victor  in  the  minor  triumphs  of  the  ovation.46     At  Athens, 

41  The  olives  of  the  present  Merida,  in  Spain,  are  of  a  rough,  disagree- 
able flavour.  .       ....  ^, ,      v 

42  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "pmguis;  but,  as  lee  observes, 
salt  would  have  no  such  effect  as  here  stated,  but  would  impart  a  disagree- 
able  flavour  to  the  oil. 

43  Fee  regards  this  assertion  as  quite  fabulous. 

44  It  will  be  stated  in  B.  xxviii.  c.  13,  to  wbat  purposes  this  abominable 
collection  of  filth  was  applied.  ,«■«»'.*         *■  u 

«  15th  of  July.  He  alludes  to  tbe  inspection  of  the  Eqmtes,  which 
originally  belonged  to  the  Censors,  but  afterwards  to  the  Emperors.  On 
this  occasion  there  was  "  recognitio,"  or  "review,"  and  then  a  "trans- 
vectio,"  or  "  procession  "  of  the  horsemen. 

46  The  ovation  was  a  lesser  triumph,  at  which  the  general  entered  the 
city  not  in  a  chariot,  but  on  foot.  In  later  times,  however,  the  victor  en- 
tered on  horseback  :  and  a  wreath  of  myrtle,  sometimes  laurel,  was  worn 
by  him.  For  further  particulars  as  to  the  ovation,  see  c.  38  of  the  present 
Book. 


Chap.  6.]  CULTURE    OF    THE    OLITE.  285 

also,  they  are  in  the  habit  of  crowning  the  conqueror  with 
olive  ;  and  at  Olympia,  the  Greeks  employ  the  wild  olive47  for 
a  similar  purpose. 

CHAP.  6.   (5.)— THE   CULTURE  OP  THE  OLIVE  :    ITS  MODE  OF  PRE- 
SERVATION.      THE  METHOD  OF  MAKING  OLIVE  OIL. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  mention  the  precepts  given  by  Cato48 
in  relation  to  this  subject.  Upon  a  warm,  rich49  soil,  he 
recommends  us  to  sow  the  greater  radius,  the  Salentina,  the 
orchites,  the  posia,  the  Sergian,  the  Cominian,  and  the  albi- 
cera;50  but  with  a  remarkable  degree  of  prudence  he  adds, 
that 'those  varieties  ought  to  be  planted  in  preference  which 
are  considered  to  thrive  best  in  the  neighbouring  localities.  In 
a  cold51  and  meagre  soil  he  says  that  the  Licinian  olive  should 
be  planted ;  and  he  informs  us  that  a  rich  or  hot  soil  has  the 
effect,  in  this  last  variety,  of  spoiling  the  oil,  while  the  tree 
becomes  exhausted  by  its  own  fertility,  and  is  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  a  sort  of  red  moss.52  He  states  it  as  his  opinion 
that  the  olive  grounds  ought  to  have  a  western  aspect,  and, 
indeed,  he  approves  of  no  other. 

(6.)  According  to  him,  the  best  method  of  preserving  olives 
is  to  put  the  orchites  and  the  posia,  while  green,  in  a  strong 
brine,  or  else  to  bruise  them  first,  and  preserve  them  in  mastich 
oil.53  The  more  bitter  the  olive,  he  says,  the  better  the  oil ; 
but  they  should  be  gathered  from  the  ground  the  very  moment 
they  fall,  and  washed  if  they  are  dirty.  He  says  that  three 
days  will  be  quite  sufficient  for  drying  them,  and  that  if  it 
is  frosty  weather,  they  should  be  pressed  on  the  fourth,  care 
being  taken  to  sprinkle  them  with  salt.  Olives,  he  informs 
us,54  lose  oil  by  being  kept  in  a  boarded  store-room,  and  dete- 
riorate in  quality ;  the  same  being  the  case,  too,   if  the  oil  is 

47  Or  "  oleaster."  48  ^e  R6  Rust.  c.  6. 

49  A  middling  or  even  poor  soil  is  chosen  for  the  olive  at  the  present  day. 

50  Apparently  meaning  the  "  white  wax"  olive. 

51  In  warm  countries,  a  site  exposed  to  the  north  is  chosen :  in  colder 
ones,  a  site  which  faces  the  south. 

52  See  B.  xvii.  c.  37.  This  moss  has  not  heen  identified  with  precision ; 
but  the  leaf  of  the  olive  is  often  attacked  by  an  erysiphus,  known  to  natu- 
ralists as  the  Alphitomorpha  communis  ;  but  it  is  white,  not  of  a  red  colour. 

53  Fee  queries  how  any  one  could  possibly  eat  olives  that  had  been 
steeped  in  a  solution  of  mastich.  They  must  have  been  nauseous  m  the 
extreme.  54  *>e  Re  Rust.  c.  64. 


286  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

left  with  the  am  urea  and  the  pulp,55  or,  in  other  words,  the  flesh 
of  the  olive  that  forms  the  residue  and  becomes  the  dregs. 
For  this  reason,  he  recommends  that  the  oil  should  be  poured 
off  several  times  in  the  day,  and  then  put  into  vessels  or  caul- 
drons S6  of  lead,  for  copper  vessels  will  spoil  it,  he  says.  All 
these  operations,  however,  should  be  carried  on  with  presses 
heated  and  tightly  closed,57  and  exposed  to  the  air  as  little  as 
possible — for  which  reason  he  recommends  that  wood  should 
never  be  cut  there,  the  most  convenient  fuel  for  the  fires  being 
the  stones  of  the  berries.  From  the  cauldron  the  oil  should 
be  poured  into  vats,5b  in  order  that  the  pulp  and  the  amurca 
may  be  disengaged  in  a  solidified  form  :  to  effect  which  object 
the  vessels  should  be  changed  as  often  as  convenient,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  osier  baskets  should  be  carefully  cleaned  with 
a  sponge,  that  the  oil  may  run  out  in  as  clean  and  pure  a  state 
as  possible. 

In  later  times,  the  plan  has  been  adopted  of  invariably 
crushing  the  olives  in  boiling  water,  and  at  once  putting  thern 
whole  in  the  press — a  method  of  effectually  extracting  the 
amurca — and  then,  after  crushing  them  in  the  oil-press,  sub- 
jecting them  to  pressure  once  more.  It  is  recommended,  that 
not  more  than  one  hundred  modii  should  be  pressed  at  one 
time  :  the  name  given  to  this  quantity  is  "  factus,"59  while  the 
oil  that  flows  out  at  the  first  pressure  is  called  the  "  flos."60 
Four  men,  working  at  two  presses  day  and  night,  ought  to 
be  able  to  press  out  three  factuses  of  olives. 

CHAP.   7.  (7.) — FORTY -EIGHT  VARIETIES  OF  ARTIFICIAL  OILS.     THE 
CiCUS-TREE  OR  CROTON,    OK  SILI,   OR  SESAMUM. 

In  those  times  artificial  oils  had  not  been  introduced,  ancl 

55  "  Fracibus."  The  opinion  of  Pliny,  that  olives  deteriorate  by  being  left 
in  the  store-room,  is  considered  to  be  well  founded ;  the  olives  being  apt 
to  ferment,  to  the  deterioration  of  the  oil :  at  the  same  time,  he  is  wrong 
in  supposing  that  the  amount  of  oil  diminishes  by  keeping  the  berries. 

»6  "  Cortinas."  If  we  may  j  udge  from  the  name,  these  vessels  were  three- 
footed,  like  a  tripod. 

51  There  are  no  good  grounds  for  this  recommendation,  which  is  based 
on  the  erroneous  supposition  that  heat  increases  the  oil  in  the  berry.  The 
free  circulation  of  the  air  also  ought  not  to  be  restricted,  as _  nothing  is 
gained  by  it.  In  general,  the  method  of  extracting  the  oil  is  the  same 
with  the  moderns  as  with  the  ancients,  though  these  last  did  not  employ 
the  aid  of  boiling  water.  51  Liibra. 

^  A  "  making,"  or  "  batch."  cu  Or  "  flower." 


Chap.  7.]  ARTIFICIAL    OILS.  287 

hence  it  is,  I  suppose,  that  we  find  no  mention  made  of  them 
by  Cato  ;  at  the  present  day  the  varieties  are  very  numerous. 
We  will  first  speak  of  those 61  which  are  produced  from  trees, 
and  among  them  more  particularly  the  wild  olive.62  This 
olive  is  small,  and  much  more  bitter  than  the  cultivated  one, 
and  hence  its  oil  is  only  used  in  medicinal  preparations  :  the 
oil  that  bears  the  closest  resemblance  to  it  is  that  extracted 
from  the  chamelsea,63  a  shrub  which  grows  among  the  rocks, 
and  not  more  than  a  palm  in  height ;  the  leaves  and  berries 
being  similar  to  those  of  the  wild  olive.  A  third  oil  is  that 
made  of  the  fruit  of  the  cicus,64  a  tree  which  grows  in  Egypt 
in  great  abundance  ;  by  some  it  is  known  as  croton,  by  others 
as  sili,  and  by  others,  again,  as  wild  sesamum  :  it  is  not  so  very 
long  since  this  tree  was  first  introduced  here.  In  Spain,  too, 
it  shoots  up  with  great  rapidity  to  the  size  of  the  olive-tree, 
having  a  stem  like  that  of  the  ferula,  the  leaf  of  the  vine, 
and  a  seed  that  bears  a  resemblance  to  a  small  pale  grape. 
Our  people  are. in  the  habit  of  calling  it  "  ricinus,"65  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  seed  to  that  insect.  It  is  boiled  in  water,66 
and  the  oil  that  swims  on  the  surface  is  then  skimmed  off: 
but  in  Egypt,  where  it  grows  in  a  greater  abundance,  the  oil  is 
extracted  without  employing  either  fire  or  water  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  seed  being  first  sprinkled  with  salt,  and  then  sub- 
jected to  pressure  :  eaten  with  food  this  oil  is  repulsive,  but  it 
is  very  useful  for  burning  in  lamps. 

Amygdalinum,  by  some  persons  known  as  "  metopium,"67 

61  It  may  be  remarked,  that  in  this  Chapter  Pliny  totally  confounds 
fixed  oils,  volatile  oils,  and  medicinal  oils.  Those  in  the  list  which  he  here 
gives,  and  which  are  not  otherwise  noticed  in  the  Notes,  may  he  considered 
to  belong  to  this  last  class. 

62  The  oleaster  furnishes  but  little  oil,  and  it  is  seldom  extracted.  The 
oil  is  thinner  than  ordinary  olive  oil,  and  has  a  stronger  odour. 

63  The  Daphne  Cnoorum  and  Daphne  Cnidium  of  botanists.  See  B. 
xiii.  c.  3%  also  B.  xxiv.  c.  82.  Fee  doubts  if  an  oil  was  ever  made  from 
the  chamclaea. 

64  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  41  :  the  Ricinus  communis  of  Linnaeus,  which 
abounds  in  Egypt  at  the  present  day.  Though  it  appears  to  have  been 
formerly  sometimes  used  for  the  table,  at  the  present  day  the  oil  is  only 
known  as  "  castor  "  oil.  a  strong  purgative.  It  is  one  of  the  fixed  oils.  The 
Jews  and  Abyssinian  Christians  say  that  it  was  under  this  tree  that  Jonah 
sat.  es  a  "  tick." 

63  This  method,  Fee  says,  is  still  pursued  in  America. 
67  See  B.  xiii.  c.  2.     One  of  the  fixed  oils. 


288  plint's  NATUEAL  HISTOEY.  [Book  XV' 

is  made  of  bitter  almonds  dried  and  beaten  into  a  cake,  after 
which  they  are  steeped  in  water,  and  then  beaten  again.  An 
oil  is  extracted  from  the  laurel  also,  with  the  aid  of  olive  oil. 
Some  persons  use  the  berries  only  for  this  purpose,  while 
others,  again,  employ  the  leaves  ^  and  the  outer  skin  of  the 
berries:  some  add  storax  also,  and  other  odoriferous  sub- 
stances. The  best  kind  for  this  purpose  is  the  broad-leaved  or 
wild  laurel,69  with  a  black  berry.  The  oil,  too,  of  the  black 
myrtle  is  of  a  similar  nature ;  that  with  the  broad  leaf70  is 
reckoned  also  the  best.  The  berries  are  first  sprinkled  with 
warm  water,  and  then  beaten,  after  which  they  are  boiled  : 
some  persons  take  the  more  tender  leaves,  and  boil  them  in 
olive  oil,  and  then  subject  them  to  pressure,  while  others,  again, 
steep  them  in  oil,  and  leave  the  mixture  to  ripen  in  the  sun. 
The  same  method  is  also  adopted  with  the  cultivated  myrtle, 
but  the  wild  variety  with  small  berries  is  generally  preferred  ; 
by  some  it  is  known  as  the  oxymyrsine,  by  others  as  the  cha- 
msemyrsine,  and  by  others,  again,  as  the  acoron,71  from  its 
strong  resemblance  to  that  plant,  it  being  short  and  branching. 
An  oil  is  made,  too,  from  the  citrus,72  and  from  the  cypress  ; 
also,  from  the  walnut,73  and  known  by  the  name  of  "  caryi- 
non,"74  and  from  the  fruit  of  the  cedar,  being  generally 
known  as  "  pisseheon."75  Oil  is  extracted  from  the  grain  of 
Cnidos,76  the  seed  being  first  thoroughly  cleaned,    and  then 

68  An  essential  oil  may  be  extracted  from  either ;  it  is  of  acrid  taste, 
green,  and  aromatic  ;  but  does  not  seem  to  have  been  known  to  the  an- 
cients. The  berries  give  by  decoction  a  fixed  oil,  of  green  colour,  sweet, 
and  odoriferous.  The  oils  in  general  here  spoken  of  by  Pliny  as  extracted 
from  the  laurel,  are  medicinal  oils. 

69  The  Laurus  latifolia  of  Bauhin. 

70  The  Myrtus  latifolia  Romana  of  Bauhin.  It  yields  an  essential  oil, 
and  by  its  decoction  might  give  a  fixed  oil,  in  small  quantity,  but  very 
odoriferous.     As  boiled  with  olive  oil,  he  treats  it  as  a  volatile  oil. 

71  See  B.  xxv.  c.  100.     This  myrtle  is  the  Ruscus  aculeatus  of  Linnaeus. 

72  See  B.  xiii.  c.  29,  and  B  xxiii.  c.  45.  A  volatile  oil  might  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  citrus,  if  one  of  the  thuyae,  as  also  from  the  cypress. 

73  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  45.  It  is  a  fixed  oil,  still  considerably  used  in  some 
parts  of  Europe. 

74  From  the  Greek  icapva,  a  "  walnut." 

75  "  Pitch  oil."     See  B.  xxiv.  c.  11.     This  would  be  a  volatile  oil. 

76  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  45,  also  B.  xiii.  c.  35.  Fee  is  of  opinion,  that  as  no 
fixed  oil  can  be  extracted  from  the  Daphne  Cnidium  or  Daphne  Cneoruni, 
Pliny  must  allude  to  a  medicinal  composition,  like  the  oil  of  wild  myrtle, 
previously  mentioned. 


Chap.  7.] 


ARTIFICIAL   OILS.  289 


pounded;  and  from  mastich77  also.  As  to  the  oil  called 
"  cyprinum,"78  and  that  extracted  from  the  Egyptian79  berry, 
we  have  already  mentioned  the  mode  in  which  they  are  pre- 
pared as  perfumes.  The  Indians,  too,  are  said  to  extract  oils 
from  the  chesnut,80  sesanium,  and  rice,81  and  the  Ichthy- 
ophagi  S2  from  fish.  Scarcity  of  oil  for  the  supply  of  lamps 
sometimes  compels  us  to  make  it  from  the  berries 83  of  the  plane- 
tree,  which  are  first  steeped  in  salt  and  water. 

(Enanthinum,84  again,  is  made  from  the  oenanthe,  as  we  have 
already  stated  when  speaking  of  perfumes.  In  making  gleu- 
cinum,S5  must  is  boiled  with  olive-oil  at  a  slow  heat ;  some 
persons,  however,  do  not  employ  fire  in  making  it,  but  leave  a 
vessel,  filled  with  oil  and  must,  surrounded  with  grape  husks, 
for  two  and  twenty  days,  taking  care  to  stir  it  twice  a  day  : 
by  the  end  of  that  period  the  whole  of  the  must  is  imbibed 
by  the  oil.  Some  persons  mix  with  this  not  only  sampsu- 
chum,  but  perfumes  of  still  greater  price  :  that,  too,  which  is 
used  in  the  gymnasia  is  scented  with  perfumes  as  well,  but 
those  of  the  very  lowest  quality.  Oils  are  made,  too,  from  as- 
palathus,86  from  calamus,87  balsamum,88  cardamum,89  melilot, 
Gallic  nard,  panax,90  sampsuchum,91  helenium,  and  root  of 
cinnamomum,92  the  plants  being  first  left  to  steep  in  oil,  and 
then  pressed.  In  a  similar  manner,  too,  rhodinum 93  is  made 
from  roses,  and  juncinum  from  the  sweet  rush,  bearing  a  remark- 
able94 resemblance  to  rose-oil :  other  oils,  again,  are  extracted 

77  A  fixed  oil.  See  B.  xii.  c.  36.  The  seeds  were  used  for  making  it. 
See  B.  xxiii.  c.  45. 

™  See  B.  xii.  c.  51,  and  B.  xxiii.  c.  45.  The  leaves  of  the  Lawsoma 
are  very  odoriferous.  ... 

'9  The  myrobalanus,  or  ben.     See  B.  xii.  c.  46,  and  B.  xxm.  c.  4b. 

so  Neither  the  chesnut  nor  rice  produce  any  kind  of  fixed  oil. 

si  See  B.  xvii.  c.  13. 

82  Or  Fish-eaters.     See  B.  xxxii.  c.  38.     This  is  one  of  the  fixed  oils. 

w  In  reality,  no  fixed  oil  can  he  obtained  from  them. 

84  Or  wild  vine.     See  B.  xii.  c.  61,  and  B.  xiii.  c.  2. 

85  Not  an  oil,  so  much  as  a  medicinal  preparation.  Dioscondes  mentions 
as  component  parts  of  it,  omphacium,  sweet  rush,  Celtic  nard,?  aspalathus, 
costus,  and  must.     It  received  its  name  from  yXtvicog,  "must."  _ 

86  The  Convolvulus  scoparius  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xii.  c  52,  and  B.  xni. 
c   2  87  See  B.  xii.  c.  95. 

'  88  See  B.  xii.  c.  54,  and  B.  xiii.  c.  2.         89  See  B.  xii.  c.  29. 
so  See  B.  xii.  c.  57.  91  See  B.  xiii.  e.  2,  p.  163. 

92  See  B.  xii.  c.  41.  93  See  B.  xiu.  c.  2. 

a*  Fee  doubts  the  possibility  of  such  a  resemblance. 
VOL.    III.  V 


290  plint's  NATURAL  HISTOET.  [Book  XV. 

from  henbane,95  lupines,96  and  narcissus.  Great  quantities  of 
oil  are  made  in  Egypt,  too,  of  radish97  seed,  or  else  of  a 
common  grass  known  there  as  chortinon."  Sesamum  "  also 
yields  an  oil,  and  so  does  the  nettle,1  its  oil  being  known  as 
"  cnidinum."2  In  other  countries,  too,  an  oil  is  extracted 
from  lilies3  left  to  steep  in  the  open  air,  and  subjected  to  the 
influence  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  frosts.  On  the  borders  of 
Cappadocia  and  Galatia,  they  make  an  oil  from  the  herbs  of 
the  country,  known  as  "  Selgicum,"4  remarkably  useful  for 
strengthening  the  tendons,  similar,  in  fact,  to  that  of  Iguvium5 
in  Italy.  From  pitch  an  oil 6  is  extracted,  that  is  known  as 
"  pissinum  ;"  it  is  made  by  boiling  the  pitch,  and  spreading 
fleeces  over  the  vessels  to  catch  the  steam,  and  then  wring- 
ing them  out :  the  most  approved  kind  is  that  which  comes 
from  Bruttium,  the  pitch  of  that  country  being  remarkably 
rich  and  resinous  :  the  colour  of  this  oil  is  yellow. 

There  is  an  oil  that  grows  spontaneously  in  the  maritime 
parts  of  Syria,  known  to  us  as  "  elaeonieli  ;"7  it  is  an  unctuous 
substance  which  distils  from  certain  trees,  of  a  thicker  consis- 
tency than  honey,  but  somewhat  thinner  than  resin  ;  it  has  a 
sweet  flavour,  and  is  employed  for  medicinal  purposes.  Old 
olive  oil8  is  of  use  for  some  kinds  of  maladies ;  it  is  thought  to 

95  Hyoscyamns.  A  medicinal  oil  is  still  extracted  from  it.  See  B.  xxiii. 
c.  49. 

96  This  medicinal  oil  is  no  longer  used.  The  Lupiuus  albus  was  formerly 
held  in  greater  esteem  than  it  is  now. 

97  The  Raphanus  sativus  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xix.  c.  26.  This  is  one 
of  the  fixed  oils  ;  varieties  of  it  are  rape  oil,  and  colza  oil,  now  so  exten- 
sively used. 

98  From  the  Greek  xoproc,  "  grass."  This  medicinal  oil  would  be  to- 
tally without  power  or  effect. 

99  A  fixed  oil  is  still  extracted  in  Egypt  from  the  grain  known  as  sesa- 
mum. i  See  B.  xxii.  c.  15. 

2  From  KviSi],  a  "  nettle."  The  nettle,  or  Urtica  urens  of  Linngeus,  has 
no  oleaginous  principles  in  its  seed. 

3  Lily  oil  is  still  used  as  a  medicinal  composition  :  it  is  made  from  the 
petals  of  the  white  lily,  Lilium  candidum  of  Linnaeus. 

4  From  Selga,  a  town  of  Pisidia.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  49. 

5  See  B.  iii.  c.  9,  and  B.  xxiii.  c.  49. 

6  A  volatile  oil,  mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  empyreumatic  oil  and 
carbon. 

7  "  Oil-honey."  Probably  a  terebinthine,  or  oleo-resin.  See  B.  xxiii. 
c.  50. 

8  When  rancid  and  oxygenized  by  age,  it  has  an  irritating  quality,  and 
may  be  found  useful  for  herpetic  diseases. 


Chap.  8.]  AMTJECA.  291 

be  particularly  useful,  too,  in  the  preservation  of  ivory  from 
decay : 9  at  all  events,  the  statue  of  Saturn,  at  Rome,  is  filled 
with  oil  in  the  interior. 

CHAP.  8.  (8.) AMTJECA. 

But  it  is  upon  the  praises  of  amurca10  more  particularly,  that 
Cato11  has  enlarged.  He  recommends  that  vats  and  casks1" 
for  keeping  oil  should  be  first  seasoned  with  it,  to  prevent 
them  from  soaking  up  the  oil ;  and  he  tells  us  that  threshing- 
floors  should  be  well  rubbed  with  it,  to  keep  away  ants,13 
and  to  prevent  any  chinks  or  crannies  from  being  left. 
The  mortar,  too,  of  walls,  he  says,  ought  to  be  seasoned  with 
it,  as  well  as  the  roofs  and  floors  of  granaries  ;  and  he  recom- 
mends that  wardrobes  should  be  sprinkled  with  amurca  as  a 
preservative  against  wood- worms  and  other  noxious  insects. 
He  says,  too,  that  all  grain  of  the  cereals  should  be  steeped  in 
it,  and  speaks  of  it  as  efficacious  for  the  cure  of  maladies  in 
cattle -as  well  as  trees,  and  as  useful  even  for  ulcerations  in 
the  inside  and  upon  the  face  of  man.  We  learn  from  him,  also, 
that  thongs,  all  articles  made  of  leather,  sandals,  and  axle- 
trees  used  to  be  anointed  with  boiled  amurca;  which  was 
employed  also  to  preserve  copper  vessels  against  verdigrease,14 
and  to  give  them  a  better  colour  ;  as  also  for  the  seasoning  of 
all  utensils  made  of  wood,  as  well  as  the  earthen  jars  in  which 
dried  figs  were  kept,  or  of  sprigs  of  myrtle  with  the  leaves 
and  berries  on,  or  any  other  articles  of  a  similar  nature :  in 
addition  to  which,  he  asserts  that  wood  which  has  been  steeped 
in  amurca  will  burn  without  producing  a  stifling  smoke.15 

According  to  M.  Yarro,16  an  olive-tree  which  has  been 
licked  by  the  tongue  of  the  she-goat,  or  upon  which  she  has 

9  It  very  probably  will  have  this  effect ;  but  at  the  expense  of  the  colour 
of  the  ivory,  which  very  soon  will  turn  yellow. 

10  It  has  quite  lost  its  ancient  repute  :  the  only  use  it  is  now  put  to  is 
the  manufacture  of  an  inferior  soap.     See  B.  xsiii.  c.  37. 

11  De  Re  Rust.  cc.  130,  169. 

12  Dolia  and  cadi.  Fee  observes,  that  this,  if  done  with  the  modern 
vessels,  would  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  oil  turn  rancid. 

13  On  the  contrary,  Fee  is  inclined  to  think  it  would  attract  them,  from 
its  mucilaginous  properties. 

14  Olive  oil,  however,  has  a  tendency  to  generate  verdigrease  in  copper 
vessels. 

15  This,  as  Fee  remarks,  is  probably  so  absurd  as  not  to  be  worth  dis- 
cussing. i6  Re  Rust.  R.  i.  c.  2. 

u  2 


292  PLINY'S   NAT[JEAL   HISTOEY.  [Book  XV. 

browsed  when  it  was  first  budding,17  is  sure  to  be  barren. 
Thus  much  in  reference  to  the  olive  and  the  oils. 

CHAP.   9.  (9.) — THE  YAEIOTJS  KINDS  OF    FEUIT-TEEES  AND  THE1E 
NATURES.       FOUE  VARIETIES  OF  PINE-NUTS. 

The  other  fruits  found  on  trees  can  hardly  be  enumerated, 
from  their  diversity  in  shape  and  figure,  without  reference  to 
their  different  flavours  and  juices,  which  have  again  been 
modified  by  repeated  combinations  and  graftings. 

(10.)  The  largest  fruit,  and,  indeed,  the  one  that  hangs  at 
the  greatest  height,  is  the  pine-nut.  It  contains  within  a 
number  of  small  kernels,  enclosed  in  arched  beds,  and  covered 
with  a  coat  of  their  own  of  rusty  iron-colour ;  Nature  thus  mani- 
festing a  marvellous  degree  of  care  in  providing  its  seeds  with 
a  soft  receptacle.  Another  variety  of  this  nut  is  the  teren- 
tina,18  the  shell  of  which  may  be  broken  with  the  fingers  ;  and 
hence  it  becomes  a  prey  to  the  birds  while  still  on  the  tree.  A 
third,  again,  is  known  as  the  "  sappinia,19"  being  the  produce 
of  the  cultivated  pitch-tree  :  the  kernels  are  enclosed  in  a 
skin  more  than  a  shell,  which  is  so  remarkably  soft  that  it  is 
eaten  together  with  the  fruit.  A  fourth  variety  is  that  known 
as  the  "pityis;"  it  is  the  produce  of  the  pinaster,20  and  is 
remarkable  as  a  good  specific  for  coughs.  The  kernels  are 
sometimes  boiled  in  honey 21  among  the  Taurini,  who  then  call 
them  "  aquiceli."  The  conquerors  at  the  Isthmian  games  are 
crowned  with  a  wreath  of  pine-leaves. 

CHAP.     10.    (11.) THE    QUINCE.       FOUE    KINDS    OF    CTDONIA,    AND 

FOUE  VARIETIES  OF  THE  STEUTHEA. 

Next  in  size  after  these  are  the  fruit  called  by  us  "  co- 
tonea,"22  by  the  Greeks  "  Cydonia,"  23  and  first  introduced 

17  If  she  happens  to  have  destroyed  the  huds,  hut  not  otherwise. 

18  The  Pinus  cembro,  probably,  of  Linnaeus. 

19  See  B.  xvi.  c.  23.  The  nuts  of  the  pine  are  sweet,  and  have  an 
agreeable  flavour. 

20  Probably  the  wild  pine,  the  Pinus  silvestris  of  the  moderns.  The 
nuts  are  slightly  resinous. 

21  Neither  the  people  of  Turin  nor  of  any  other  place  are  known  at  the 
present  day  to  make  this  preparation. 

32  The  quince,  the  Pirus  Cydonia  of  Linnaeus. 

23  From  Cydonia,  a  city  of  Crete.  The  Latin  name  is  only  a  corruption 
of  the  Greek  one  :  in  England  they  were  formerly  called  "  melicotones." 


Chap.  11]  SIX   VARIETIES   OF   THE    PEACH.  293 

from  the  island  of  Crete.  These  fruit  bend  the  branches  with 
their  weight,  and  so  tend  to  impede  the  growth  of  the  parent 
tree.  The  varieties  are  numerous.  The  chrysomelum 24  is 
marked  with  indentations  down  it,  and  has  a  colour  inclining 
to  gold ;  the  one  that  is  known  as  the  "  Italian"  quince,  is  of  a 
paler  complexion,  and  has  a  most  exquisite  smell :  the  quinces 
of  Neapolis,  too,  are  held  in  high  esteem.  The  smaller  varie- 
ties of  the  quince  which  are  known  as  the  "  struthea,"25  have 
a  more  pungent  smell,  but  ripen  later  than  the  others ;  that 
called  the  "  musteum,"26  ripens  the  soonest  of  all.  The  coto- 
neuni  engrafted27  on  the  strutheum,  has  produced  a  peculiar 
variety,  known  as  the  "Mulvianum,"  the  only  one  of  them 
all  that  is  eaten  raw.28  At  the  present  day  all  these  varieties 
are  kept  shut  up  in  the  antechambers  of  great  men,29  where  they 
receive  the  visits  of  their  courtiers ;  they  are  hung,  too,  upon 
the  statues30  that  pass  the  night  with  us  in  our  chambers. 

There  is  a  small  wild31  quince  also,  the  smell  of  which,  next 
to  that  of  the  strutheum,  is  the  most  powerful ;  it  grows  in 
the  hedges. 

CHAP.  11. SIX  VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEACH. 

Under  the  head  of  apples,32  we  include  a  variety  of  fruits, 
although  of  an  entirely  different  nature,  such  as  the_  Persian 33 
apple,  for  instance,  and  the  pomegranate,  of  which,  when 
speaking  of  the  tree,  we  have  already  enumerated34  nine  va- 
rieties.    The  pomegranate  has  a  seed  within,  enclosed  in  a 

24  Or  "golden  apple."  The  quince  was  sacred  to  Venus,  and  was  an 
emblem  of  love. 

23  Apparently  meaning  the  "  sparrow  quince."  Dioscondes,  Galen,  and 
Athenteus,  however,  say  that  it  was  a  large  variety.  Qy.  if  in  such  case, 
it  might  not  mean  the  ostrich  quince  ? 

26  "  Earlv  ripener." 

27  Quince's  are  not  grafted  on  quinces  at  the  present  day,  but  the  pear  is. 

28  Fee  suggests  that  this  is  a  kind  of  pear. 

29  Probably  on  account  of  the  fragrance  of  their  scent. 

30  We  learn  from  other  sources  that  the  bed-chambers  were  frequently 
ornamented  with  statues  of  the  divinities. 

31  The  Mala  cotonea  silvestris  of  Bauhin ;  the  Cydonia  vulgaris  of  mo- 
dern botanists, 

32  "Mala."  The  term  "malum,"  somewhat  similar  to  upome"wita 
us,  was  applied  to  a  number  of  different  fruits  :  the  orange,  the  citron, 
the  pomegranate,  the  apricot,  and  others. 

33  Or  peach.  34  See  B.  siii.  c.  34. 


33 


294  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

skin ;  the  peach  has  a  stone  inside.  Some  among  the  pears, 
also,  known  as  "  libralia," 35  show,  by  their  name,  what  a 
remarkable  weight  they  attain. 

(12.)  Among  the  peaches  the  palm  must  be  awarded  to  the 
duracinus : 36  the  Gallic  and  the  Asiatic  peach  are  distinguished 
respectively  by  the  names  of  the  countries  of  their  origin. 
They  ripen  at  the  end  of  autumn,  though  some  of  the  early37 
kinds  are  ripe  in  the  summer.  It  is  only  within  the  last  thirty 
years  that  these  last  have  been  introduced;  originally  they 
were  sold  at  the  price  of  a  denarius  a  piece.  Those  known  as 
the  "  supernatia"38  come  from  the  country  of  the  Sabines,  but 
the  "  popularia"  grow  everywhere.  This  is  a  very  harmless 
fruit,  and  a  particular  favourite  with  invalids :  some,  in  fact, 
have  sold  before  this  as  high  as  thirty  sesterces  apiece,  a  price 
that  has  never  been  exceeded  by  any  other  fruit.  This,  too,  is 
the  more  to  be  wondered  at,  as  there  is  none  that  is  a  worse 
keeper  :  for,  when  it  is  once  plucked,  the  longest  time  that  it 
will  keep  is  a  couple  of  days ;  and  so  sold  it  must  be,  fetch 
what  it  may. 

CHAP.    12.    (13). — TWELVE  KINDS  OE  PLUMS. 

Next  comes  a  vast  number  of  varieties  of  the  plum,  the 
parti-coloured,  the  black,39  the  white,40  the  barley41  plum— 
so  called,  because  it  is  ripe  at  barley-harvest— and  another  of 
the  same  colour  as  the  last,  but  which  ripens  later,  and  is  of  a 
larger  size,  generally  known  as  the  "  asinina,"4-  from  the  little 
esteem  in  which  it  is  held.     There  are  the  onychina,  too,  the 

35  Or  "  pound- weight "  pears  :  the  Pivus  volema  of  Linnaeus. 

36  Or  "  hard-berry" — prohably  in  reference  to  the  firmness  of  the  flesh. 
It  is  generally  thought  to  be  the  nectarine. 

37  "  Praecocia."  It  is  generally  thought  that  in  this  name  originates 
the  word  "apricot,"  the  Primus  Armeniaca  of  Linnaeus.  There  is,  how- 
ever, an  early  peach  that  ripens  by  the  middle  of  July,  though  it  is  very 
doubtful  if  it  was  known  to  Pliny. 

3S  "  From  above." 

■ 39  Perhaps  the  Prunus  ungarica  of  naturalists,  the  black  damask  plum ; 
or  else  the  Prunus  perdrigona,  the  perdrigon. 

40  Probably  the  Prunus  galatensis  of  naturalists. 

11  "  Hordearia  :"  the  Prunus  praecox  of  naturalists  ;  probably  our 
harvest  plum.  . 

43  Or  "ass"-plum.    The  Prunus  acinaria  of  naturalists:   the  cherry 

plum  of  the  French. 


Chap.  12.]  TWELVE    KINDS   OF   PLUMS.  295 

cerina,43  —  more  esteemed,  and  the  purple44  plum  :  the  Arme- 
nian,45 also  an  exotic  from  foreign  parts,  the  only  one  among  tho 
plums  that  recommends  itself  by  its  smell.  The  plum-tree 
grafted  on  the  nut  exhibits  what  we  may  call  a  piece  of  impu- 
dence quite  its  own,  for  it  produces  a  fruit  that  has  all  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  parent  stock,  together  with  the  juice  of  the 
adopted  fruit :  in  consequence  of  its  being  thus  compounded  of 
both,  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  nuci-pruna." 46  Nut-prunes, 
as  well  as  the  peach,  the  wild  plum,47  and  the  cerina,  are  often 
put  in  casks,  and  so  kept  till  the  crop  comes  of  the  following 
year.  All  the  other  varieties  ripen  with  the  greatest  rapidity, 
and  pass  off  just  as  quickly.  More  recently,  in  Bsetica,  they  have 
begun  to  introduce  what  they  call  "malina,"  or  the  fruit  of 
the  plum  engrafted  on  the  apple-tree,48  and  "  amygdalina,"  the 
fruit  of  the  plum  engrafted  on  the  almond-tree,49  the  kernel 
found  in  the  stone  of  these  last  being  that  of  the  almond  ;50  in- 
deed, there  is  no  specimen  in  which  two  fruits  have  been  more 
ingeniously  combined  in  one. 

Among  the  foreign  trees  we  have  already  spoken51  of  the 
Damascene52  plum,  so  called  from  Damascus,  in  Syria,  but 
introduced  long  since  into  Italy  ;  though  the  stone  of  this  plum 
is  larger  than  usual,  and  the  flesh  smaller  in  quantity.  This 
plum  will  never  dry  so  far  as  to  wrinkle ;  to  effect  that,  it 
needs  the  sun  of  its  own  native  country.     The  myxa,53  too, 

43  Or  "wax  plum."  The  Primus  cereola  of  naturalists  :  the  mirabelle 
of  the  French. 

44  Possibly  the  Primus  euucleata  of  Lamarck :  the  myrobalan  of  the 
French.     Many  varieties,  however,  are  purple. 

45  There  are  two  opinions  on  this :  that  it  is  the  Prunus  Claudiana  of 
Lamarck,  the  "  Reine  Claude  "  of  the  French  ;  or  else  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  apricot  already  mentioned,  remarkable  for  the  sweetness  of  its 
smell.  46  Or  nut-prune. 

47  The  Prunus  insititia  of  Linnaeus. 

48  The  result  of  this  would  only  be  a  plum  like  that  of  the  tree  from 
which  the  graft  was  cut. 

49  The  same  as  with  reference  to  the  graft  on  the  apple. 

50  This  is  probably  quite  fabulous.  51  -B.  xiii.  c.  10. 

52  The  Prunus  Damascena  of  the  naturalists  ;  our  common  damson,  with 
its  numerous  varieties. 

53  Probably  the  Cordia  myxa  of  Linnaeus ;  the  Sebestier  of  the  French. 
It  has  a  viscous  pulp,  and  is  much  used  as  a  pectoral.  It  grows  only  in 
Syria  and  Egypt ;  and  hence  Fee  is  inclined  to  reject  what  Pliny  says  as 
to  its  naturalization  at  Rome,  and  the  account  he  gives  as  to  its  being  en- 
grafted on  the  sorb. 


296  plot's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

may  be  mentioned,  as  being  the  fellow-countryman  of  tbe 
Damascene :  it  has  of  late  been  introduced  into  Rome,  and 
has  been  grown  engrafted  upon  the  sorb. 

CHAP.   13. THE  PEACH. 

The  name  of  "  Persica,"  or  "  Persian  apple,"  given  to  this 
fruit,  fully  proves  that  it  is  an  exotic  in  both  Greece  as  well 
as  Asia,54  and  that  it  was  first  introduced  from  Persis.  As  to 
the  wild  plum,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  it  will  grow  any- 
where ;  and  I  am,  therefore,  the  more  surprised  that  no  men- 
tion has  been  made  of  it  by  Cato,  more  particularly  as  he  has 
pointed  out  the  method  of  preserving  several  of  the  wild 
fruits  as  well.  As  to  the  peach-tree,  it  has  been  only  intro- 
duced of  late  years,  and  with  considerable  difficulty ;  so  much 
so,  that  it  is  perfectly  barren  in  the  Isle  of  Rhodes,  the  first 
resting-place55  that  it  found  after  leaving  Egypt. 

It  is  quite  untrue  that  the  peach  which  grows  in  Persia  is 
poisonous,  and  produces  dreadful  tortures,  or  that  the  kings 
of  that  country,  from  motives  of  revenge,  had  it  transplanted 
in  Egypt,  where,  through  the  nature  of  the  soil,  it  lost  all  its 
evil  properties— for  we  find  that  it  is  of  the  "  persea"66  that 
the  more  careful  writers  have  stated  all  this,57  a  totally  different 
tree,  the  fruit  of  which  resembles  the  red  myxa^and,  indeed, 
cannot  be  successfully  cultivated  anywhere  but  in  the  East. 
The  learned  have  also  maintained  that  it  was  not  introduced 
from  Persis  into  Egypt  with  the  view  of  inflicting  punishment, 
but  say  that  it  was  planted  at  Memphis  by  Perseus  ;  for 
which  reason  it  was  that  Alexander  gave  orders  that  the  vic- 
tors should  be  crowned  with  it  in  tbe  games  which  he  insti- 
tuted there  in  honour  of  his58  ancestor :  indeed,  this  tree  has 
always  leaves  and  fruit  upon  it,  growing  immediately  upon  the 
others.  It  must  be  quite  evident  to  every  one  that  all  our 
plums  have  been  introduced  since  the  time  of  Cato.59 

54  I.  e.  Asia  Minor.  55  Hospitiura. 

5G  See  B.  xiii.  c.  17.    The  Balanites  iEgyptiaea  of  Delille. 

57  It  was  this  probably,  and  not  the  peach-tree,  that  would  not  bear 
fruit  in  the  isle  of  Rhodes. 

58  Perseus.  ... 

59  Fee  remarks  that  the  wild  plum,  the  Prunus  silvestris  or  insitit;a  of 
Linnaeus,  was  to  be  found  in  Italy  before  the  days  of  Cato. 


Chap.  15.]  FRUITS   RECENTLY   INTRODUCED.  297 

CHAP.    14.  (14.) THIKTT  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  POMES.      AT  WHAT 

PESIOD  FOREIGN  FRUITS  WERE    FIRST    INTRODUCED   INTO   ITALY, 
AND  WHENCE. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  pomes.  Of  the  citron60  we 
have  already  made  mention  when  describing  its  tree;  the 
Greeks  gave  it  the  name  of  "  Medica,"61  from  its  native  coun- 
try. The  jujube63-tree  and  the  tuber63  are  equally  exotics ; 
indeed,  they  have,  both  of  them,  been  introduced  only  of  late 
years  into  Italy ;  the  latter  from  Africa,  the  former  from  Syria. 
Sextus  Papinius,  whom  we  have  seen  consul,64  introduced  them 
both  in  the  latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Augustus,  produced 
from  slips  which  he  had  grown  within  his  camp.  The  fruit 
of  the  jujube  more  nearly  resembles  a  berry  than  an  apple : 
the  .tree  sets  off  a  terrace65  remarkably  well,  and  it  is  not  un- 
common to  see  whole  woods  of  it  climbiug  up  to  the  very  roofs 
of  the  houses. 

Of  the  tuber  there  are  two  varieties ;  the  white,  and  the  one 
called  "syricum,"66  from  its  colour.  Those  fruits,  too,  may 
be  almost  pronounced  exotic  which  grow  nowhere  in  Italy  but 
in  the  territory  of  Verona,  and  are  known  as  the  wool-fruit.67 
They  are  covered  with  a  woolly  down ;  this  is  found,  it  is  true, 
to  a  very  considerable  extent,  on  both  the  strutheum  variety  of 
quince  and  the  peach,  but  still  it  has  given  its  name  to  this 
particular  fruit,  which  is  recommended  to  us  by  no  other 
remarkable  quality. 

CHAP.   15. THE    FRUITS    THAT    HAVE    BEEN    MOST    RECENTLY 

INTRODUCED. 

"Why  should  I  hesitate  to  make  some  mention,  too,  of  other 

6«  See  B.  xii.  c.  7.  61  Of  Media. 

63  Its  fruit  will  ripen  in  France,  as  far  north  as  Tours.  It  is  the  Zizy- 
phus  vulgaris  of  Lamarck.  It  resembles  a  small  plum,  and  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  sweetmeat.  The  confection  sold  as  jujube  paste" is  not  the  dried  jelly 
of  this  fruit,  but  merely  gum  arabic  and  sugar,  coloured. 

63  A  variety  of  the  jujube,  Fee  is  inclined  to  think.  A  nut-peach  has 
also  been  susr^ested. 

64  a.u.c.  779.  65  Or  perhaps  embankment :  "  agger." 

66  A  reddish  colour.  For  the  composition  of  this  colour,  see  B. 
xxxv.  c.  24. 

67  "  Lanata  ;"  perhaps  rather  the  "downy"  fruit;  a  variety  of  quince, 
Fee  tbinks.  Pliny  probably  had  never  seen  this  fruit,  in  his  opinion, 
and  only  speaks  after  Virgil, 'Eel.  if.  L  51.  "  Ipse  ego  cana  legani  tenera 
lanugine  mala." 


298  plikt's  nattjeal  histoet.  [Book  XV. 

varieties  by  name,  seeing  that  they  have  conferred  everlasting 
remembrance  on  those  who  were  the  first  to  introduce  them, 
as  having  rendered  some  service  to  their  fellow-men  ?  Unless 
I  am  very  much  mistaken,  an  enumeration  of  them  will  tend 
to  throw  some  light  upon  the  ingenuity  that  is  displayed  in  the 
art  of  grafting,  and  it  will  be  the  more  easily  understood  that 
there  is  nothing  so  trifling  in  itself  from  which  a  certain 
amount  of  celebrity  cannot  be  ensured.  Hence  it  is  that  we 
have  fruits  which  derive  their  names  from  Matius,68  Cestius, 
Mallius,  and  Scandius. 69  Appius,  too,  a  member  of  the 
Claudian  family,  grafted  the  quince  on  the  Scandian  fruit,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  produce  is  known  as  the  Appian. 
This  fruit  has  the  smell  of  the  quince,  and  is  of  the  same  size 
as  the  Scandian  apple,  and  of  a  ruddy  colour^  Let  no  one, 
however,  imagine  that  this  name  was  merely  given  in  a  sp'irit 
of  flattery  to  an  illustrious  family,  for  there  is  an  apple  known 
as  the  Sceptian,70  which  owes  its  name  to  the  son  of  a  freed- 
man,  who  was  the  first  to  introduce  it :  it  is  remarkable  for 
the  roundness  of  its  shape.  To  those  already  mentioned, 
Cato71  adds  the  Quirinian  and  the  Scantian  varieties,  which 
last,  he  says,  keep  remarkably  well  in  large  vessels.72  The 
latest  kind  of  all,  however,  that  has  been  introduced  is  the 
small  apple  known  as  the  Petisian,73  remarkable  for  its  delight- 
ful flavour :  the  Amerinian74  apple,  too,  and  the  little  Greek75 
have  conferred  renown  on  their  respective  countries. 

The  remaining  varieties  have  received  their  name  from 
various  circumstances — the  apples  known  as  the  "gemella"76 
are  always  found  hanging  in  pairs  upon  one  stalk,  like  twins, 

68  See  B.  xii.  c.  6.  The  Matian  and  the  Cestian  apple  are  thought  by 
Dalecbamps  to  have  been  the  French  "  court-pendu,"  or  "  short  stalk." 

69  The  Scandian  is  thought  to  have  been  a  winter  pear. 

70  Adrian  Junius  takes  this  to  be  the  "  kers-appel "  of  the  Flemish. 
«  De  Re  Rust.  cc.  7  and  143.  '"2  Dolia. 

73  Hardouin  says  that  this  is  the  "  Pomme  d'api "  of  the  French  ;  it  is 
the  "  Court-pendu"  with  Adrian  Junius. 

74  The  "  Pomme  de  Saint  Thomas,"  according  to  Adrian  Junius :  Dale- 
champs  identifies  it  with  the  pomme  de  Granoi.  See  B.  iii.  c.  19,  and  cc.  17 
and  18  of  the  present  Book. 

75  "  Grsecula."  So  called,  perhaps,  from  Tarentum,  situated  in  Magna 
Graecia. 

76  Twins.    This  variety  is  unknown. 


Chap.  15.]  FRUITS   RECENTLY   INTRODUCED.  299 

and  never  growing  singly.  That  known  as  the  "syricum"77 
is  so  called  from  its  colour,  while  the  "  melapium" 78  has  its 
name  from  its  strong  resemblance  to  the  pear.  The  "  mus- 
teum" 79  was  so  called  from  the  rapidity  with  which  it  ripens ; 
it  is  the  melimelum  of  the  present  day,  which  derives  its  ap- 
pellation from  its  flavour,  being  like  that  of  honey.  _  The 
"  orbiculatum," 80  again,  is  so  called  from  its  shape,  which  is 
exactly  spherical— the  circumstance  of  the  Greeks  having  called 
it  the  "epiroticum"  proves  that  it  came  originally  from 
Epirus.  The  orthomastium81  has  that  peculiar  appellation 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  teat ;  and  the  "  spadonium"83  of  the 
Belgse  is  so  nicknamed  from  the  total  absence  of  pips.  The 
melofolium83  has  one  leaf,  and  occasionally  two,  shooting  from 
the  middle  of  the  fruit.  That  known  as  the  "  pannuceum"  M 
shrivels  with  the  greatest  rapidity ;  while  the  "  pulmoneum"65 
has  a  lumpish,  swollen  appearance. 

Some  apples  are  just  the  colour  of  blood,  owing  to  an  original 
graft  of  the  mulberry ;  but  they  are  all  of  them  red  on  the 
side  which  is  turned  towards  the  sun.  There  are  some  small 
wild 86  apples  also,  remarkable  for  their  fine  flavour  and  the 
peculiar  pungency  of  their  smell.  Some,  again,  are  so  re- 
markably 87  sour,  that  they  are  held  in  disesteem  ;  indeed  their 
acidity  is  so  extreme,  that  it  will  even  take  the  edge  from  off 
a  knife.  The  worst  apples  of  all  are  those  which  from  their 
mealiness  have  received  the  name  of  "farinacea;88"  they  are 

77  Or  "  red"  apple.  The  red  calville  of  the  French,  according  to  Har- 
douin ;  the  Pomme  suzine,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

78  The  Girandotte  of  the  French  ;  the  appel-heeren  of  the  Dutch. 

79  The  "early  ripener."  Dalechamps  identifies  it  with  the  pomme 
Saint  Jean,  the  apple  of  St.  John. 

80  The  Pomme  rose,  or  rose  apple,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

81  Or  "  erect  teat."  The  Pomme  taponne  of  the  French,  according  to 
Dalechamps. 

82  Or  eunuch.    The  Passe  pomme,  or  Pomme  grillotte  of  the  French. 

83  Or  "  leaf  apple."  Fee  remarks  that  this  occasionally  happens,  but  the 
apple  does  not  form  a  distinct  variety. 

84  The  Pomme  pannete,  according  to  Dalechamps :  the  Pomme  gelee 
of  Provence. 

85  Or  "  lung"  apple.    The  Pomme  folane,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

86  The  Pirus  malus-  of  Linnaeus,  the  wild  apple,  or  estranguillon  of  the 
French. 

87  It  is  doubtful  whether  he  does  not  allude  here  to  a  peculiar  variety. 

88  Or  "mealy"  apples. 


300  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

the  first,  however,  to  ripen,  and  ought  to  be  gathered  as  soon 
as  possible. 

CHAP.   16.   (15.) — FORTY-ONE  VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEAR. 

A  similar  degree  of  precocity  has  caused  the  appellation  of 
"  superbum"89  to  be  given  to  one  species  of  tho  pear :  it  is  a 
small  fruit,  but  ripens  with  remarkable  rapidity.  All  the 
world  are  extremely  partial  to  the  Crustumian90  pear  ;  and  next 
to  it  comes  the  Falernian,91  so  called  from  the  drink92  which 
it  affords,  so  abundant  is  its  juice.  This  juice  is  known  by 
the  name  of  "milk"  in  the  variety  which,  of  a  black  colour, 
is  by  some  called  the  pear  of  Syria.93  The  denominations 
given  to  the  others  vary  according  to  the  respective  localities  of 
their  growth.  Among  the  pears,  the  names  of  which  have  been 
adopted  in  our  city,  the  Decimian  pear,  and  the  Pseudo- 
Decimian — an  offshoot  from  it — have  conferred  considerable 
renown  upon  the  name  of  those  who  introduced  them.  The 
same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the  variety  known  as  the  "  Dola- 
bellian,"94  remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  stalk,  the  Pom- 
ponian,95  surnamed  the  mammosum,96  the  Licerian,  the 
Sevian,  the  Turranian,  a  variety  of  the  Sevian,  but  distin- 
guished from  it  by  the  greater  length  of  the  stalk,  the  Pa- 
vonian,97  a  red  pear,  rather  larger  than  the  superbum, together 
with  the  Laterian98  and  the  Anician,  which  come  at  the  end 
of  autumn,  and  are  pleasant  for  the  acidity  of  their  flavour. 

99  Or  "  proud"  pear.     The  Petite  muscadelle,  according  to  Dalechamps. 
Adrian  Junius  says  that  it  is  the  water-peere  of  the  Dutch. 

90  From  Crustumiura  in  Italy  ;  the  Poire  perle,  or  pearl  pear,  according 
to  Dalechamps :  the  Jacoh's  peere  of  the  Flemish. 

91  The  Poire  sucree,  or  "  sugar-pear,"  according  to  Hardouin  ;  the  Berga- 
motte,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

92  "  Potu."      He  would  appear  to  allude  to  the  manufacture  of  perry. 

93  The  Syrian  pear  is  commended  by  Martial ;  it  has  not  been  identified, 
however. 

94  The. Poire  musot,  according  to  Dalechamps.    Adrian  Junius  says  that 
it  is  the  Engelsche  braet-peere  of  the  Flemish. 

95  The  Pirus  Pompeiana  of  Linnaeus.      Dalechamps  identifies  it  with 
the  Bon  chretien,  and  Adrian  Junius  with  the  Taffel-peere  of  the  Flemish. 

96  The  "breast-formed." 

97  The  Pirus  Favonia  of  Linnaeus  :  the  Grosse  poire  muscadelle  of  the 
French. 

98  The  Poire  prevost,  according  to  Dalechamps. 


Chap.  16.]  VAEIETIES    OF  THE   PEAK.  301 

One  variety  is  known  as  the  "  Tiberian,"99  from  its  having 
been  a  particular  favourite  with  the  Emperor  Tiberius ;  it  is 
more  coloured  by  the  sun,  and  grows  to  a  larger  size,  otherwise 
it  would  be  identical  with  the  Licerian  variety. 

The  following  kinds  receive  their  respective  names  from 
their  native  countries:  the  Amerinian,1  the  latest  pear  of  all, 
the  Picentine,  the  Numantine,  the  Alexandrian,  the  Numi- 
dian,  the  Greek,  a  variety  of  which  is  the  Tarentine,  and  the 
Signine,2  by  some  called  "  testaceum,"  from  its  colour,  like 
earthenware ;  a  reason  which  has  also  given  their  respective 
names  to  the  "  onychine"  8  and  the  "purple"  kinds.  Then, 
again,  we  have  the  "  myrapium,"4  the  "  laureum,"  and  the 
" nardinum,"5  so  called  from  the  odour  they  emit;  the  "  hor- 
dearium,"  6  from  the  season  at  which  it  comes7  in;  and  the 
"  ampullaceum,"  8  so  called  from  its  long  narrow  neck.  Those, 
again,  that  are  known  as  the  "  Coriolanian"  9  and  the  "  Brut- 
tian,"  owe  their  names  to  the  places  of  their  origin  ;  added  to 
which  we  have  the  cucurbitinum,10  and  the  "  acidulum,"  so 
named  from  the  acidity  of  its  juice.  It  is  quite  uncertain  for 
what  reason  their  respective  names  were  given  to  the  varieties 
known  as  the  "  barbaricum"  and  the  "  Venerium,"  u  which  last 
is  known  also  as  the  "  coloratum ;" 12  the  royal  pear13  too;  which 

99  The  Poire  fore,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

1  The  Saint  Thomas's  pear  of  the  Flemish. 

2  The  Poire  chat  of  the  French,  according  to  Dalechamps ;  the  Biet-peere 
of  the  Flemish. 

3  "  Like  onyx."    The  Cuisse-madame,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

4  The  Calveau  rosat,  according  to  Dalechamps.  Perhaps  the  Poire 
d'ambre,  or  amber  pear,  of  the  French. 

5  The  Poire  d' argent,  or  silver  pear,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

6  Or  "  barley  pear."  The  Poire  de  Saint  Jean,  according  to  Dalechamps ; 
the  musquette  or  muscadella,  according  to  Adrian  Junius. 

7  Barley-harvest. 

8  So  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  "  ampulla,"  a  big-bellied  vessel 
with  a  small  neck,  identified  with  the  Poire  d'angoisse  by  Dalechamps. 

9  The  Poire  de  jalousie,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

10  Or  gourd -pear.  This  is  the  "isbout"  according  to  Adrian  Junius, 
the  Poire  courge  of  Dalechamps,  and  the  Poire  de  sarteau,  or  de  campane 
of  others. 

11  The  Poire  de  Venus,  according  to  Adrian  Junius;  the  Poire  acciole, 
according  to  Dalechamps.  ia  Coloured  pear. 

13  "  Regium."  The  Poire  carmagnole,  according  to  Dalechamps ;  the  Mis- 
peel-peere  of  the  Flemish,  according  to  Adrian  Junius. 


302  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

has  a  remarkably  short  stalk,  and  will  stand  on  its  end,  as  also 
the  patrieiura,  and  the  voconium, 14  a  green  oblong  kind.  In 
addition  to  these,  Virgil15  has  made  mention  of  a  pear  called  the 
"  volema,"16  a  name  which  he  has  borrowed  from  Cato,17  who 
makes  mention  also  of  kinds  known  as  the  "  sementivum"  18 
and  the  "  musteum."  19 

CHAP.   17. — VARIOUS    METHODS   OP   GRAFTING  TREES.       EXPIATIONS 

FOR    LIGHTNING. 

This  branch  of  civilized  life  has  long  since  been  brought  to 
the  very  highest  pitch  of  perfection,  for  man  has  left  nothing 
untried  here.  Hence  it  is  that  we  find  Virgil 20  speaking  of 
grafting  the  nut-tree  on  the  arbutus,  the  apple  on  the  plane, 
and  the  cherry  on  the  elm.  Indeed,  there  is  nothing  further 
in  this  department  that  can  possibly  be  devised,  and  it  is  a 
long  time  since  any  new  variety  of  fruit  has  been  discovered. 
Keligious  scruples,  too,  will  not  allow  of  indiscriminate  graft- 
ing ;  thus,  for  instance,  it  is  not  permitted  to  graft  upon  the 
thorn,  for  it  is  not  easy,  by  any  mode  of  expiation,  to  avoid 
the  disastrous  effects  of  lightning;  and  we  are  told21  that  as 
many  as  are  the  kinds  of  trees  that  have  been  engrafted  on  the 
thorn,  so  many  are  the  thunderbolts  that  will  be  hurled  against 
that  spot  in  a  single  flash. 

The  form  of  the  pear  is  turbinated  ;  the  later  kinds  remain 
on  the  parent  tree  till  winter,  when  they  ripen  with  the  frost ; 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  Greek  varietj^,  the  ampullaceum,  and 
the  laureum ;  the  same,  too,  with  apples  of  the  Amerinian 
and  the  Scandian  kinds.     Apples  and  pears  are  prepared  for 

14  The  Poire  sarteau,  according  to  Dalechamps. 

15  Georgics,  ii.  87. 

16  "A  handful" — probably  the  pound  or  pounder  pear  :  the  Bergamotte, 
according  to  Hardouin ;  the  Bon  chretien  of  summer,  according  to  Adrian 
Junius. 

17  De  Re  Rust.  c.  7.  18  Or  "  Seedling." 

19  The  "  early  ripener."  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  be  a  variety  of  the 
Bon  chretien. 

20  Georgics,  ii.  69.  This  statement  of  Virgil  must  be  regarded  as  fabu- 
lous ;  grafting  being  impracticable  with  trees  not  of  the  same  family,  and 
not  always  successful  even  then. 

21  This  was  probably  some  superstition  taught  by  the  augurs  for  the 
purpose  of  euvcloping  their  profession  in  additional  mystery  and  awe. 


Chap.  18.]  MODE  OF  KEEPING  VAEIOT7S  FRUITS.  303 

keeping  just  like  grapes,  and  in  as  many  different  ways;  but, 
with  the  exception  of  plums,  they  are  the  only  fruit  that  are 
stored  in  casks.22  Apples  and  pears  have  certain  vinous 23 
properties,  and  like  wine  these  drinks  are  forbidden  to  invalids  by 
the  physicians.  These  fruits  are  sometimes  boiled  up  with  wine 
and  water,  and  so  make  a  preserve  u  that  is  eaten  with  bread  ; 
a  preparation  which  is  never  made  of  any  other  fruit,  with  the 
exception  of  the  quinces,  known  as  the  "cotoneum"  and  the 
"  strutheum." 

CHAP.  18.  (16.) — THE  MODE  OF  KEEPIXG  VABIOUS  FKUITS  AND 

GKAPES. 

For  the  better  preserving  of  fruits  it  is  universally  recom- 
mended that  the  storeroom  should  be  situate  in  a  cool,  dry 
spot,  with  a  well-boarded  floor,  and  windows  looking  towards 
the  north  ;  which  in  fine  weather  ought  to  be  kept  open.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  to  keep  out  the  south  wind  by  window 
panes,25  while  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
a  north-east  wind  will  shrivel  fruit  and  make  it  unsightly.  Ap- 
ples are  gathered  after  the  autumnal  equinox ;  but  the  gather- 
ing should  never  begin  before  the  sixteenth  day  of  the  moon, 
or  before  the  first  hour  of  the  day.  Windfalls  should  always 
be  kept  separate,  and  there  ought  to  be  a  layer  of  straw,  or 
else  mats  or  chaff,  placed  beneath.  They  should,  also,  be 
placed  apart  from  each  other,  in  rows,  so  that  the  air  may  cir- 
culate freely  between  them,  and  they  may  equally  gain  the 
benefit  of  it.  The  Amerinian  apple  is  the  best  keeper,  the 
melimelum  the  very  worst  of  all.  • 

(17.)  Quinces  ought  to  be  stored  in  a  place  kept  perfectly 
closed,  so  as  to  exclude  all  draughts ;  or  else  they  should  be 
boiled  in  honey 26  or  soaked  in  it.     Pomegranates  are  made 

22  Cadis. 

23  He  probably  alludes  here  to  cider  and  perry.  See  p.  300,  and  B.  xxiii. 
c.  62.. 

24  "Pulraentarii  vicera ;"  properly  "  a  substitute  for  pulmentarium,"  which 
was  anything  eaten  with  bread,  such  as  meat,  vegetables,  &c.  He  alludes 
to  marmalade.  The  French  raisine  is  a  somewhat  similar  preparation 
from  pears  and  quinces  boiled  in  new  wine. 

25  "  Specularibus."  He  alludes  to  windows  of  transparent  stone,  lapis 
specularis,  or  mica ;  windows  of  glass  being  probably  unknown  in  his  time. 
The  ordinary  windows  were  merely  openings  closed  with  shutters.  See  B. 
xxxvi.  c.  45. 

-G  He  must  allude  to  a  kind  of  quince  marmalade. 


304  pltny's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

hard  and  firm  by  being  first  put  in  boiling 27  sea-water,  and 
then  left  to  dry  for  three  days  in  the  sun,  care  being  taken  that 
the  dews  of  the  night  do  not  touch  them ;  after  which  they 
are  hung  up,  and  when  wanted  for  use,  washed  with  fresh 
water.  M.  Varro 28  recommends  that  they  should  be  kept  in 
large  vessels  filled  with  sand  :  if  they  are  not  ripe,  he  says 
that  they  should  be  put  in  pots  with  the  bottom  broken  out, 
and  then  buried29  in  the  earth,  all  access  to  the  air  being  care- 
fully shut,  and  care  being  first  taken  to  cover  the  stalk  with 
pitch.  By  this  mode  of  treatment,  he  assures  us,  they  will 
attain  a  larger  size  than  they  would  if  left  to  ripen  on  the  tree. 
As  for  the  other  kinds  of  pomes,  he  says  that  they  should  be 
wrapped  up  separately  in  fig-leaves,  the  windfalls  being  care- 
fully excluded,  and  then  stored  in  baskets  of  osier,  or  else 
covered  over  with  potters'  earth. 

Pears  are  kept  in  earthen  vessels  pitched  inside ;  when 
filled,  the  vessels  are  reversed  and  then  buried  in  pits.  The 
Tarentine  pear,  Varro  says,  is  gathered  very  late,  while  the 
Anician  keeps  very  well  in  raisin  wine.  Sorb  apples,  too,  are 
similarly  kept  in  holes  in  the  ground,  the  vessel  being  turned 
upside  down,  and  a  layer  of  plaster  placed  on  the  lid:  it  should  be 
buried  two  feet  deep,  in  a  sunny  spot;  sorbs30  are  also  hung,  like 
grapes,  in  the  inside  of  large  vessels,  together  with  the  branches. 

Some  of  the  more  recent  authors  are  found  to  pay  a  more 
scrupulous  degree  of  attention  to  these  various  particulars,  and 
recommend  that  the  gathering  of  grapes  or  pomes,  which  are 
intended  for  keeping,  should  take  place  while  the  moon  is  on 
the  wane,31  after  the  third  hour  of  the  day,  and  while  the 
weather  is  clear,  or  dry  winds  prevail.  In  a  similar  manner, 
the  selection,  they  say,  ought  to  be  made  from  a  dry  spot,  and 
the  fruit  should  be  plucked  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  a  moment 
being  chosen  while  the  moon  is  below  the  horizon.  Grapes, 
they  say,  should  be  selected  that  have  a  strong,  hard  mallet- 
stalk,  and  after  the  decayed  berries  have  been  carefully  re- 
moved with  a  pair  of  scissors,  they  should  be  hung  up  inside  of 

•27  As  Fee  remarks,  the  fruit,  if  treated  thus,  would  soon  lose  all  the 
properties  for  which  it  is  valued. 

28  De  Re  Rust.  B.  i.  c.  59. 

29  A  faulty  proceeding,  however  dry  it  may  he. 

30  This  fruit,  Fee  remarks,  keeps  but  indifferently,  and  soon  hecomes 
soft,  vinous,  and  acid. 

31  An  absurd  superstition. 


Chap.  18.]  MODE  OF  KEEPING  VARIOUS   FRUITS.  305 

a  large  vessel  which  has  just  been  pitched,  care  being  taken  to 
close  all  access  to  the  south  wind,  by  covering  the  lid  with  a 
coat  of  plaster.  The  same  method,  they  say,  should  be  adopted 
for  keeping  sorb  apples  and  pears,  the  stalks  being  carefully 
covered  with  pitch ;  care  should  be  taken,  too,  that  the  ves- 
sels are  kept  at  a  distance  from  water. 

There  are  some  persons  who  adopt  the  following  method  for 
preserving  grapes.  They  take  them  off  together  with  the 
branch,  and  place  them,  while  still  upon  it,  in  a  layer  of 
plaster,32  taking  care  to  fasten  either  end  of  the  branch  in  a 
bulb  of  squill.33  Others,  again,  go  so  far  as  to  place  them 
within  vessels  containing  wine,  taking  care,  however,  that  the 
grapes,  as  they  hang,  do  not  touch  it.  Some  persons  put 
apples  in  plates  of  earth,  and  then  leave  them  to  float  in  wine, 
a  method  by  which  it  is  thought  that  a  vinous  flavour  is  im- 
parted to  them  :  while  some  think  it  a  better  plan  to  preserve  all 
these  kinds  of  fruit  in  millet.  Most  people,  however,  content 
themselves  with  first  digging  a  hole  in  the  ground,  a  couple  of 
feet  in  depth ;  a  layer  of  sand  is  then  placed  at  the  bottom, 
and  the  fruit  is  arranged  upon  it,  and  covered  with  an  earthen 
lid,  over  which  the  earth  is  thrown.  Some  persons  again  even 
go  so  far  as  to  give  their  grapes  a  coating  of  potters'  chalk,  and 
then  hang  them  up  when  dried  in  the  sun ;  when  required  for 
use,  the  chalk  is  removed  with  water.34  Apples  are  also  pre- 
served in  a  similar  manner  ;  but  with  them  wine  is  employed 
for  getting  off  the  chalk.  Indeed,  we  find  a  very  similar  plan 
pursued  with  apples  of  the  finest  quality ;  they  have  a  coating- 
laid  upon  them  of  either  plaster  or  wax ;  but  they  are  apt,  if 
not  quite  ripe  when  this  was  done,  by  the  increase  in  their 
size  to  break  their  casing."4*  When  apples  are  thus  prepared, 
they  are  always  laid  with  the  stalk  downwards.35  Some 
persons  pluck  the  apple  together  with  the  branch,  the  ends  of 
which  they  thrust  into  the  pith  of  elder,35*  and  then  bury  it  in 

32  A  method  not  unlikely  to  spoil  the  grape,  from  the  difficulty  of  re- 
moving the  coat  thus  given  to  it. 

33  A  very  absurd  notion,  as  Fee  observes.  To  keep  fruit  in  millet  is 
also  condemned. 

34  Which,  of  course,  must  deteriorate  the  flavour  of  the  grape. 
3i*  It  is  doubtful  if  they  will  increase  in  size,  when  once  plucked. 

35  The  modern  authorities  recommend  the  precisely  opposite  plan. 
354  As  absurd  as  the  use  of  the  bulb  of  squill. 

TOL.    III.  X 


306  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

the  way  already  pointed  out.36  There  are  some  who  assign  to 
each  apple  or  pear  its  separate  vessel  of  clay,  and  after  care- 
fully pitching  the  cover,  enclose  it  again  in  a  larger  vessel : 
occasionally,  too,  the  fruit  is  iDlaced  on  a  layer  of  flocks  of 
wool,  or  else  in  baskets,37  with  a  lining  of  chaff  and  clay. 
Other  persons  follow  a  similar  plan,  but  use  earthen  plates  for 
the  purpose ;  while  others,  again,  employ  the  same  method, 
but  dig  a  hole  in  the  earth,  and  after  placing  a  layer  of  sand, 
lay  the  fruit  on  top  of  it,  and  then  cover  the  whole  with  dry 
earth.  Persons,  too,  are  sometimes  known  to  give  quinces  a 
coating  of  Pontic-8  wax,  and  then  plunge  them  in  honey. 

Columella39  informs  us,  that  fruit  is  kept  by  being  carefully 
put  in  earthen  vessels,  which  then  receive  a  coating  of  pitch,  and 
are  placed  in  wells  or  cisterns  to  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  people 
of  maritime  Liguria,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Alps,  first  dry  their 
grapes  in  the  sun,40  and  wrap  them  up  in  bundles  of  rushes, 
which  are  then  covered  with  plaster.  The  Greeks  follow  a 
similar  plan,  but  substitute  for  rushes  the  leaves  of  the  plane- 
tree,  or  of  the  vine  itself,  or  else  of  the  fig,  which  they  dry 
for  a  single  day  in  the  shade,  and  then  place  in  a  cask  in 
alternate  layers  with  husks41  of  grapes.  It  is  by  this  method 
that  they  preserve  the  grapes  of  Cos  and  Eerytus,  which  are 
inferior  to  none  in  sweetness.  Some  persons,  when  thus  pre- 
paring them,  plunge  the  grapes  into  lie-ashes  the  moment  they 
take  them  from  the  vine,  and  then  dry  them  in  the  sun ;  they 
then  steep  them  in  warm  water,  after  which  they  put  them  to 
dry  again  in  the  sun :  and  last  of  all,  as  already  mentioned, 
wrap  them  up  in  bundles  formed  of  layers  of  leaves  and  grape 
husks.  There  are  some  who  prefer  keeping  their  grapes  in 
sawdust,43  or  else  in  shavings  of  the  fir-tree,  poplar,  and  ash  : 
while  others  think  it  the  best  plan  to  hang  them  up  in  the 
granary,  at  a  careful  distance  from  the  apples,  directly  after  the 
gathering,  being  under  the  impression  that  the  very  best  cover- 
ing for  them  as  they  hang  is  the  dust43  that  naturally  arises 

36  In  a  pit  two  feet  deep,  &c.     See  above.  37  Capsae, 

38  gee  ij,  xxi.  c.  49.  39  Be  Ee  Eust.  B.  xii.  c.  43. 

40  These  must  make  raisins  of  the  sun. 

41  These  must  have  been  perfectly  dry,  or  else  they  would  tend  to  rot 
the  grapes  or  raisins. 

42  Columella,  for  instance,  B.  xii.  c.  43. 

13  The  dust  is  in  reality  very  liable  to  spoil  the  fruit,  from  the  tenacity 


Chap.  19.]  VARIETIES    OF    THE   FIG.  307 

from  the  floor.  Grapes  are  effectually  protected  against  the 
attacks  of  wasps  by  "being  sprinkled  with  oil43*  spirted  .from  the 
mouth.     Of  palm-dates  we  have  already  spoken.44 

CHAP.   19.    (18.) TWEXTY-XIXE    VARIETIES    OF    THE    FIG. 

Of  ail  the  remaining  fruits  that  are  included  under  the 
name  of  "  pomes,"  the  fig45  is  the  largest :  some,  indeed,  equal 
the  pear,  even,  in  size.  We  have  already  mentioned,  while 
treating  of  the  exotic  fruits,  the  miraculous  productions  of 
Egypt  and  Cyprus46  in  the  way  of  figs.  The  fig  of  Mount 
Ida47  is  red,  and  the  size  of  an  olive,  rounder  however,  and 
like  a  medlar  in  flavour ;  they  give  it  the  name  of  Alex- 
andrian in  those  parts.  The  stem  is  a  cubit  in  thickness ;  it  is 
branchy,  has  a  tough,  pliant  wood,  is  entirely  destitute  of  all 
milky  juice,48  and  has  a  green  bark,  and  leaves  like  those  of  the 
linden  tree,  but  soft  to  the  touch.  Onesicritus  states  that  in 
Hyrcania  the  figs  are  much  sweeter  than  with  us,  and  that  the 
trees  are  more  prolific,  seeing  that  a  single  tree  will  bear  as 
much  as  two  hundred  and  seventy  modii49  of  fruit.  The  fig 
has  been  introduced  into  Italy  from  other  countries,  Chalcis 
and  Chios,  for  instance,  the  varieties  being  very  numerous : 
there  are  those  from  Lydia  also,  which  are  of  a  purple  colour, 
and  the  kind  known  as  the  "  mamillana,"50  which  is  very 
similar  to  the  Lydian.  The  callistruthise  are  very  little  supe- 
rior to  the  last  in  flavour  ;  they  are  the  coldest  by  nature  of 
all  the  figs.  As  to  the  African  fig,  by  many  people  preferred 
to  any  other,  it  has  been  made  the  subject  of  very  consider- 
able discussion,  as  it  is  a  kind  that  has  been  introduced  very 
recently  into  Africa,  though  it  bears  the  name  of  that  country. 

with  which  it  adheres.  In  all  these  methods,  little  attention  would  seem 
to  be  paid  to  the  retention  of  the  flavour  of  the  fruits. 

43*  A  detestable  practice,  Fee  says,  as  the  oil  makes  an  indelible  mark 
on  the  grape,  and  gives  it  an  abominable  flavour.  It  Is  the  best  method 
to  put  the  fruit  in  bags  of  paper  or  hair. 

44  See  B.  xiii.  c.  19. 

45  There  are  about  forty  varieties  now  known. 

40  B.  xiii.  c.  14,  15.     These  are  the  Ficus  sycomorus  of  Linnasus. 

47  In  Troas ;  called  the  Alexandrian  fig,  from  the  city  of  Alexandria 
there.  Fee  doubts  if  this  was  really  a  fig,  and  suggests  that  it  might  be 
the  fruit  of  a  variety  of  Diospyros. 

48  No  fig-tree  now  known  is  destitute  of  this. 

49  Fee  treats  this  as  an  exaggeration. 

50  From  "  mamilla,"  a  teat. 

x  2 


308  pliny's  natural  histoey.  [Cook  XV. 

As  to  the  fig  of  Alexandria,51  it  is  a  black  variety,  with  the 
cleft  inclining  to  white ;  it  has  had  the  name  given  to  it  of 
the  "  delicate"53  fig :  the  Rhodian  fig,  too,  and  the  Tiburtine,53 
one  of  the  early  kinds,  are  black.  Some  of  them,  again,  bear 
the  name  of  the  persons  who  were  the  first  to  introduce  them, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  Livian54  and  the  Pompeian55  figs :  this 
last  variety  is  the  best  for  drying  in  the  sun  and  keeping  for 
use,  from  year  to  year ;  the  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the 
marisca,56  and  the  kind  which  has  a  leaf  spotted  all  over  like 
the  reed.57  There  is  also  the  Herculanean  fig,  the  albicerata,68 
and  the  white  aratia,  a  very  large  variety,  with  an  extremely 
diminutive  stalk. 

The  earliest  of  them  all  is  the  porphyrias, 59  which  has  a 
stalk  of  remarkable  length  :  it  is  closely  followed  by  the  popu- 
laris,60  one  of  the  very  smallest  of  the  figs,  and  so  called  from 
the  low  esteem  in  which  it  is  held :  on  the  other  hand,  the 
chelidonia61  is  a  kind  that  ripens  the  last  of  all,  and  to- 
wards the  beginning  of  winter.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
figs  that  are  at  the  same  time  both  late  and  early,  as  they  bear 
two  crops  in  the  year,  one  white  and  the  other  black,62  ripen- 
ing at  harvest-time  and  vintage  respectively.  There  is  another 
late  fig  also,  that  has  received  its  name  from  the  singular 
hardness  of  its  skin  ;  one  of  the  Chalcidian  varieties  bears  as 
many  as  three  times  in  the  year.  It  is  at  Tarentum  only  that 
the  remarkably  sweet  fig  is  grown  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  "  ona." 

Speaking  of  figs,  Cato  has  the  following  remarks :  "  Plant 
the  fig  called  the  '  marisca'  on  a  chalky  or  open  site,  but  for 
the  African  variety,   the  Herculanean,   the  Saguntine,63  the 

54  In  Egypt.     The  Figue  servantine,  or  cordeliere. 

52  "Delicata."    The  "  bon-bouche." 

53  Fee  suggests  that  this  may  have  been  the  small  early  fig. 

54  From  Livia,  the  wife  of  Augustus. 

55  From.  Pompeius  Magnus.      56  Apparently  meaning  the  "  marsh"  fig. 
57  The  Laconian  reed,  Theophrastus  says,  B.  iv.  c.  12. 

5S  The  "  white-wax"  fig. 

59  Fee  queries  whether  it  may  not  be  the  Grosse  bourjasotte. 

60  Or  "  people's"  fig.     The  small  early  white  fig. 

61  Or  "swallow"-fig. 

62  Or  it  may  mean  "  white  and  black,"  that  being  the  colour  of  the 
fig.     Such  a  variety  is  still  known. 

63  A  Spanish  variety;  those  of  the  south  of  Spain  are  very  highly 
esteemed. 


Chap.  20.]     ANECDOTES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  EIG.     309 

winter  fig  and  the  black  Telanian64  with  a  long  stalk,  you 
must  select  a  richer  soil,  or  else  a  ground  well  manured." 
Since  his  day  there  have  so  many  names  and  kinds  come  up, 
that  even  on  taking  this  subject  into  consideration,  it  must  be 
apparent  to  every  one  how  great  are  the  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  civilized  life. 

There  are  winter  figs,  too,  in  some  of  the  provinces,  the 
Moesian,  for  instance  ;  but  they  are  made  so  by  artificial  means, 
such  not  being  in  reality  their  nature.  Being  a  small 
variety  of  the  fig-tree,  they  cover  it  up  with  manure  at  the  end 
of  autumn,  by  which  means  the  fruit  on  it  is  overtaken  by 
winter  while  still  in  a  green  state  :  then  when  the  weather 
becomes  milder  the  fruit  is  uncovered  along  with  the  tree,  and 
so  restored  to  light.  Just  as  though  it  had  come  into  birth 
afresh,  the  fruit  imbibes  the  heat  of  the  new  sun  with  the 
greatest  avidity — a  different  sun,  in  fact,  to  that 65  which  ori- 
ginally gave  it  life — and  so  ripens  along  with  the  blossom  of 
the  coming  crop  ;  thus  attaining  maturity  in  a  year  not  its 
own,  and  this  in  a  country,66  too,  where  the  greatest  cold 
prevails. 

CHAP,  20. HISTORICAL  ANECDOTES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  EIG. 

67The  mention  by  Cato  of  the  variety  which  bears  the  name 
of  the  African  fig,  strongly  recalls  to  my  mind  a  remarkable 
fact  connected  with  it  and  the  country  from  which  it  takes 
its  name. 

Burning  with  a  mortal  hatred  to  Carthage,  anxious,  too,  for  the 
safety  of  his  posterity,  and  exclaiming  at  every  sitting  of  the 
senate  that  Carthage  must  be  destroyed,  Cato  one  day  brought 
with  him  into  the  Senate-house  a  ripe  fig,  the  produce  of  that 
country.  Exhibiting  it  to  the  assembled  senators,  "  I  ask  you," 
said  he,  "  when,  do  you  suppose,  this  fruit  was^plucked  from  the 
tree  ?"  All  being  of  opinion  that  it  had  been  but  lately  gathered, 
— "  Know  then,"  was  his  reply,  "  that  this  fig  was  plucked  at 
Carthage  but  the  day  before  yesterday08 — so  near  is  the  enemy 

54  The  modern  "  black"  tig. 

65  The  sun  of  the  former  year. 

66  In  Moesia — the  present  Servia  and  Bulgaria. 

67  Another  war  is  said  to  have  originated  in  this  fruit.  Xerxes  was 
tempted  by  the  fine  figs  of  Athens  to  undertake  the  invasion  of  Greece.  _ 

«  " Tertium  ante  diem."    In  dating  from  an  event,  the  Romans  in- 


310  PLINY* S   NATURAL   HISTOKY.  [Book  XY. 

to  our  walls."  It  was  immediately  after  this  occurrence  that 
the  third  Punic  war  commenced,  in  which  Carthage  was 
destroyed;  though  Cato  had  breathed  his  last,  the  year  after  this 
event.  In  this  trait  which  are  we  the  most  to  admire  ?  was  it 
ingenuity69  and  foresight  on  his  part,  or  was  it  an  accident  that 
was  thus  aptly  turned  to  advantage  ?  which,  too,  is  the  most 
surprising,  the  extraordinary  quickness  of  the  passage  which 
must  have  been  made,  or  the  bold  daring  of  the  man  ?  The 
thing,  however,  that  is  the  most  astonishing  of  all; — indeed,  I 
can  conceive  nothing  more  truly  marvellous — is  the  fact  that  a 
city  thus  mighty,  the  rival  of  Rome  for  the  sovereignty  of  the 
world  during  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  owed 
its  fall  at  last  to  an  illustration  drawn  from  a  single  fig  ! 

Thus  did  this  fig  effect  that  which  neither  Trebia  nor  Thrasi- 
menus,  not  Cannae  itself,  graced  with  the  entombment  of  the 
Eoman  renown,  not  the  Punic  camp  entrenched  within  three 
miles  of  the  city,  not  even  the  disgrace  of  seeing  Hannibal 
riding  up  to  the  Colline  Gate,  could  suggest  the  means  of 
accomplishing.  It  was  left  for  a  fig,  in  the  hand  of  Cato,  to 
show  how  near  was  Carthage  to  the  gates  of  Rome ! 

In  the  Forum  even,  and  in  the  very  midst  of  the  Comitium70 
of  Rome,  a  fig-tree  is  carefully  cultivated,  in  memory  of  the 
consecration  which  took  place  on  the  occasion  of  a  thunder- 
bolt71 which  once  fell  on  that  spot ;  and  still  more,  as  a  me- 
morial of  the  fig-tree  which  in  former  days  overshadowed 
Romulus  and  Remus,  the  founders  of  our  empire,  in  the  Lu- 
percal  Cave.  This  tree  received  the  name  of  "  rurninalis," 
from  the  circumstance  that  under  it  the  wolf  was  found  giving 
the  breast — rumis  it  was  called  in  those  days — to  the  two 
infants.  A  group  in  bronze  was  afterwards  erected  to  con- 
secrate the  remembrance  of  this  miraculous  event,  as,  through 
the  agency  of  Attus  Navius  the  augur,  the  tree  itself  had 

eluded  both  days  in  the  computation;  the  one  they  dated  from,  and  the 
day  of,  the  event. 

99  In  sending  for  the  fig,  and  thinking  of  this  method  of  speaking  to 
the  feelings  of  his  fellow-countrymen. 

70  A  place  hi  the  Forum,  where  public  meetings  were  held,  and  certain 
offences  tried. 

71  He  alludes  to  the  Puteal,  or  enclosed  space  in  the  Forum,  consecrated 
by  Scribonius  Libo,  in  consequence  of  the  spot  having  been  struck  by 
lightning. 


Chap.  21.]  CAPEIFICATIOST.  311 

passed  spontaneously  from  its  original  locality72  to  the  Comi- 
tium  in  the  Forum.  And  not  without  some  direful  presage  is 
it  that  that  tree  has  withered  away,  though,  thanks  to  the 
care  of  the  priesthood,  it  has  been  since  replaced.73 

There  was  another  fig-tree  also,  before  the  temple  of  Sa- 
turn,74 which  was  removed  on  the  occasion  of  a  sacrifice  made 
by  the  Yestal  Virgins,  it  being  found  that  its  roots  were  gra- 
dually undermining  the  statue  of  the  god  Silvanus.  Another 
one,  accidentally  planted  there,  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the 
Forum,75  upon  the  very  spot,  too,  in.  which,  when  from  a  dire- 
ful presage  it  had  been  foreboded  that  the  growing  empire 
was  about  to  sink  to  its  very  foundations,  Curtius,  at  the  price 
of  an  inestimable  treasure — in  other  words,  by  the  sacrifice  of 
such  unbounded  virtue  and  piety — redeemed  his  country  by  a 
glorious  death.  By  a  like  accident,  too,  a  vine  and  an  olive- 
tree  have  sprung  up  in  the  same  spot,76  which  have  ever  since 
been  carefully  tended  by  the  populace  for  the  agreeable  shade 
which  they  afford.  The  altar  that  once  stood  there  was  after- 
wards removed  by  order  of  the  deified  Julius  Caesar,  upon  the 
occasion  of  the  last  spectacle  of  gladiatorial  combats77  which 
he  gave  in  the  Forum. 

CHAP.  21. — CAPEIFICATIOE". 

The  fig,  the  only  one  among  all  the  pomes,  hastens  to  maturity 
by  the  aid  of  a  remarkable  provision  of  Nature.  (19.)  The 
wild-fig,78  known  by  the  name  of  "  caprificus,"  never  ripens 
itself,  though  it  is  able  to  impart  to  the  others  the  principle 
of  which  it  is  thus  destitute  ;  for  we  occasionally  find  Nature 
making  a  transfer  of  what  are  primary  causes,  and  being  gene- 
rated from  decay.     To  effect  this  purpose  the  wild  fig-tree 

72  On  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  below  the  Palatine  Mount.  The  whole 
of  this  passage  is  in  a  most  corrupt  siate,  and  it  is  difficult  to  extract  a 
meaning  from  it. 

73  By  slips  from  the  old  tree,  as  Tacitus  seems  to  say—"  in  novos  foetus 
revivisceret." 

74  At  the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill. 

75  Probably  near  where  the  Curtius  Lacus  had  stood  in  the  early  days  of 
Pome.  The  story  of  Metius  Curtius,  who  leaped  into  the  yawning  gulph 
in  the  Forum,  in  order  to  save  his  country,  is  known  to  every  classical 
reader. 

76  The  Forum.  77  See  B.  xix.  c.  6. 

76  The  Ficus  Carica  of  Linnaeus.  It  does  bear  fruit,  though  small,  and 
disagreeable  to  the  taste. 


3]2  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

produces  a  kind  of  gnat.79  These  insects,  deprived  of  all  sus- 
tenance from  their  parent  tree,  at  the  moment  that  it  is  has- 
tening to  rottenness  and  decay,  wing  their  flight  to  others  of 
kindred  though  cultivated  kind.  There  feeding  with  avidity 
upon  the  fig,  they  penetrate  it  in  numerous  places,  and  by 
thus  making  their  way  to  the  inside,  open  the  pores  of  the 
fruit.80  The  moment  they  effect  their  entrance,  the  heat  of 
the  sun  finds  admission  too,  and  through  the  inlets  thus  made 
the  fecundating  air  is  introduced.  These  insects  speedily 
consume  the  milky  juice  that  constitutes  the  chief  support 
of  the  fruit  in  its  infant81  state,  a  result  which  would  other- 
wise be  spontaneously  effected  by  absorption  :  and  hence  it  is 
that  in  the  plantations  of  figs  a  wild  fig  is  usually  aUowed  to 
grow,  being  placed  to  the  windward  of  the  other  trees^  in 
order  that  the  breezes  may  bear  from  it  upon  them.  Improving 
upon  this  discovery,  branches  of  the  wild  fig  are  sometimes 
brought  from  a  distance,  and  bundles  tied  together  are  placed 
upon  the  cultivated  tree.  This  method,  however,  is  not  neces- 
sary when  the  trees  are  growing  on  a  thin  soil,  or  on  a  site 
exposed  to  the  north-east  wind  ;  for  in  these  cases  the  figs  will 
dry  spontaneously,  and  the  clefts  which  are  made  in  the  fruit 
effect  the  same  ripening  process  which  in  other  instances  _  is 
brought  about  by  the  agency  of  these  insects.  Nor  is  it  requisite 
to  adopt  this  plan  on  spots  which  are  liable  to  dust,  such,  for 
instance,  as  is  generally  the  case  with  fig-trees  planted  by  the 
side  of  much-frequented  roads :  the  dust  having  the  property 
of  drying  up82  the  juices  of  the  fig,  and  so  absorbing  the 
milky  humours.  There  is  this  superiority,  however,  in  an  ad- 
vantageous site  over  the  methods  of  ripening  by  the  agency  of 
dust  or  by  caprification,  that  the  fruit  is  not  so  apt  to  fall ;  for 
the  secretion  of  the  juices  being  thus  prevented,  the  fig  is  not 
so  heavy  as  it  would  otherwise  be,  and  the  branches  are  less 

brittle.  .  . 

All  figs  are  soft  to  the  touch,  and  when  ripe  contain  grains  > 

■3  This  insect  is  one  of  the  Hymenoptera  ;  the  Cynips  Psenes  of  Linnteus 
and  Fabricius.     There  is  another  insect  of  the  same  genus,  hut  not  so 

well  known.  .  ,,  ,  , , 

so  Fe"e  observes  that  the  caprification  accelerates  the  ripeness  of  the 

fruit,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  flavour.     For  the  same  purpose  the  upper 

part 'of  the  fig  is  often  pricked  with  a  pointed  quill. 

si  «  Infant'iam  pomi"— literally,  "the  infancy  of  the  fruit. 

82  Fee  denies  the  truth  of  this  assertion.  »  Frumenta. 


Chap.  21.]  CAPMFICATIOS".  313 

in  the  interior.  The  juice,  when  the  fruit  is  ripening,  has  the 
taste  of  milk,  and  when  dead  ripe,  that  of  honey.  If  left  on 
the  tree  they  will  grow  old ;  and  when  in  that  state,  they 
distil  a  liquid  that  flows  in  tears  w  like  gum.  Those  that  are 
more  highly  esteemed  are  kept  for  drying,  and  the  most  ap- 
proved kinds  are  put  away  for  keeping  in  baskets.85  The  figs 
of  the  island  of  Ebusus 86  are  the  best  as  well  as  the  largest, 
and  next  to  them  are  those  of  Marrueinum.87  Where  figs  are 
in  great  abundance,  as  in  Asia,  for  instance,  huge  jars8' 
are  filled  with  them,  and  at  Euspina,  a  city  of  Africa,  we  find 
casks 89  used  for  a  similar  purpose  :  here,  in  a  dry  state,  they 
are  extensively  used  instead  of  bread,90  and  indeed  as  a  general 
article  of  provision.91  Cato,92  when  laying  down  certain  defi- 
nite regulations  for  the  support  of  labourers  employed  in  agri- 
culture, recommends  that  their  supply  of  food  should  be 
lessened  just  at  the  time 93  when  the  fig  is  ripening :  it  has 
been  a  plan  adopted  in  more  recent  times,  to  find  a  substitute 
for  salt  with  cheese,  by  eating  fresh  figs.  To  this  class  of 
fruit  belong,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,94  the  cottana  and 
the  carica,  together  with  the  cavnea,95  which  was  productive  of 
so  bad  an  omen  to  M.  Crassus  at  the  moment  when  he  was 
embarking96  for  his  expedition  against  the  Parthians,  a  dealer 
happening  to  be  crying  them  just  at  that  very  moment.  L. 
Vitellius,  who  was  more  recently  appointed  to  the  censor- 
ship,97 introduced  all  these  varieties  from  Syria  at  his  country- 
seat  at  Alba,93  having  acted  as  legatus  in  that  province  in  the 
latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  Caesar. 

84  A  mixture  of  the  sugar  of  the  fruit  with  the  milky  juice  of  the  tree, 
which  is  a  species  of  caoutchouc.  85  Capsis. 

85  See  B.  iii.  c.  11.  The  Balearic  Isles  still  produce  great  quantities  of 
excellent  dried  figs.  87  See  B.  iii.  c.  17. 

88  Orcse.  89  Cadi. 

90  Ground,  perhaps,  into  a  kind  of  flour. 

91  Opsonii  vicem.  "  Opsonium  "  was  anything  eaten  with  bread,  such  as 
vegetables,  meat,  and  fish,  for  instance. 

92  De  Re  Rust.  c.  56. 

93  Because  they  would  he  sure,  under  any  circumstances,  to  eat  plenty  of 
them.  94  gee  b.  xiii.  c.  10. 

95  These  were  so  called  from  Caunus,  a  city  of  Caria,  famous  for  its  dried 
figs.  Pronounced  "  Cavncas,"  it  would  sound  to  the  superstitious,  "  Cave 
ne  eas,"  "  Take  care  that  you  go  not." 

96  At  Brundisium.  97  a.u.c.  801. 
98  Alba  Longa.     See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 


314  PLINY*  S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

CHAP.  22.    (20.) — THREE  VARIETIES  OP  THE  MEDLAR. 

The  medlar  and  the  sorb  "  ought  in  propriety  to  be  ranked 
under  the  head  of  the  apple  and  the  pear.  Of  the  medlar1 
there  are  three  varieties,  the  anthedon,2  the  setania,3  and  a 
third  of  inferior  quality.,  which  bears  a  stronger  resemblance 
to  the  anthedon,  and  is  known  as  the  Gallic4  kind.  The  seta- 
nia is  the  largest  fruit,  and  the  palest  in  colour  ;  the  woody  seed 
in  the  inside  of  it  is  softer,  too,  than  in  the  others,  which  are  of 
smaller  size  than  the  setania,  but  superior  to  it  in  the  fragrance 
of  their  smell,  and  in  being  better  keepers.  The  tree  itself  is 
one  of  very  ample5  dimensions  :  the  leaves  turn  red  before  they 
fall :  the  roots  are  numerous,  and  penetrate  remarkably  deep, 
which  renders  it  almost  impossible  to  grub  it  up.  This  tree  6 
did  not  exist  in  Italy  in  Cato's  time. 

CHAP.  23.    (21). — FOUR  VARIETIES  OF  THE  SORB. 

There  are  four  varieties  of  the  sorb :  there  being  some  that 
have  all  the  roundness "  of  the  apple,  while  others  are  conical 
like  the  pear,8  and  a  third  sort  are  of  an  oval 9  shape,  like 
some  of  the  apples :  these  last,  however,  are  apt  to  be  remark- 
ably acid.  The  round  kind  is  the  best  for  fragrance  and 
sweetness,  the  others  having  a  vinous  flavour;  the  finest, 
however,  are  those  which  have  the  stalk  surrounded  with 
tender  leaves.  A  fourth  kind  is  known  by  the  name  of  "  tor- 
minalis  :"10  it  is  only  employed,  however,  for  remedial  pur- 

09  The  sorb  belongs  to  the  genus  pirus  of  the  naturalists. 
1  The  Mespilus  germanica  of  the  botanists. 

3  The  azarolier,  a  tree  of  the  south  of  Europe,  the  Mespilus  apii  folio 
laciniato  of  C.  Bauhin. 

3  The  Mespilus  Italica  folio  laurino  serrato  of  C.  Bauhin,  the  Mespilus 
cotoneaster  of  J.  Bauhin. 

4  Its  identity  is  matter  of  uncertainty  ;  but  it  has  been  thought  to  be  the 
Crataegus  oxyacantha  of  modern  botanists.  _ 

5  By  "  amplissimus,"  he  must  mean  that  it  spreads  out  very  much  in  pro- 
portion to  its  height,  as  it  is  merely  a  shrub. 

6  Fee  thinks  it  a  tree  indigenous  to  the  north. 

7  The  ordinary  sorb-apple  of  horticulturists. 
6  The  sorb-pear. 

9  Varying  but  little,  probably,  from  the  common  sorb,  the  Sorbus  domes- 
tica  of  Linnaeus. 

10  Fee  is  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  the  Sorbus  terminalis  of  Lamarck. 
Anguillara  thinks  that  it  is  the  Crataegus  of  Theophrastus,  considered  by 


Chap. '24.]  VAEIETIES    OF   THE    NUT.  315 

poses.  The  tree  is  a  good  bearer,  but  does  not  resemble  the 
other  kinds,  the  leaf  being  nearly  that  of  the  plane-tree  ;  the 
fruit,  too,  is  particularly  small.  Cato  u  speaks  of  sorbs  being 
preserved  in  boiled  wine. 

CHAP.  24.    (22.) — NINE  YAEIETIES  OF  THE  NUT. 

The  walnut, 12  which  would  almost  claim  precedence  of  the 
sorb  in  size,  yields  the  palm  to  it  in  reference  to  the  esteem 13 
in  which  they  are  respectively  held  ;  and  this,  although  it  is 
so  favourite  an  accompaniment  of  the  Fescennine  u  songs  at 
nuptials.  This  nut,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  very  considerably 
smaller  than  the  pine  nut,  but  the  kernel  is  larger  in  propor- 
tion. Nature,  too,  has  conferred  upon  it  a  peculiar  honour,  in 
protecting  it  with  a  two-fold  covering,  the  first  of  which  forms 
a  hollowed  cushion  for  it  to  rest  upon,  and  the  second  is  a 
woody  shell.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  this  fruit  has  been 
looked  upon  as  a  symbol  consecrated  to  marriage,15  its  off- 
spring being  thus  protected  in  such  manifold  ways :  an  expla- 
nation which  bears  a  much  greater  air  of  probability  than  that 
which  would  derive  it  from  the  rattling  which  it  makes  when 
it  bounds  from  the  floor.16  The  Greek  names  that  have  been 
given  to  this  fruit  fully  prove  that  it,  like  many  others,  has 
been  originally  introduced  from  Persis ;  the  best  kinds  being 
known  in  that  language  by  the  names  of  "  Persicum,"17  and 
"  basilicon;"18  these,  in  fact,  being  the  names  by  which  they 

Sprengel  to  be  identical  with  the  Crataegus  azarolus  of  Linnaeus.  In 
ripening,  the  fruit  of  the  sorb  undergoes  a  sort  of  vinous  fermentation : 
hence  a  kind  of  cider  made  of  it. 

11  De  Re  Rust.  cc.  7  and  145.  12  The  Juglans  regia  of  Linnaeus. 

13  Tastes  have  probably  altered  since  this  was  written. 

14  These  were  rude  and  sometimes  obscene  gongs  sung  at  festivals,  and 
more  particularly  marriages.  While  these  songs  were  being  sung  at  the 
door  of  the  nuptial  chamber,  it  was  the  custom  for  the  husband  to  scramble 
walnuts  among  the  young  people  assembled  there.  The  walnut  is  the  nut 
mentioned  in  Solomon's  Song,  vi.  11. 

15  Or,  more  probably,  from  the  union  of  the  two  portions  of  the  inner  shell. 
_  i6  "  Tripudium  sonivium :"  implying  that  it  was  considered  sacred  to  mar- 
riage, from  the  use  made  of  it  by  the  friends  of  the  bridegroom  when 
thrown  violently  against  the  nuptial  chamber,  with  the  view  of  drowning 
the  cries  of  the  bride.     A  very  absurd  notion,  to  all  appearance. 

V  The  "  Persian  "  nut. 

18  The  "  king's "  nut.  The  walnut-tree  still  abounds  in  Persia,  and 
is  found  wild  on  the  slopes  of  the  Himalaya. 


316  plot's    NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

were  first  known  to  us.  It  is  generally  agreed,  too,  that  one 
peculiar  variety  has  derived  its  name  of  "  caryon,"19  from  the 
headache  which  it  is  apt  to  produce  by  the  pungency20  of 
its  smell. 

The  green  shell  of  the  walnut  is  used  for  dyeing21  wool,  and 
the  nuts,  while  still  small  and  just  developing  themselves,  are 
employed  for  giving  a  red  hue  to  the  hair  :22  a  discovery  owing 
to  the  stains  which  they  leave  upon  the  hands.  "When  old, 
the  nut  becomes  more  oleaginous.  The  only  difference  in  the 
several  varieties  consists  in  the  relative  hardness  or  brittleness 
of  the  shell,  it  being  thin  or  thick,  full  of  compartments  or 
smooth  and  uniform.  This  is  the  only  fruit  that  Nature  has 
enclosed  in  a  covering  formed  of  pieces  soldered  together ;  the 
shell,  in  fact,  forming  a  couple  of  boats,  while  the  kernel  is 
divided  into  four  separate  compartments23  by  the  intervention 
of  a  ligneous  membrane. 

In  all  the  other  kinds,  the  fruit  and  the  shell  respectively 
are  of  one  solid  piece,  as  we  find  the  case  with  the  hazel-nut,24 
and  another  variety  of  the  nut  formerly  known  as  "Abel- 
lina,"  25  from  the  name26  of  the  district  in  which  it  was  first 
produced :  it  was  first  introduced  into  Asia  and  Greece  from 
Pontus,  whence  the  name  that  is  sometimes  given  to  it— the 
"  Pontic  nut."  This  nut,  too,  is  protected  by  a  soft  beard,27 
but  both  the  shell  and  the  kernel  are  round,  and  formed  of  a 
single  piece:  these  nuts  are  sometimes  roasted.28  In  the 
middle  of  the  kernel  we  find  a  germen  or  navel. 

A  third  class  of  nuts  is  the  almond,29  which  has  an  outer 

19  Implying  that  it  comes  from  the  Greek  fcap/j,  "  the  head."  Some  ety- 
mologists think  that  it  is  from  the  Celto-Scythian  cariv,  a  boat ;  such  being 
the  shape  of  the  two  parts  of  the  inner  shell. 

20  It  is  still  a  common  notion,  Fee  says,  that  it  is  highly  injurious  to 
sleep  beneath  a  walnut-tree. 

21  It  is  still  used  for  this  purpose. 

22  Red  hair  was  admired  by  the  Romans.  The  Roman  females  used 
this  juice  also  for  dyeing  their  hair  when  grey. 

25  They  are  not  entirely  separate. 

24  The  Corylus  avellana  maxima  of  "Willdenow. 

25  The  filbert,  the  Corylus  tubulosa  of  Willdenow. 

26  Abellinum,  in  Campania.     See  B.  hi.  c.  9. 

27  The  down  on  the  nut  is  more  apparent  when  it  is  young  ;  but  it  is 
easily  rubbed  off.    The  outer  coat  is  probably  meant. 

28  Hazel  nuts  are  sometimes  roasted  in  some  parts  of  Europe^  but  not 

with  us. 

-a  The  Amygdalus  communis  of  Linnaeus. 


Chap.  24.]  VARIETIES    OF   THE    NET.  317 

covering,  similar  to  that  of  the  walnut,  but  thinner,  with  a 
second  coat  in  the  shape  of  a  shell.  The  kernel,  however,  is 
unlike  that  of  the  walnut,  in  respect  of  its  broad,  flat  shape, 
its  firmness,  and  the  superior  tastiness  of  its  flavour.  It  is  a 
matter  of  doubt  whether  this  tree  was  in  existence  in  Italy  in 
the  time  of  Cato  ;  we  find  him  speaking  of  Greek  nuts,30  but 
there  are  some  persons  who  think  that  these  belong  to  the 
walnut  class.  He  makes  mention,  also,  of  the  hazel-nut,  the 
calva,81  and  the  Praenestine32  nut,  which  last  he  praises  beyond 
all  others,  and  says33  that,  put  in  pots,  they  may  be  kept  fresh 
and  green  by  burying  them  in  the  earth. 

At  the  present  day,  the  almonds  of  Thasos  and  those  of 
Alba  are  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  as  also  two  kinds  that 
are  grown  atTarentum,  one  with  a  thin,34  brittle  shell,  and  the 
other  with  a  harder35  one :  these  last  are  remarkably  large, 
and  of  an  oblong  shape.  There  is  the  almond  known  as 
the  "  mollusca,"36  also,  which  breaks  the  shell  of  itself.  There 
are  some  who  would  concede  a  highly  honourable  interpreta- 
tion to  the  name  given  to  the  walnut,  and  say  that  "  juglans" 
means  the  "  glans,"  or  "  acorn  of  Jove."  It  is  only  very  lately 
that  I  heard  a  man  of  consular  rank  declare,  that  he  then 
had  in  his  possession  walnut-trees  that  bore  two37  crops  in 
the  year. 

Of  the  pistachio,  which  belongs  also  to  the  nut  class,  we 
have  already  spoken38  in  its  appropriate  place  :  7  itellius  intro- 
duced this  tree  into  Italy  at  the  same  time  as  the  others  that 

30  De  Re  Rust.  c.  8.  Some  think  that  this  was  the  hitter  almond  ;  and 
the  word  "  acriore,"  used  by  Pliny,  would  almost  seem  to  imply  that  such 
is  the  case. 

31  Apparently  the  "smooth"  or  "bald"  nut.  May  not  a  variety  some- 
thing like  the  hickory  nut  of  America  be  meant  ? 

32  Festus  says  that  a  kind  of  nut  was  so  called,  because  the  Praenestines, 
when  besieged  by  Hannibal  at  Casilinum,  subsisted  upon  them.  See 
Livy,  B.  xxiii.  Fee  considers  it  only  another  name  for  the  common  hazel 
nut.   '  33  De  Re  Rust.  c.  145. 

34  The  soft-shelled  almond,  or  princess  almond  of  the  French:  the 
Amvgdalus  communis  fragilis  of  naturalists. 

35  This  last  variety  does  not  seem  to  have  been  identified  :  the  hard- 
shell almonds  do  not  appear  to  be  larger  than  the  others. 

36  Or  "soft"  almond,- a  variety  only  of  the  Amygdalus  fragilis.  _ 

37  There  is  little  doubt  that  Fee  is  right  in  his  assertion,  that  this  great 
personage  imposed  on  our  author ;  as  no  trees  of  this  family  are  known  to 
bear  two  crops.  38  B.  xiii.  c.  10. 


318  PLINT'B  XATUKAL  HISTOH^.  [Cook  XV. 

we  mentioned  ;39  and  Flaccus  Pompeius,  a  Roman  of  Eques- 
trian rank,  who  served  with,  him,  introduced  it  at  the  same 
period  into  Spain. 

CHAP.  25.  (23.) EIGHTEEN  VARIETIES  OF  THE  CHESNUT. 

We  give  the  name  of  nut,  too,  to  the  chesnut,40  although  it 
would  seem  more  properly  to  belong  to  the  acorn  tribe.  The 
chesnut  has  its  armour  of  defence  in  a  shell  bristling  with 
prickles  like  the  hedge-hog,  an  envelope  which  in  the  acorn 
is  only  partially  developed.  It  is  really  surprising,  however, 
that  Nature  should  have  taken  such  pains  thus  to  conceal  an 
object  of  so  little  value.  We  sometimes  find  as  many  as 
three  nuts  beneath  a  single  outer  shell.  The  skin41  of  the  nut 
is  limp  and  flexible :  there  is  a  membrane,  too,  which  lies 
next  to  the  body  of  the  fruit,  and  which,  both  in  this  and  in 
the  walnut,  spoils  the  flavour  if  not  taken  off.  Chesnuts^  are 
the  most  pleasant  eating  when  roasted  :42  they  are  sometimes 
ground  also,  and  are  eaten  by  women  when  fasting  for  reli- 
gious scruples,43  as  bearing  some  resemblance  to  bread.  It  is 
from  Sardes44  that  the  chesnut  was  first  introduced,  and  hence 
it  is  that  the  Greeks  have  given  it  the  name  of  the  "  Sardian 
acorn;"  for  the  name  " Dios  balanon"  45  was  given  at  a  later 
period,  after  it  had  been  considerably  improved  by  cultivation. 

At  the  present  day  there  are  numerous  varieties  of  the 
chesnut.  Those  of  Tarentum  are  a  light  food,  and  by  no 
means  difficult  of  digestion ;  they  are  of  a  flat  shape.  _  There 
is  a  rounder  variety,  known  as  the  "balanitis;"46  it  is  very 
easily  peeled,  and  springs  clean  out  of  the  shell,  so  to  say,  of 

39  In  c.  xxi.  of  this  Book. 

40  The  tree  is  the  Fagus  castanea  of  Linnaeus.  41  Cortex. 

42  The  common  mode  of  eating  it  at  the  present  day.  The  Italians  also 
take  off  the  skin  and  dry  the  nut ;  thus  keeping  it  from  year  to  year. 
When  required  for  eating,  it  is  softened  hy  the  steam  of  hoiling  water. 

43  Not  improbably  said  in  allusion  to  the  fasts  introduced  hy  the  Jews, 
who  had  become  very  numerous  in  Rome. 

41  It  was  said  to  have  come  from  Castana,  a  city  of  Pontus,  whence  its 
name  "  Castanea."     It  is  probably  indigenous  to  Europe. 

45  The  Greek  for  "  Jove's  acorn." 

46  Or  "acorn  chesnut."  The  same  variety,  Fee  says,  that  is  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  Perigueux,  small,  nearly  round,  and  without  any  particular 
flavour. 


Chap.  27.]  THE    FLESHY   FRUITS.  319 

its  own  accord.  The  Salarian4f  chesnut  has  a  smooth  outer 
shell,  while  that  of  Tarentum  is  not  so  easily  handled.48  The 
Corellian  is  more  highly  esteemed,  as  is  the  Etereian,  which  is 
an  offshoot  from  it  produced  by  a  method  upon  which  we  shall 
have  to  enlarge  when  we  come  to  speak  of  grafting.49  This 
last  has  a  red  skin,50  which  causes  it  to  be  preferred  to  the 
three-cornered  chesnut  and  our  black  common  sorts,  which 
are  known  as  "  coctivae."51  Tarentum  and  Neapolis  in  Cam- 
pania are  the  most  esteemed  localities  for  the  chesnut :  other 
kinds,  again,  are  grown  to  feed  pigs  upon,52  the  skin  of  which 
is  rough  and  folded  inwards,  so  as  to  penetrate  to  the  heart  of 
the  kernel. 

CHAP.  26.  (24.) THE  CAROB. 

The  carob,53  a  fruit  of  remarkable  sweetness,  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  so  very  dissimilar  to  the  chesnut,  except  that  the 
skin54  is  eaten  as  well  as  the  inside.  It  is  just  the  length  of 
a  finger,  and  about  the  thickness  of  the  thumb,  being  some- 
times of  a  curved  shape,  like  a  sickle.  The  acorn  cannot  be 
reckoned  in  the  number  of  the  fruits ;  we  shall,  therefore, 
speak  of  it  along  with  the  trees  of  that  class.55 

CHAP.  27. THE  FLESHY  FRUITS.       THE  MULBERRY. 

The  other  fruits  belong  to  the  fleshy  kind,  and  differ  both 
in  the  shape  and  the  flesh.  The  flesh  of  the  various  ber- 
ries,56 of  the  mulberry,  and  of  the  arbute,  are  quite  dif- 
ferent from  one  another — and  then  what  a  difference,  too, 
between  the  grape,  which  is  only  skin  and  juice,57  the  myxa 
plum,  and  the  flesh  of  some  berries,58  such  as  the  olive,  for 

47  The  Ganebelone  chesnut  of  Perigueux,  Fee  says,  answers  to  this 
description. 

48  On  account  of  the  prickles  on  the  outer  shell.  49  B.  xvii.  c.  26. 
50  Fee  says  that  the  royal  white  chesnut  of  the  vicinity  of  Perigueux 

answers  to  this.  si  <<  Boiling"  chesnuts. 

52  He  alludes  to  wild  or  horse  chesnuts,  probably. 

63  See  B.  xiii.  c.  16. 

5i  This  skin  is  not  eatable.     It  is  fibrous  and  astringent. 

65  In  B.  xvi.  c.  6. 

56  "  Acinis."     The  grape,  ivy-berry,  elder-berry,  and  others. 

57  "  Inter  cutem  succumque." 

5S  Baccis.     Some  confusion  is  created  by  the  non-existence  of  English 


320  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

instance!  In  the  flesh  of  the  mulberry  there  is  a  juice  of  a 
vinous  flavour,  and  the  fruit  assumes  three  different  colours, 
being  at  first  white,  then  red,  and  ripe  when  black.  The 
mulberry  blossoms  one  of  the  very  last,59  and  yet  is  among 
the  first  to  ripen  :  the  juice  of  the  fruit,  when  ripe,  will  stain 
the  hands,  but  that  of  the  unripe  fruit  will  remove  the  marks. 
It  is  in  this  tree  that  human  ingenuity  has  effected  the  least 
improvement60  of  all ;  there  are  no  varieties  here,  no  modifica- 
tions effected  by  grafting,  nor,  in  fact,  any  other  improvement 
except  that  the  size  of  the  fruit,  by  careful  management,  has 
been  increased.  At  Koine,  there  is  a  distinction  made  between 
the  mulberries  of  Ostia  and  those  of  Tusculum.  A  variety 
grows  also  on  brambles,  but  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  is  of  a  very 
different  nature.61 

CHAP.  28. THE  FRUIT  OF  THE  ARBUTUS.  * 

The  flesh  of  the  ground-strawberry62  is  very  different  to 
that  of  the  arbute-tree,63  which  is  of  a  kindred  kind :  indeed, 
this  is  the  only  instance  in  which  we  find  a  similar  fruit  grow- 
ing upon  a  tree  and  on  the  ground.  The  tree  is  tufted  and 
bushy ;  the  fruit  takes  a  year  to  ripen,  the  blossoms  of  the 
young  fruit  flowering  while  that  of  the  preceding  year  is 
arriving  at  maturity.  Whether  it  is  the  male  tree  or  the 
female  that  is  unproductive,  authors  are  not  generally  agreed. 

This  is  a  fruit  held  in  no  esteem,  in  proof  of  which  it  has 

words  to  denote  the  difference  between  "  acinus"  and  "  bacca."  The  lat- 
ter is  properly  the  "  berry ;"  the  grape  being  the  type  of  the  "  acinus." 

59  See  B.  xvi.  c.  41.  The  mulberry  is  the  Moras  nigra  of  modern 
naturalists.  It  is  generally  thought  that  this  was  the  only  variety  known 
to  the  ancients  ;  but  Fee  queries,  from  the  story  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe, 
Avhich  represents  the  mulberry  as  changing  from  white  to  blood  colour, 
that  the  white  mulberry  was  not  unknown  to  them ;  but  through  some 
cause,  now  unknown,  was  gradually  lost  sight  of. 

60  This  is  still  the  case  with  the  mulberry. 

61  See  B.  xvi.  c.  71,  and  B.  xxiv.  c.  73.     He  alludes  to  the  blackberry. 

62  The  common  strawberry,  the  Fragaria  vesca  of  Linnaeus.  See  B.  xxi. 
c.  50.  A  native  of  the  Alps  and  the  forests  of  Gaul,  it  was  unknown  to 
the  Greeks. 

63  The  Arbutus  unedo  of  Linnseus.  It  is  one  of  the  ericaceous  trees, 
and  its  fruit  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  strawberry — otherwise 
there  is  not  the  slightest  affinity  between  them.  The  taste  of  the  arbute 
is  poor  indeed,  compared  to  that  of  the  strawberry. 


Chap.  29.]  RELATIVE   NATURES   OF   BERRY   FRUITS.  321 

gained  its  name  of  "  unedo,"64  people  being  generally  con- 
tent with  eating  but  one.  The  Greeks,  however,  have  found 
for  it  two  names — -'"coniaron"  and  "memecylon,"  from  which 
it  would  appear65  that  there  are  two  varieties.  It  has  also 
with  us  another  name  besides  that  of  "  unedo,"  being  known 
also  as  the  "  arbutus."  Juba  states  that  in  Arabia  this  tree 
attains  the  height  of  fifty  cubits. 

CHAP.  29. — THE  RELATIVE  NATURES  OF  BEKRY  FRUITS. 

There  is  a  great  difference  also  among  the  various  acinus 
fruits.  First  of  all,  among  the  grapes,  we  find  considerable 
difference  in  respect  to  their  firmness,  the  thinness  or  thick- 
ness of  the  skin,  and  the  stone  inside  the  fruit,  which  in  some 
varieties  is  remarkably  small,  and  in  others  even  double  in 
number  :  these  last  producing  but  very  little  juice.  Very  dif- 
ferent, again,  are  the  berries  of  the  ivy67  and  the  elder  j68  as 
also  those  in  the  pomegranate,69  these  being  the  only  ones  that 
are  of  an  angular  shape.  These  last,  also,  have  not  a  mem- 
brane for  each  individual  grain,  but  one  to  cover  them  all  in 
common,  and  of  a  pale  colour.  All  these  fruits  consist,  too, 
of  juice  and  flesh,  and  those  more  particularly  which  have  but 
small  seeds  inside. 

There  are  great  varieties,  too,  among  the  berry70  fruits; 
the  berry  of  the  olive  being  quite  different  from  that  of  the 
laurel,  the  berry  of  the  lotus71  from  that  of  the  cornel,  and 
that  of  the  myrtle  from  the  berry  of  the  lentisk.  The  berry, 
however,  of  the  aquifolium72  and  the  thorn73  is  quite  destitute 
of  juice. 

The  cherry 74  occupies  a  middle  place  between  the  berry  and 
the  acinus  fruit :  it  is  white  at  first,  which  is  the  case  also 

64  He  suggests  that  it  is  so  called  from  "  unum  edo,"  "  I  eat  but  one ;" 
a  rather  fanciful  etymology,  it  would  seem. 

65  This  supposition  is  not  warranted,  from  merely  the  fact  of  there  being 
two  names.  67  See  B.  xvi.  c.  52. 

68  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  35.  69  See  B.  xiii.  c.  31. 

70  "  Baccis."     Berries,  properly  so  called. 

71  The  Celtis  Australis  of  Linnaeus. 

72  Supposed  by  some  to  be  the  holly.     See  B.  xxv.  c.  72. 

73  He  alludes  to  a  variety  of  the  Crataegus. 

74  The  Cerasus  vulgaris  of  modern  botanists.  It  is  said  to  have  obtained 
its  name  from  Cerasus,  in  Asia  Minor,  where  Lucullus  found  it. 

VOL.    III.  X 


322  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

with  nearly  all  the  berries.  From  white,  some  of  the  berries 
pass  to  green,  the  olive  and  the  laurel,  for  instance  ;  while  in 
the  mulberry,  the  cherry,  and  the  cornel,  the  change  is  to  red  ; 
and  then  in  some  to  black,  as  with  the  mulberry,  the  cherry, 
and  the  olive,  for  instance. 

CHAP.   30.  (25.) — NINE  VARIETIES  OP  THE  CHERRY. 

The  cherry  did  not  exist  in  Italy  before  the  period  of  the 
victory  gained  over  Mithridates  by  L.  Lucullus,  in  the  year 
of  the  City  680.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  this  tree  from 
Pontus,  and  now,  in  the  course  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
years,  it  has  travelled  beyond  the  Ocean,  and  arrived  in  Bri- 
tannia even.  The  cherry,  as  we  have  already  stated,75  in  spite 
of  every  care,  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  rear  in  Egypt. 
Of  this  fruit,  that  known  as  the  "  Apronian"76  is  the  reddest 
variety,  the  Lutatian77  being  the  blackest,  and  the  Csecilian78 
perfectly  round.  The  Junian79  cherry  has  an  agreeable  flavour, 
but  only,  so  to  say,  when  eaten  beneath  the  tree,  as  they  are 
so  remarkably  delicate  that  they  will  not  bear  carrying.  The 
highest  rank,  however,  has  been  awarded  to  the  duracinus80 
variety,  known  in  Campania  as  the  "  Plinian"81  cherry,  and  in 
Belgica  to  the  Lusitanian8'2  cherry,  as  also  to  one  that  grows 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ehenus.  This  last  kind  has  a  third 
colour,  being  a  mixture83  of  black,  red,  and  green,  and  has 
always  the  appearance  of  being  just  on  the  turn  to  ripening. 
It  is  less  than  five  years  since  the  kind  known  as  the  "  laurel- 
cherry"  was  introduced,  of  a  bitter  but  not  unpleasant  flavour, 

75  He  must  allude  to  what  lie  has  stated  in  B.  xii.  c.  3,  for  he  has  no- 
where said  that  the  cherry  will  not  grow  in  Egypt.  It  is  said  that  the 
cherry  is  not  to  be  found  in  Egypt  at  the  present  day. 

76  The  gnotte  cherry  of  the  French,  the  mazzard  of  the  English. 

77  A  variety  of  the  mazzard,  Fee  thinks. 

78  Some  take  this  for  the  Cerasus  Juliana,  the  guignier  of  the  French, 
our  white  heart ;  others,  again,  for  the  merisier,  our  morello 

79  It  is  most  generally  thought  that  this  is  the  Cerasus  avium  of  bota- 
nists, our  morello,  which  is  a  very  tender  cherry. 

fclJ  Or  "hard  berry,"  the  Primus  bigarella  of  Linnaeus,  the  red  biga- 
roon. 

81  Fee  queries  whether  it  may  not  have  received  its  name  of  "  Pliniana  " 
in  compliment  to  our  author,  or  one  of  his  family. 

82  Hardouin  thinks  that  this  Portuguese  cherry  is  the  griotte,  or  maz- 
zard. 

biJ  No  such  cherry  is  known  at  the  present  day. 


Chap.  32.]  DIFFERENT    FLAVOURS    OF    JUICES.  323 

the  produce  of  a  graft84  upon  the  laurel.  The  Macedonian 
cherry  grows  on  a  tree  that  is  very  small,85  and  rarely  exceeds 
three  cubits  in  height ;  while  the  chain  aacerasus86  is  still  smaller, 
being  but  a  mere  shrub.  The  cherry  is  one  of  the  first  trees 
to  recompense  the  cultivator  with  its  yearly  growth  ;  it  loves 
cold  localities  and  a  site  exposed  to  the  north.67  The  fruit 
are  sometimes  dried  in  the  sun,  and  preserved,  like  olives,  in 
casks. 

CHAP.   31.   (26.) THE  CORNEL.       TOE  LENTISK. 

The  same  degree  of  care  is  expended  also  on  the  cultivation 
of  the  cornel88  and  the  lentisk  ;89  that  it  may  not  be  thought, 
forsooth,  that  there  is  anything  that  was  not  made  for  the 
craving  appetite  of  man  !  Various  flavours  are  blended  to- 
gether, and  one  is  compelled  to  please  our  palates  by  the  aid 
of  another — hence  it  is  that  the  produce  of  different  lands 
and  various  climates  are  so  often  mingled  with  one  another. 
For  one  kind  of  food  it  is  India  that  we  summon  to  our 
aid,  and  then  for  another  wTe  lay  Egypt  under  contribution, 
or  else  Crete,  or  Cyrene,  every  country,  in  fact :  no,  nor  does 
man  stick  at  poisons90  even,  if  he  can  only  gratify  his  longing 
to  devour  everything :  a  thing  that  will  be  still  more  evident 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  nature  of  herbs. 

CUAP.  32.   (27.) THIRTEEN  DIFFERENT  FLAVOURS  OF  JUICES. 

While  upon  this  subject,  it  may  be  as  well  to  state  that 
there  are  no  less  than  thirteen  different  flavours91  belonging 

84  Such  a  graft  is  impossible ;  the  laurel-cherry  must  have  had  some 
other  origin. 

85  Fee~suggests  that  this  may  he  the  early  dwarf  cherry. 

86  Or  "ground-cherry  ;"  a  dwarf  variety,  if,  indeed,  it  was  a  cherry-tree 
at  all,  of  which  Fee  expresses  some  doubt. 

87  This  explains,  Fee  says,  why  it  will  not  grow  in  Egypt. 

88  The  Cornus  mas  of  Linnreus.  The  fruit  of  the  cornel  has  a  tart 
flavour,  but  is  not  eaten  in  modern  Europe,  except  by  school-boys. 

89  That  produces  mastich.     See  B.  xii,  c.  36. 

90  He  alludes  more  especially,  perhaps,  to  the  use  of  cicuta  or  hemlock 
by  drunkards,  who  looked  upon  it  as  an  antidote  to  the  effects  of  wine. 
See  B.  xiv.  c.  7. 

91  Fee  remarks,  that  in  this  enumeration  there  is  no  method.  Linnaeus 
enumerates  eleven  principal  flavours  in  the  vegetable  kingdom— dry  or 
insipid,  aqueous,  viscous,  salt,  acrid,  styptic,  sweet,  fat,  bitter,  acid,  and 
nauseous  ;  these  terms,  however  seem,  some  of  them,  to  he  very  indefinite. 

y2 


324  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

in  common  to  the  fruits  and  the  various  juices  :  the  sweet,  the 
luscious,  the  unctuous,  the  bitter,  the  rough,  the  acrid,92  the 
pungent,  the  sharp,  the  sour,  and  the  salt ;  in  addition  to 
which,  there  are  three  other  kinds  of  flavours  of  a  nature  that  is 
truly  singular.  The  first  of  these  last  kinds  is  that  flavour  in 
which  several  other  flavours  are  united,  as  in  wine,  for  in- 
stance ;  for  in  it  we  are  sensible  of  the  rough,  the  pungent,93 
and  the  luscious,  all  at  the  same  moment,  and  all  of  them 
flavours  that  belong  to  other  substances.  The  second  of  these 
flavours  is  that  in  which  we  are  sensible  at  the  same  instant 
of  a  flavour  that  belongs  to  another  substance,  and  yet  of  one 
that  is  peculiar  to  the  individual  object  of  which  we  are  tast- 
ing, such  as  that  of  milk,  for  instance  :  indeed,  in  milk  we 
cannot  correctly  say  that  there  is  any  pronounced  flavour  that 
is  either  sweet,  or  unctuous,  or  luscious,  a  sort  of  smooth  taste94 
in  the  mouth  being  predominant,  which  holds  the  place  of  a 
more  decided  flavour.  The  third  instance  is  that  of  water, 
which  has  no  flavour  whatever,  nor,  indeed,  any  flavouring 
principle  ;95  but  still,  this  very  absence  of  flavour  is  considered 
as  constituting  one  of  them,  and  forming  a  peculiar  class96  of 
itself ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  if  in  water  any  taste  or  flavour- 
ing principle  is  detected,  it  is  looked  upon  as  impure. 

In  the  perception  of  all  these  various  flavours  the  smell 
plays  a  very  considerable97  part,  there  being  a  very  great 
affinity  between  them.  Water,  however,  is  properly  quite  in- 
odorous :  and  if  the  least  smell  is  to  be  perceived,  it  is  not 
pure  water.  It  is  a  singular  thing  that  three  of  the  principal 
elements98  of  Nature — water,  air,  and  fire— should  have  neither 
taste  nor  smell,  nor,  indeed,  any  flavouring  principle  whatever. 

92  It  requires  considerable  discernment  to  appropriate  nicely  its  English 
synonym  to  these  four  varieties  of  tastes,  "  acer,  acutus,  acerbus,  and 
a'cidus,"  more  especially  when  we  find  tbat  the  "bitter"  and  the  "rough" 
are  occupied  already  by  the  "  amarus  "  and  the  "  austerus." 

93  In  allusion,  probably,  to  the  pungency  of  the  aroma  or  bouquet. 

94  Lenitate. 

95  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "  succus." 

96  The  "  insipid." 

97  This  is  so  much  the  case,  that  the  most  nauseous  medicine  may  be 
taken  almost  with  impunity — so  far  as  taste  is  concerned — by  tightly  press- 
ing the  nostrils  while  taking  it. 

98  Fee  remarks  that  this  is  true  of  fire,  and  of  distilled  or  perfectly  pure 
water ;  but  that  physiologists  are  universally  agreed  that  the  air  has  its 
own  peculiar  smell. 


Chap.  33.]               COLOUK   AND    SMELL   OF    JUICES.  325 

CHAP.  33.  (28.) THE    COLOUR    AND    SMELL    OF    JUICES. 

Among  the  juices,  those  of  a  vinous"  flavour  belong  to  the 
pear,  the  mulberry,  and  the  myrtle,  and  not  to  the  grape,  a 
very  singular  fact  An  unctuous  taste  is  detected  in  the  olive,1 
the  laurel,  the  walnut,  and  the  almond  ;  sweetness  exists  in 
the  grape,  the  fig,  and  the  date ;  while  in  the  plum  class  we 
find  a  watery3  juice.  There  is  a  considerable  difference,  too, 
in  the  colours  assumed  by  the  various  juices.  That  of  the 
mulberry,  the  cherry,  the  cornel,  and  the  black  grape  resem- 
bles the  colour  of  blood,  while  in  the  white  grape  the  juice  is 
white.  The  humour  found  in  the  summit  of  the  fig3  is  of  a 
milky  nature,  but  not  so  with  the  juice  found  in  the  body  of 
the  fruit.  In  the  apple  it  is  the  colour  of  foam,4  while  in  the 
peach  it  is  perfectly  colourless,  and  this  is  the  case,  too,  with 
the  duracinus,5  which  abounds  in  juice  ;  for  who  can  say  that 
he  has  ever  detected  any  colour  in  it  ? 

Smell,  too,  presents  its  own  peculiar  marvels ;  >  in  the  apple 
it  is  pungent,6  and  it  is  weak  in  the  peach,  while  in  the  sweet7 
fruits  we  perceive  none  at  all :  so,  too,  the  sweet  wines  are 
inodorous,  while  the  thinner  ones  have  more  aroma,  and  are 
much  sooner  fit  for  use  than  those  of  a  thicker  nature.8  The 
odoriferous  fruits  are  not  pleasing  to  the  palate  m  the  same 
degree,  seeing  that  the  flavour9  of  them  does  not  come  up  to 
their  smell :  hence  it  is  that  in  the  citron  we  find  the  smell 

99  All  fruits  that  are  rich  in  sugar  and  amidine,  Fee  says,  either  have, 
or  acquire  in  time,  a  vinous  flavour,  by  the  development  oi  a  certain  quan- 

1  i  i/the  fruit  with  a  fixed  oil,  this  principle  succeeds,  when  they  are 
ripe,  to  the  mucilaginous. 

2  He  must  mean  a  thinner  juice,  though  still  sweet. 

3  About  the  peduncle  or  stalk  of  the  fig.  The  juice  here,  Fee  says,  is  a 
real  sugar,  of  the  same  nature  as  that  which  circulates  throughout  the 
whole  fruit :  the  juice  in  the  interior  of  which  is  produced  by  another  order 

°  4VTheS'iuice  is  only  foamy  when  the  vinous  fermentation  is  established. 
It  has  that  appearance,  however,  when  the  fruit  is  bitten  with  the  teeth. 

5  The  "  hard-berry,"  or  nectarine. 

6  In  the  sense  of  aromatic,  or  penetrating. 

7  He  probably  means  those  of  a  luscious  or  sirupy  nature,  without  any 

acidity  whatever.  .  .     , M  ,    Q_ 

8  He  seems  to  mean -that  the  thick,  luscious  wines  require  longer  keep- 
ing, before  they  will  gain  any  aroma  at  all.  This  would  be  done,  probably, 
at  the  expense  of  their  sweetness.  .. 

9  Or  he  may  mean,  that  a  fine  flavour  and  a  fine  smell  cannot  co-exist. 


.326  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XV- 

so  extremely  penetrating,10  and  the  taste  sour  in  the  highest 
degree.  Sometimes  the  smell  is  of  a  more  delicate n  nature, 
as  in  the  quince,  for  instance ;  while  the  fig  has  no  odour 
whatever. 

CHAP.  34. THE    VAKIOTTS    NATURES    OF    FRUIT. 

Thus  much,  then,  for  the  various  classes  and  kinds  of  fruit : 
it  will  be  as  well  now  to  classify  their  various  natures  within 
a  more  limited  scope.  Some  fruits  grow  in  a  pod  which  is 
sweet  itself,  and  contains  a  bitter  seed :  whereas  in  most  kinds 
of  fruit  the  seed  is  agreeable  to  the  palate,  those  which  grow 
in  a  pod  are  condemned.  Other  fruits  are  berries,  with  the 
stone  within  and  the  flesh  without,  as  in  the  olive  and  the 
cherry :  others,  again,  have  the  berry  within  and  the  stone 
without,  the  case,  as  we  have  already  stated,  with  the  berries 
that  grow  in  Egypt.12 

Those  fruits,  known  as  "  pomes,"  have  the  same  character- 
istics as  the  berry  fruits ;  in  some  of  them  we  find  the  body  of 
the  fruit  within  and  the  shell  without,  as  in  the  nut,  for  ex- 
ample ;  others,  again,  have  the  meat  of  the  fruit  without  and 
the  shell  within,  the  peach  and  the  plum,  for  instance :  the 
refuse  part  being  thus  surrounded  with  the  flesh,  while  in 
other  fruits  the  flesh  is  surrounded  by  the  refuse  part.13 
nuts  are  enclosed  in  a  shell,  chesnuts  in  a  skin ;  in  chesnuts 
the  skin  is  taken  off,  but  in  medlars  it  is  eaten  with  the  rest. 
Acorns  are  covered  with  a  crust,  grapes  Avith  a  husk,  and 
pomegranates  with  a  skin  and  an  inner  membrane.  The  mul- 
berry is  composed  of  flesh  and  juice,  while  the  cherry  consists 
of  juice  and  skin.  In  some  fruits  the  flesh  separates  easily 
from  the  woody  part,  the  walnut  and  the  date,  for  instance  ; 
in  others  it  adheres,  as  in  the  case  of  the  olive  and  the  laurel 
berry :  some  kinds,  again,  partake  of  both  natures,  the  peach, 
for  example  ;  for  in  the  duracinus14  kind  the  flesh  adheres  to 
the  stone,  and  cannot  be  torn  away  from  it,  while  in  the  other 

10  The  reading  here  should  be  "  acutissimus,"  probably, _  instead  of 
"  acerrimus."  The  odour  exists  in  the  rind  of  the  citron  and  in  the  outer 
coat  of  the  quince  ;  if  these  are  removed,  the  fruit  becomes  inodorous. 

11  "  Tenuis."     He  may  possibly  mean  "  faint." 

12  The  fruit  of  the  ben,  or  myrobalanus,  the  Balanites  JEgyptiaca.     See 

B.  xiii.  cc,  17  and  19.  .         «         *  * 

13  Yitium.  u  Hard-berry  or  nectarine.     Bee  c.  11. 


Chap.  34.1  TAEIOTJS   NATTJEES    OP   ritTJIT.  327 

sorts  they  are  easily  separated.  In  some  fruits  there  is  no 
stone  or  shell15  either  within  or  without,  one  variety  of  the 
date,16  for  instance.  In  some  kinds,  again,  the  shell  is  eaten, 
just  the  same  as  the  fruit ;  this  we  have  already  mentioned  as 
being  the  case  with  a  variety  of  the  almond  found  in  Egypt.11 
Some  fruits  have  on  the  outside  a  twofold  refuse  covering,  the 
chesnut,  the  almond,  and  the  walnut,  for  example.  Some, 
again,  are  composed  of  three  separate  parts— the  body  oi  the 
fruit,  then  a  woody  shell,  and  inside  of  that  a  kernel,  as  in  the 

peach. 

Some  fruits  grow  closely  packed  together,  such  as  grapes 
and  sorbs :  these  last,  just  like  so  many  grapes  in  a  cluster, 
cling  round  the  branch  and  bend  it  downwards  with  their 
weight.  On  the  other  hand,  some  fruits  grow  separately,  at  a 
distance  from  one  another;  this  is  the  case  with  the  peach. 
Some  fruits  are  enclosed  in  a  sort  of  matrix,  as  with  the  grains 
of  the  pomegranate :  some  hang  down  from  a  stalk,  such  as 
the  pear,  for  instance:  others  hang  in  clusters,  grapes  and 
dates,  for  example.  Others,  again,  grow  upon  stalks^and 
bunches  united  :  this  we  find  the  case  with  the  berries  of  the 
ivy  and  the  elder.  Some  adhere  close  to  the  branches,  like 
the  laurel  berry,  while  other  varieties  lie  close  to  the  branch 
or  hang  from  it,  as  the  case  may  be  :  thus  we  find  in  the  olive 
some  fruit  with  short  stalks,  and  others  with  long.  Some  fruits 
grow  with  a  little  calyx  at  the  top,  the  pomegranate,  for  ex- 
ample, the  medlar,  and  the  lotus18  of  Egypt  and  the  Euphrates. 

Then,  too,  as  to  the  various  parts  of  fruit,  they  are  held  m 
different  degrees  of  esteem  according  to  their  respective  re- 
commendations. In  the  date  it  is  the  flesh  that  is  usually 
liked,  in  those  of  Thebais  it  is  the  crust  ;19  the  grape  and  the 
caryota  date  are  esteemed  for  their  juice,  the  pear  and  the 
apple  for  their  firmness,  the  melimelum20  for  its  soft  meat, 

15  Lignum  :  literally,  "  wood."  il  There  is  no  wood,  cither  within  or 
without?"  fie  has  one  universal  name  for  what  we  call  shell,  seed,  stones, 
pips,  grains,  &c. 

ls  The  "  spado,"  or  "  eunuch  "  date.     See  B.  xiii.  c.  8. 

!"  See  B.  xiii.  c.  17.  The  fruit  of  the  ben  is  alluded  to,  hut,  as  lee 
observes,  Pliny  is  wrong  in  calling  it  an  almond,  as  it  is  a  pulpy  fruit. 

18  The  Nymphosa  nelumbo  of  Linnaeus. 

19  Or  shell,  which,  as  Tee  remarks,  participates  but  very  little  m  the 
properties  of  the  flesh. 

2"  Or  "  honey"  apple;  see  c.  15  of  this  Book. 


328  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XV. 

the  mulberry  for  its  cartilaginous  consistency,  and  nuts  for 
their  kernels.  Some  fruits  in  Egypt  are  esteemed  for  their 
skin;  the  carica,21  for  instance.  This  skin,  which  in  the 
green  fig  is  thrown  away  as  so  much  refuse  peeling,  when  the 
fig  is  dried  is  very  highly  esteemed.  In  the  papyrus,32 
the  ferula,23  and  the  white  thorn 24  the  stalk  itself  constitutes 
the  fruit,  and  the  shoots  of  the  fig-tree 25  are  similarly 
employed. 

Among  the  shrubs,  the  fruit  of  the  caper 26  is  eaten  along 
with  the  stalk ;  and  in  the  carob,27  what  is  the  part  that  is 
eaten  but  so  much  wood  ?  Nor  ought  we  to  omit  one  pecu- 
liarity that  exists  in  the  seed  of  this  fruit — it  can  be  called 
neither  flesh,  wood,  nor  cartilage,  and  yet  no  other  name  has 
been  found  for  it. 

CHAP.  35.    (29). THE    MYRTLE. 

The  nature  of  the  juices  that  are  found  in  the  myrtle  are 
particularly  remarkable,  for  it  is  the  only  one28  of  all  the  trees,  the 
berries  of  which  produce  two  kinds  of  oil29  as  well  as  of  wine, 
besides  myrtidanum,30  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The 
berry  of  this  was  also  put  to  another  use  in  ancient  times,  for 
before  pepper31  was  known  it  was  employed  in  place  of  it  as  a 
seasoning ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  a  name  has  been  derived 
from  it  for  the  highly-seasoned  dish  which  to  this  day  is  known 
by  the  name  of  "  myrtatum."32  It  is  by  the  aid  of  these  ber- 
ries, too,  that  the  flavour  of  the  flesh  of  the  wild  boar  is 
improved,  and  they  generalty  form  one  of  the  ingredients  in 
the  flavouring  of  our  sauces. 

CHAP.  36. HISTORICAL  ANECDOTES  RELATIVE  TO  THE  MYRTLE. 

This  tree   was   seen   for  the  first  time  in  the  regions  of 

2i  Or  "  Carian  "  fig.     See  c.  19  of  this  Book. 

22  See  B.  xiii.  c.  11. 

23  See  B.  xiii.  c.  42,  and  B.  xx.  cc.  9  and  23. 

24  See  B.  xiii.  c.  26,  and  B.  xxiv.  c.  66. 

25  See  B.  xiii.  c.  22.  Fee  remarks  that  it  is  singular  how  the  ancients 
could  eat  the  branches  of  the  fig-tree,  the  juice  being  actually  a  poison. 

26  See  B.  xiii.  c.  44.  2?  See  c.  26  of  this  Book. 

28  He  is  wrong  :  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  berries  of  the  laurel,  and, 
indeed,  many  other  kinds  of  berries. 

29  See  c.  7  of  this  Book.  30  See  B.  xiv.  c.  9. 

31  See  B.  xii.  c.  14. 

32  A  kind  of  sausage,  seasoned  with  myrtle.     See  also  B.  xxvii  c.  49. 


Chap.  36.]         ANECDOTES    RELATIVE    TO    THE    MYRTLE.  329 

Europe,  which  commence  on  this  side  of  the  Cerannian  moun- 
tains,33 growing  at  Circeii,34  near  the  tomb  of  Elpenor  there  : 35 
it  still  retains  its  Greek36  name,  which  clearly  proves  it  to  be 
an  exotic.  There  were  myrtles  growing  on  the  site  now  occu- 
pied by  Rome,  at  the  time  of  its  foundation ;  for  a  tradition 
exists  to  the  effect  that  the  llomans  and  the  Sabines,  after 
they  had  intended  fighting,  on  account  of  the  virgins  who  had 
been  ravished  by  the  former,  purified  themselves,  first  laying 
down  their  arms,  with  sprigs  of  myrtle,  on  the  very  same  spot 
which  is  now  occupied  by  the  statues  of  Venus  Cluacina ;  for 
in  the  ancient  language  "  cluere"  means  to  purify. 

This  tree  is  employed,  too,  for  a  species  of  fumigation  ;37  being 
selected  for  that  purpose,  because  Venus,  who  presides  over  all 
unions,  is  the  tutelary  divinity  of  the  tree.38  I  am  not  quite 
sure,  too,  whether  this  tree  was  not  the  very  first  that  was 
planted  in  the  public  places  of  Eome,  the  result  of  some  omi- 
nous presage  by  the  augurs  of  wondrous  import.  For  at  the 
Temple  of  Quirinus,  or,  in  other  words,  of  Romulus  himself, 
one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Rome,  there  were  formerly  two 
myrtle- trees,  which  grew  for  a  long  period  just  in  front  of 
the  temple ;  one  of  these  was  called  the  Patrician  tree,  the 
other  the  Plebeian.  The  Patrician  myrtle  was  for  many  years 
the  superior  tree,  full  of  sap  and  vigour ;  indeed,  so  long  as  the 
Senate  maintained  its  superiority,  so  did  the  tree,  being  of 
large  growth,  while  the  Plebeian  tree  presented  a  meagre, 
shrivelled  appearance.  In  later  times,  however,  the  latter  tree 
gained  the  superiority,  and  the  Patrician  myrtle  began  to  fail 
j  ust  at  the  period  of  the 39  Marsic  War,40  when  the  power  of 
the  Senate  was  so  greatly  weakened  :  and  little  by  little  did 
this  once  majestic  tree  sink  into  a  state  of  utter  exhaustion 
and  sterility.     There  was  an  ancient  altar 41  also,  consecrated' 

33  He  means  the  Acroceraunian  chain  in  Epirus,  mentioned  in  B.  iii. 

34  See  B.  iii.  c.  9. 

35  He  was  one  of  the  companions  of  Ulysses,  fabled  by  Homer  and  Ovid 
to  have  been  transformed  by  Circe  into  a  swine. 

36  Mvpaivrj  was  its  Greek  name.  37  See  B.  xxv.  c.  59. 

38  See  B.  xii.  c.  2.  Ovid,  Fasti,  B.  iv.  1.  15,  et  seq.,  says  that  Venus  con- 
cealed herself  from  the  gaze  of  the  Satyrs  behind  this  tree. 

39  Either  this  story  is  untrue,  or  we  have  a  right  to  suspect  that  some 
underhand  agency  was  employed  for  the  purpose  of  imposing  on  the  super- 
stitious credulity  of  the  Boman  people. 

*»  Or  Social  War.     See  B.  ii  c.  85. 

41  Near  the  altar  of  Consus.  close  to  the  meta  of  the  Circus. 


330  plikt's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

to  Venus  Myrtea,  known  at  the  present  day  by  the  name  of 
Murcia. 

CHAP.    37. ELEVEN    VARIETIES    OF    THE    MYRTLE. 

Cato 42  makes  mention  of  three  varieties  of  the  myrtle,  the 
black,  white,  and  the  conjugula,  perhaps  so  called  from 
its  reference  to  conjugal  unions,  and  belonging  to  the  same 
species  as  that  which  grew  where  Cluacina's  statues  now 
stand  :  at  the  present  day  the  varieties  are  differently  distin- 
guished into  the  cultivated  and  the  wild43  myrtle,  each  of 
which  includes  a  kind  with  a  large  leaf.  The  kind  known  as 
"  oxymyrsine,"44  belongs  only  to  the  wild  variety  :  ornamental 
gardeners  classify  several  varieties  of  the  cultivated  kind  ;  the 
"  Tarentine,"45  they  speak  of  as  a  myrtle  with  a  small  leaf, 
the  myrtle  of  this  country46  as  having  a  broad  leaf,  and  the 
hexasticha47  as  being  very  thickly  covered  with  leaves,  growing 
in  rows  of  six  :  it  is  not,  however,  made  any  use  of.  There 
are  two  other  kinds,  that  are  branchy  and  well  covered.  In 
my  opinion,  the  conjugula  is  the  same  that  is  now  called  the 
Eoman  myrtle.  It  is  in  Egypt  that  the  myrtle  is  most 
odoriferous. 

Cato48  has  taught  us  how  to  make  a  wine  from  the  black 
myrtle,  by  drying  it  thoroughly  in  the  shade,  and  then  putting 
it  in  must :  he  says,  also,  that  if  the  berries  are  not  quite  dry, 
it  will  produce  an  oil.  Since  his  time  a  method  has  been  dis- 
covered of  making  a  pale  wine  from  the  white  variety ;  two 
sextarii  of  pounded  myrtle  are  steeped  in  three  semi-sextarii  of 
wine,  and  the  mixture  is  then  subjected  to  pressure. 

The  leaves49  also  are  dried  by  themselves  till  they  are  capa- 
ble of  being  reduced  to  a  powder,  which  is  used  for  the  treat- 
ment of  sores  on  the  human  body  :  this  powder  is  of  a  Rightly 
corrosive  nature,  and  is  employed  also  for  the  purpose  of 
checking  the  perspiration.      A  thing  that  is  still  more  re- 

42  De  Re  Rust.  c.  8, 

43  The  so-called  wild  myrtle  does  not  in  reality  belong  to  the  genus 
Myrtus. 

44  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  83 ;  the  Ruscus  aculeatus  of  the  family  of  the  Asparagea. 

45  The  common  myrtle,  Myrtus  communis  of  the  naturalists. 

46  Or  Roman  myrtle,  a  variety  of  the  Myrtus  communis. 

47  The  "  six  row  "  myrtle.  Fee  thinks  "that  it  helongs  to  the  Myrtus 
angustifolia  Boetica  of  Bauhin. 

«  De  Re  Rust.  125.  49  See  B.  xxiii.  c.  81. 


Cbap.  38.]  THE  MYRTLE  USED  IN  OVATIONS.  331 

markable,  this  oil  is  possessed  of  a  certain  vinous  flavour, 
being,  at  the  same  time,  of  an  unctuous  nature,  and  remarkably 
efficacious  for  improving50  wines.  When  this  is  done,  the 
wine  strainer 51  is  dipped  in  the  oil  before  it  is  used,  the  result 
of  which  is  that  it  retains  the  lees  of  the  wine,  and  allows 
nothing  but  the  pure  liquor  to  escape,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  accompanies  the  wine  and  causes  a  marked  improvement  in 
its  flavour. 

Sprigs  of  myrtle,  if  carried  by  a  person  when  travelling  on 
foot,  are  found  to  be  very  refreshing52  on  a  long  journey. 
Pangs,  too,  made  of  myrtle  which  has  never  been  touched  by 
iron,  are  an  excellent  specific  for  swellings  in  the  groin.53 

CHAP.  38. THE  MYRTLE  USED  AT  ROME  IN  OVATIONS. 

The  myrtle  has  played54  its  part,  also,  in  the  successes  of 
war.  Posthumius  Tubertus,  who  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Sabines  in  his  consulship,55  was  the  first  person  who  entered 
the  City  enjoying  the  honour  of  an  ovation,56  for  having 
achieved  this  success  with  ease  and  without  bloodshed :  upon 
which  occasion  he  made  his  entry  crowned  with  the  myrtle  of 
Yenus  Yictrix,  and  thereby  rendered  her  tree  an  object  of 
regard57  to  our  enemies  even.  Ever  since  this  occasion,  the 
wreath  of  those  who  have  enjoyed  an  ovation  has  beenmade 
of  myrtle,  with  the  exception  of  M.  Crassus,58  who,  on  his  vic- 
tory over  the  fugitive  slaves  and  Spartacus,  made  his  entry 
crowned  with  laurels.  Massurius  informs  us,  also,  that  some 
generals,  on  the  occasion  of  a  triumph  even,  have  worn  a 
wreath  of  myrtle  in  the  triumphal  car.     L,  Piso  states  that 

50  A  new  proof,  as  Fee  remarks,  that  the  ancients  had  peculiar  notions 
of  their  own,  as  to  the  flavour  of  wine  ;  myrtle  herries,  he  says,  would 
impart  to  wine  a  detestable  aromatic  flavour. 

61  "  Saccis :"  the  strainer  being  made  of  cloth.     See  B.  xiv.  c.  28. 

52  They  would  be  of  no  assistance  whatever,  and  this  statement  is  en- 
tirely fictitious. 

5i  He  may  possibly  mean  hernia. 

54  In  addition  to  all  those  particulars,  he  might  have  stated  that  the 
Lares,  or  household  gods,  were  crowned  with  myrtle,  and  that  it  was  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  Temple  of  Bona  Dea. 

55  a.u.c.  251. 

56  See  the  Notes  to  c.  35  of  this  Book. 

6'  Because  the  enemy  would  be  less  likely  to  envy  us  a  bloodless  triumph. 

53  He  disdained  the  more  humble  myrtle  crown,  and  intrigued  success- 
fully with  the  Senate  to  allow  him  to  wear  a  wreath  of  laurel. 


332  flint's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

Papirius  Maso,  who  was  the  first  to  enjoy  a  triumph  for  a 
victory  over  the  Marsi— it  was  on  the  Alban  Mount59— was 
in  the  habit  of  attending  at  the  games  of  the  Circus,  wearing 
a  wreath  of  myrtle  :  he  was  the  maternal  grandfather  of  the 
second  Scipio  Africanus.  Marcus  Valerius60  wore  two  wreaths 
one  of  laurel,  the  other  of  myrtle ;  it  was  in  consequence  of 
a  vow  which  he  had  made  to  that  effect. 

chap.  39.  (30.)— the  laurel;  thirteen  varieties  of  it. 

The  laurel  is  especially  consecrated  to  triumphs,  is  remarkably 
ornamental  to  houses,  and  guards  the  portals  of  our  emperors61 
and  our  pontiffs  :  there  suspended  alone,  it  graces  the  palace,  and 
is  ever  on  guard  before  the  threshold.  Cato62  speaks  of  two 
varieties  of  this  tree,  the  Delphic63  and  the  Cyprian.  Pompeius 
Lenams  has  added  another,  to  which  he  has  given  the  name  of. 
"  mustax,"  from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  used  for  putting 
under  the  cake  known  by  the  name  of  "  mustaceum.6i"  He 
says  that  this  variety  has  a  very  large  leaf,  flaccid,  and  of  a 
whitish  hue ;  that  the  Delphic  laurel  is  of  one  uniform  colour, 
greener  than  the  other,  with  berries  of  very  large  size,  and  of 
a  red  tint  approaching  to  green.  He  says,  too,  that  it  is  with 
this  laurel  that  the  victors  at  Delphi65  are  crowned,  and  warriors 
who  enjoy  the  honours  of  a  triumph  at  Rome.  The  Cyprian 
laurel,  he  says,  has  a  short  leaf,  is  of  a  blackish  colour,  with 
an  imbricated66  edge,  and  crisped. 

59  The  Senate  refused  him  a  triumph ;  and  he  accordingly  celebrated 
one  on  the  Alban  Mount,  b.c.  231.  Paulus  Diaconus  says  that  his 
reason  for  wearing  a  myrtle  crown  was  his  victory  over  the  Corsicans  on 
the  Myrtle  Plains,  though  where  they  were,  or  what  victory  is  alluded  to, 
is  not  known. 

eo  The  brother  of  Valerius  Publicola. 

6i  We  learn  from  two  passages  in  Ovid  that  the  laurel  was  suspended 
over  the  gates  of  the  emperors.  This,  as  Fee  remarks,  was  done  for  two 
reasons  :  because  it  was  looked  upon  as  aprotection  against  lightning,  and 
because  it  was  considered  an  emblem  of  immortality. 

62  De  Pe  Rust.  133.  .  ■  •*,*,.  e^  a 

63  Or  "  laurel  of  Apollo  :'*  it  was  into  this  tree  that  Daphne  was  tabled 
to  have  been  changed.     See  Ovid's  Met.  B.  i.  1.  557,  et  seq. 

6i  Cato  De  Pe  Pust.  c.  121,  tells  us  that  this  cake  was  made  of  fine  wheat, 
must,  anise,  cummin,  suet,  cheese,  and  scraped  laurel  sprigs.  Laurel  leaves 
were  placed  under  it  when  baked.  This  mixture  was  considered  a  hght 
food,  good  for  the  stomach  ! 

65  At  the  Pythian  Games  celebrated  there. 

ee  Meaning" that  it  curves  at  the  edge,  something  like  a  pent-house. 


Chap.  39.] 


THE    LATJKEL.  333 


Since  his  time,  however,  the  varieties  have  considerably 
augmented.  There  is  the  tinus67  for  instance,  by  some  con- 
sidered as  a  species  of  wild  laurel,  while  others,  again,  rega-d 
it  as  a  tree  of  a  separate  class  ;  indeed,  it  does  differ  from  ^the 
laurel  as  to  the  colour,  the  berry  being  of  an  azure  blue.  The 
royal08  laurel,  too,  has  since  been  added,  which  has  of  late 
begun  to  be  known  as  the  "  Augustan :  "  both  the  tree,  as 
well  as  the  leaf,  are  of  remarkable  size,  and  the  berries  have 
not  the  usual  rough  taste.  Some  say,  however,  that  the  royal 
laurel  and  the  Augustan  are  not  the  same  tree,  and  make  out 
the  former  to  be  a  peculiar  kind,  with  a  leaf  both  longer  and 
broader  than  that  of  the  Augustan.  The  same  authors,  also, 
make  a  peculiar  species  of  the  bacalia  the  commonest  laurel 
of  all,  and  the  one  that  bears  the  greatest  number  of  berries. 
With  them,  too,  the  barren  laurel 69  is  the  laurel  of  the  tri- 
umphs, and  they  say  that  this  is  the  one  that  is  used  by  war- 
riors when  enjoying  a  triumph— a  thing  that  surprises  me 
very  much ;  unless,  indeed,  the  use  of  it  was  first  introduced 
by  the  late  Emperor  Augustus,  and  it  is  to  be  considered  as 
the  progeny  of  that  laurel,  which,  as  we  shall  just  now  have 
occasion  to  mention,  was  sent  to  him  from  heaven ;  it  being  the 
smallest  of  them  all,  with  a  crisped70  short  leaf,  and  very  rarely 
to  be  met  with. 

In  ornamental  gardening  we  also  find  the  taxa71  employed, 
with  a  small  leaf  sprouting  from  the  middle  of  the  leaf,  and 
forming  a  fringe,  as  it  were,  hanging  from  it ;  the  spadonia,73 
too,  without  this  fringe,  a  tree  that  thrives  remarkably  well 
in  the  shade  :  indeed,  however  dense  the  shade  may  be,  it  will 
soon  cover  the  spot  with  its  shoots.  There  is  the  chamse- 
daphne,73  also,  a  shrub  that  grows  wild ;    the  Alexandrian74 

6'  Or  tine  tree,  the  Viburnum  tinus  of  Linnaeus,  one  of  the  caprifolia. 
It  is  not  reckoned  as  one  of  the  laurels,  though  it  has  many  of  the  same 
characteristics.  68  Begia.         " 

69  The  barren  laurel  of  the  triumphs  was  the  Laurus  nobilis  ot  Linnaeus, 
which  has  onlv  male  flowers. 

70  The  Laurus  vulgaris  folio  undulato  of  the  Parisian  Horhis,  Fee  says. 

71  Not  a  laurel,  nor  yet  a  dicotyledon,  Fee  says,  but  one  of  the  Aspa- 
ragea,  probably  the  Buscus  hypoglossum  of  Linnaeus,  sometimes  known, 
however,  as  the  Alexandrian  laurel. 

"  Or  "  eunuch"  laurel ;  "a  variety,  probably,  of  the  Laurus  nobilis. 

73  The  "  ground  laurel :"  according  to  Sprengel,  this  is  the  Buscus  race- 
mosus  of  Linnaeus.     See  B.  xxiv.  c.  81. 

7*  From  Alexandria  in  Troas  :  the  Euscus  hypophyllum  of  Linnaeus,  it 
is  supposed. 


334  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XV. 

laurel,  by  some  known  as  the  Idean,  by  others  as  the  "  hypo- 
glottion,"75  by  others  as  the  "  carpophyllon,"76  and  by  others, 
again,  as  the  "  hypelates."77  From  the  root  it  throws  out 
branches  three  quarters  of  a  foot  in  length  ;  it  is  much  used 
in  ornamental  gardening,  and  for  making  wreaths,  and  it  has 
a  more  pointed  leaf  than  that  of  the  myrtle,  and  superior  to  it 
in  softness,  whiteness,  and  size  :  the  seed,  which  lies  between 
the  leaves,  is  red.  This  last  kind  grows  in  great  abundance 
on  Mount  Ida  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Heraclea  in  Pontus  :  it  is 
only  found,  however,  in  mountainous  districts. 

The  laurel,  too,  known  as  the  daphnoides,78  is  a  variety  that 
has  received  many  different  names  :  by  some  it  is  called  the 
Pelasgian  laurel,  by  others  the  euthalon,  and  by  others  the 
stephanon  Alexandri.79  This  is  also  a  branchy  shrub,  with  a 
thicker  and  softer  leaf  than  that  of  the  ordinary  laurel :  if 
tasted,  it  leaves  a  burning  sensation  in  the  mouth  and  throat : 
the  berries  are  red,  inclining  to  black.  The  ancient  writers 
have  remarked,  that  in  their  time  there  was  no  species  of 
laurel  in  the  island  of  Corsica.  Since  then,  however,  it  has  been 
planted  there,  and  has  thrived  well. 

'  CHAP.  40. — HISTORICAL  ANECDOTES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  LAUREL. 

This  tree  is  emblematical  of  peace  :80  when  a  branch  of  it 
is  extended,  it  is  to  denote  a  truce  between  enemies  in  arms. 
For  the  Romans  more  particularly  it  is  the  messenger  of  joyful 
tidings,  and  of  victory  :  it  accompanies  the  despatches81  of  the 
general,  and  it  decorates  the  lances  and  javelins  of  the  soldiers 
and  the  fasces  which  precede  their  chief.  It  is  of  this  tree 
that  branches  are  deposited  on  the  lap  of  Jupiter  All-good  and 
All-great,82  so  often  as  some  new  victory  has  imparted  uni- 

75  "  The  tongue  below."  This,  Fee  justly  says,  would  appear  to  be 
a  more  appropriate  name  for  the  taxa,  mentioned  above. 

76  From  the  berry  being'  attached  to  the  leaf. 

77  "  The  thrower  out  from  below,"  perhaps. 

78  Sprengel  thinks  that  it  is  the  Clematis  vitalba  of  Linnams.  Fuch- 
sius  identities  it  with  the  Daphne  laureola  of  Linnaeus ;  and  Fee  thinks  it 
may  be  either  that  or  the  Daphne  mezereum  of  Linnaeus. 

79  "  Crown  of  Alexander." 

so  Curiously  enough,  it  is  generally  considered  now  more  suggestive  of 
war  than  of  peace. 

81  The  despatches  were  wrapped  iu  laurel  leaves. 
83  Optimus  Maximus. 


Chap.  40.]         ANECDOTES  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  LAUliEL.       335 

versal  gladness.  This  is  done,  not  because  it  is  always  green, 
nor  yet  because  it  is  an  emblem  of  peace — for  in  both  of  those 
respects  the  olive  would  take  the  precedence  of  it— but  because 
it  is  _  the  most  beauteous  tree  on  Mount  Parnassus,  and  was 
pleasing  for  its  gracefulness  to  Apollo  even ;  a  deity  to  whom 
the  kings  of  Rome  sent  offerings  at  an  early  period,  as  we 
learn  from  the  case  of  L.  Brutus.83  Perhaps,  too,  honour  is 
more  particularly  paid  to  this  tree  because  it  was  there  that 
Brutus84  earned  the  glory  of  asserting  his  country's  liberties, 
when,  by # the  direction  of  the  oracle,  he  kissed  that  laurel- 
bearing  soil.  Another  reason,  too,  may  be  the  fact,  that  of  all 
the  shrubs  that  are  planted  and  received  in  our  houses,  this  is 
the  only  one  that  is  never  struck  by  lightning.85  It  is  for 
these  reasons,  in  my  opinion,  that  the  post  of  honour  has  been 
awarded  to  the  laurel  more  particularly  in  triumphs,  and  not, 
as  Massurius  says,  because  it  was  used  for  the  purposes  of 
fumigation'and  purification  from  the  blood  of  the  enemy. 

In  addition  to  the  above  particulars,  it  is  not  permitted  to 
defile  the  laurel  and  the  olive  by  applying  them  to  profane 
uses ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that,  not  even  for  the  propitiation  of 
the  divinities,  should  a  fire  be  lighted  with  them  at  either 
altar  or  shrine.86  Indeed,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  laurel  pro- 
tests against  such  usage  by  crackling87  as  it  does  in  the  fire, 
thus,  in  a  manner,  giving  expresssion  to  its  abhorrence  of  such 
treatment.  ^  The  wood  of  this  tree  when  eaten  is  good  as  a 
specific  for  internal  maladies  and  affections  of  the  sinews.88 

It  is  said  that  when  it  thundered,  the  Emperor  Tiberius  was 

83  L.Junius  Brutus,  the  nephew  of  Tarquin.  Pliny  alludes  to  the  message 
seuo  to  Delphi,  for  the  purpose  of  consulting  the  oracle  on  a  serpent  being 
seen  in  the  royal  palace. 

81  He  alludes  to  the  circumstance  of  the  priestess  being  asked  who  should 
reign  at  Kome  after  Tarquin  ;  upon  which  she  answered,  'k  He  who  first 
kisses  his  mother ;"  on  which  Brutus,  the  supposed  idiot,  stumbled  to  the 
ground,-and  kissed  the  earth,  the  mother  of  all. 

65  A  mere  absurdity;  the  same  has  been  said  of  the-  beech,  and  with 
equal  veracity.  ' 

»6  He  makes  a  distinction  between  "altar"  and  "ara"  here  The 
former  was  the  altar  of  the  superior  Divinities,  the  latter  of  the  superior 
and  interior  as  well.  l 

'  The  crackling  of  the  "laurel  is  caused  by  efforts  of  the  essential  oil  to 
escape  from  the  parenchyma  or  cellular  tissue  of  the  leaf,  which  it  breaks 
with  considerable  violence  when  burning. 
88  Nervorum.    See  B.  xsiii.  c.  80.     °" 


336  plint's  natubal  history.  [Book  XV. 

in  the  habit  of  putting  on  a  wreath  of  laurel  to  allay  his  ap- 
prehensions of  disastrous  effects  from  the  lightning.89     There 
are  also  some  remarkable  facts  connected  with  the  laurel  m 
the  history  of  the  late  Emperor  Augustus  :   once  while  Livia 
Drusilla  who  afterwards  on  her  marriage  with  the  Emperor 
assumed   the   name   of  Augusta,   at   the   time  that  she  was 
affianced  to  him,  was  seated,  there  fell  into  her  lap  a  hen  ot 
remarkable  whiteness,  which  an  eagle  let  fall  from  aloft  with- 
out its  receiving  the  slightest  injury :   on  Livia  viewing  it 
without  any  symptoms  of  alarm,  it  was  discovered  that  miracle 
was  added  to  miracle,  and  that  it  held  in  its  beak  a  branch  ot 
laurel  covered  with  berries.     The  aruspices  gave  orders  that 
the  hen   and  her  progeny  should  be  carefully  preserved,  and 
the  branch  planted  and  tended  with  religious  care.     This  was 
accordingly  done  at  the  country-house  belonging  to  the  Caesars, 
on  the  Flaminian  Way,   near  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  eight 
miles  from  the  City  ;  from  which  circumstance  that  road  has 
since  received  the  title  "Ad  gallinas."90     Erom  the  branch 
there  has  now  arisen,  wondrous  to  relate,  quite  a  grove :  and 
Augustus  CaBsar  afterwards,  when  celebrating  a  triumph,  held 
a  branch  of  it  in  his  hand  and  wore  a  wreath  of  this  laurel  on 
his  head ;  since  which  time  all  the  succeeding  emperors  have 
followed  his  example.    Hence,  too,  has  originated  the  custom  of 
planting  the  branches  which  they  have  held  on  these  occasions, 
and  we°thus  see  groves  of  laurel  still  existing  which  owe  their 
respective  names  to  this  circumstance.     It  was  on  the  above 
occasion,  too,  that  not  improbably  a  change  was  effected  in 
the  usual  laurel  of  the  triumph.91     The  laurel  is  the  only  one 
among  the  trees  that   in  the    Latin  language  has  given  an 
appellation  to  a  man,92  and  it  is  the  only  one  the  leaf  of  which 
has  a  distinct  name  of  its  own,— it  being  known  by  the  name 
of  "laurea."     The  name  of  this  tree  is  still  retained  by  one 
place  in  the  city  of  Eome,  for  we  find  a  spot  on  the  Aventine 

*>  Suetonius,  c.  6€,  confirms  this.  Fee  says  that  the  same  superstition 
still  exists  in  some  parts  of  France.     See  B.  ii.  c.  56.         ■ 

90  "  The  Poultry."  91  See  c-  39  of  tnis  Book. 

92  See  B  xxxi.  c.  3.  As  Poinsinet  remarks,  this  is  not  strictly  true; 
the  name  "Vinucius"  most  probably  came  from  "vinea,"  a  vineyard. 
Numerous  names  were  derived  also  from  seeds  and  vegetables;  ^liso, 
Cicero,  and  Lactuca,  for  instance,  among  a  host  of  others.  "  Scipio,  too, 
means  a  "  walking-stick." 


SUMMARY. 


337 


Mount  still  known  by  the  name  of  "  Loretum,"93  where  for- 
merly a  laurel-grove  existed.  The  laurel  is  employed  in 
purifications,  and  we  may  here  mention,  incidentally,  that  it 
will  grow  from  slips94 — though  Democritus  and  Theophrastus 
have  expressed  their  doubts  as  to  that  fact. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  forest  trees. 

Summary. — Eemarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
one  hundred  and  twenty. 

Eomax  authors  quoted. — Fenestella,95  Fabianus,96  Virgil,97 
Corn.  Yalerianus,98  Celsus,"  Cato  the  Censor,1  Saserna2  father 
and  son,  Scrofa,3  M.  Yarro,4  D.  Silanus,5  Fabius  Pictor,6  Tro- 
gus,7  Hyginus,8  Flaccus  Verrius,9  Graecinus,10  Atticus  Julius,11 
Columella,12  Massurius  Sabinus,13  Tergilla,14  CottaMessalinus,15 
L.  Piso,16  Pompeius  Lenaeus,17  Maccius  Plautus,18  Flavius,19 
Dossenus,20  Scaevola,21  ^Elius,22  Ateius  Capito,23  Sextius  Niger,24 
Yibius  Rufus.25 


Foreign  authors  quoted. — Aristotle,26  Democritus,27  King 
Hiero,28  King  Attalus  Philometor,29  Archytas,30  Xenophon,31 
Amphilochus32  of  Athens,  Anaxipolis33  of  Thasos,  Apollodorus34 
of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes35  of  Miletus,  Antigonus36  of  Cymse, 


93  The 
95  See 
97  See 
99  See 
2  See 
4  See 
6  See 
8  See 
10  See 
12  See 
14  See 
16  See 
«  See 
20  See 
22  See 
24  See 
26  See 
28  See 
30  See 
32  See 
34  See 
*  See 


''laurel-grove." 
end  of  B.  viii. 
end  of  B.  vii. 
end  of  B.  vii. 
end  of  B.  x. 
end  of  B.  ii. 
end  of  B.  x. 
end  of  B.  iii. 
end  of  B.  xiv. 
end  of  B.  viii. 
end  of  B.  xiv. 
end  of  B.  ii. 
end  of  B.  xiv. 
end  of  B.  xiv. 
end  of  B.  xiv. 
end  of  B.  xii. 
end  of  B.  ii. 
end  of  B.  viii.   ■ 
end  of  B.  viii. 
end  of  B.  viii. 
end  of  B.  viii. 
end  of  B.  viii. 


94  See 

95  See 
98  See 

1  See 

a  See 

5  See 

7  See 

9  See 

11  See 

is  See 

15  See 

w  See 

19  See 

21  See 

23  See 

25  See 

27  See 

29  See 

si  See 

33  See 

35  See 


B.  xvii 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 
end  of 


.  c.  11. 
B.  ii. 
B.  iii. 
B.  iii. 
B.  xi. 
B.  xiv. 
B.  vii. 
B.  iii. 
B.  xiv. 
B.  vii. 
B.  xiv. 
B.  xiv. 
B.  xii. 
B.  xiv. 
B.  iii. 
B.  xiv. 
B.  ii. 
B.  viii. 
B.  iv. 
B.  viii. 
B.  viii. 


vol.  in. 


338  pliny's  natueal  histoey.  [Book  XV. 

Agathocles37  of  Chios,  Apollonius38  of  Pergamus,  Aristander39 
of  Athens,  Bacchius40  of  Miletus,  Bion41  of  Soli,  Chsereas42  of 
Athens,  Chaeristus43  of  Athens,  Diodorus44  of  Priene,  Dion45 
of  Colophon,  Epigenes46  of  Rhodes,  Euagon47  of  Thasos,  Eu- 
phronius48  of  Athens,  Androtion49  who  wrote  on  Agriculture, 
JEschrion50  who  wrote  on  Agriculture,  Lysimachus51  who  wrote 
on  Agriculture,  Dionysius52  who  translated  Mago,53  Diophanes54 
who  made  an  Epitome  of  the  work  of  Dionysius,  Asclepiades55 
the  Physician,  Erasistratus56  the  Physician,  Commiades57  who 
wrote  on  the  preparation  of  Wines,  Aristomachus58  who  wrote 
on  the  same  subject,  Hicesius59  who  wrote  on  the  same  subject, 
Themiso60  the  Physician,  Onesicritus,61  King  Juba.62 

37  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

38  See  end  of  B.  viii.  39  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
40  See  end  of  B.  viii.  41  See  end  of  B.  vi. 
42  See  end  of  B.  viii.  43  See  end  of  B.  xiv. 

44  He  is  mentioned  also  by  Varro  and  Columella,  as  a  writer  upon  agri- 
culture ;  but  all  further  particulars  of  him  are  unknown. 

45  See  end  of  B.  viii.  46  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
47  See  end  of  B.  x.  48  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
49  See  end  of  B.  viii.  50  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
51  See  end  of  B.  viii.  52  See  end  of  B.  xii. 
53  See  end  of  B.  viii.  54  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
55  See  end  of  B.  vii.  56  See  end. of  B.  xi. 

57  Beyond  what  Pliny  here  says,  nothing  is  known  of  him. 

58  See  end  of  B.  xi. 

59  A  physician  who  lived  probably  at  the  end  of  the  first  century  B.C. 
He  was  a  disciple  of  Erasistratus,  and  founded  a  medical  school  at  Smyrna. 
He  is  quoted  by  Athenaeus,  and  in  B.  xxvii.  c.  14,  Pliny  calls  him  "  a  phy- 
sician of  no  small  authority."  He  seems  to  have  been  a  voluminous  writer ; 
but  none  of  his  works  have  survived. 

60  See  end  of  B.  xi.  61  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
62  See  end  of  B.  v. 


339 


BOOK  XVI. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  FOREST  TREES. 

CHAP.   1. — COUNTRIES  THAT  HAVE  NO  TEEES. 

We  have  given  the  precedence  in  this  account  to  the  fruit- 
trees  and  others  which,  by  their  delicious  juices,  first  taught 
man  to  give  a  relish  to  his  food  and  the  various  aliments 
requisite  for  his  sustenance,  whether  it  is  that  they  spontane- 
ously produce  these  delightful  flavours,  or  whether  we  have 
imparted  them  by  the  methods  of  adoption  and  intermarriage,1 
thus  bestowing  a  favour,  as  it  were,  upon  the  very  beasts  and 
birds.  The  next  thing,  then,  would  be  to  speak  of  the  glandi- 
ferous trees,  the  trees  which  proffered  the  earliest  nutriment 
to  the  appetite  of  man,  and  proved  themselves  his  foster- 
mothers  in  his  forlorn  and  savage  state — did  I  not  feel  myself 
constrained  on  this  occasion  to  make  some  mention  of  the  sur- 
prise which  I  have  felt  on  finding  by  actual  experience  what 
is  the  life  of  mortals  when  they  inhabit  a  country  that  is  with- 
out either  tree  or  shrub. 

(1.)  I  have  already  stated2  that  in  the  East  many  nations 
that  dwell  on  the  shores  of  the  ocean  are  placed  in  this  neces- 
sitous state  ;  and  I  myself  have  personally  witnessed  the  con- 
dition of  the  Chauci,3  both  the  Greater  and  the  Lesser,  situate 
in  the  regions  of  the  far  North.  In  those  climates  a  vast  tract 
of  land,  invaded  twice  each  day  and  night  by  the  overflowing 
waves  of  the  ocean,  opens  a  question  that  is  eternally  proposed 
to  us  by  Nature,  whether  these  regions  are  to  be  looked  upon 
as  belonging  to  the  land,  or  whether  as  forming  a  portion  of 
the  sear 

Here  a  wretched  race  is  found,  inhabiting  either  the  more 
elevated  spots  of  land,  or  else  eminences  artificially  constructed, 
and  of  a  height  to  which  they  know  by  experience  that  the 
highest  tides  will  never  reach.     Here  they  pitch  their  cabins  ; 

1  The  methods  of  grafting  and  inoculation. 

2  B.  xiii.  c.  50.    They  dwelt  between  the  Ems  and  the  Elbe. 

3  See  E.  iv.  c.  29. 

2,2 


310  ploy's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

and  when  the  waves  cover  the  surrounding  country  far  and 
wide,  like  so  many  mariners  on  board  ship  are  they :  when, 
again,  the  tide  recedes,  their  condition  is  that  of  so  many 
shipwrecked  men,  and  around  their  cottages  they  pursue  the 
fishes  as  they  make  their  escape  with  the  receding  tide.  It  is 
not  their  lot,  like  the  adjoining  nations,  to  keep  any  flocks  for 
sustenance  by  their  milk,  nor  even  to  maintain  a  warfare  with 
wild  beasts,  every  shrub,  even,  being  banished  afar.  With  the 
sedge4  and  the  rushes  of  the  marsh  they  make  cords,  and 
with  these  they  weave  the  nets  employed  in  the  capture  of  the 
fish ;  they  fashion  the  mud,5  too,  with  their  hands,  and  drying 
it  by  the  help  of  the  winds  more  than  of  the  sun,  cook  their 
food  by  its  aid,  and  so  warm  their  entrails,  frozen  as  they 
are  by  the  northern  blasts;  their  only6  drink,  too,  is  rain- 
water, which  they  collect  in  holes  dug  at  the  entrance  of  their 
abodes  :  and  yet  these  nations,  if  this  very  day  they  were  van- 
quished by  the  Eoman  people,  would  exclaim  against  being 
reduced7  to  slavery  !  Be  it  so,  then — Fortune  is  most  kind  to 
many,  just  when  she  means  to  punish  them.8 

CHAP.  2. WONDERS    CONNECTED  WITH   TREES   IN    THE   NORTHERN 

REGIONS. 

Another  marvel,  too,  connected  with  the  forests !  They 
cover  all  the  rest  of  Germany,  and  by  their  shade  augment  the 
cold.  But  the  highest  of  them  all  are  those  not  far  distant 
from  the  Chauci  already  mentioned,  and  more  particularly  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  two  lakes9  there.  The  very  shores  are  lined 
with   oaks,10  which  manifest  an   extraordinary   eagerness  to 

4  "  Ulva."  This  appears  to  be  a  general  name  for  all  kinds  of  aquatic 
fresh- water  plants;  as  "alga"  is  that  of  the  various  sea-weeds. 

5  He  alludes  to  turf  for  firing ;  the  Humus  turfa  of  the  naturalists. 

6  Of  course  this  applies  only  to  those  who  dwelt  near  the  sea-shore,  and 
not  those  more  inland. 

7  Guichardin  remarks,  that  Pliny  does  not  here  bear  in  mind  the  sweets 
of  liberty. 

8  So  Laberius  says,  "  Fortuna  multis  parcere  in  pcenam  solet;"  "For- 
tune is  the  saving  of  many,  when  she  means  to  punish  them." 

9  He  alludes  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  See  B.  iv.  c.  29.  The 
spots  where  these  forests  once  stood  are  now  cultivated  plains,  covered  with 
villages  and  other  works  of  the  industry  of  man. 

10  "  Quercus."  We  shall  see,  in  the  course  of  this  Book,  that  its  identity 
has  not  been  satisfactorily  established. 


Chap.  3.]  THE    ACORN    OAK.  -  34 1 

attain  their  growth  :  undermined  by  the  waves  or  uprooted  by 
the  blasts,  with  their  entwining  roots  they  carry  vast  forests 
along  with  them,  and,  thus  balanced,  stand  upright  as  they  float 
along,  while  they  spread  afar  their  huge  branches  like  the 
rigging  of  so  many  ships.  Many  is  the  time  that  these  trees 
have  struck  our  fleets  with  alarm,  when  the  waves  have  driven 
them,  almost  purposely  it  would  seem,  against  their  prows  as 
they  stood  at  anchor  in  the  night;  and  the  men,  destitute  of 
all  remedy  and  resource,  have  had  to  engage  in  a  naval  com- 
bat with  a  forest  of  trees  ! 

(2.)  In  the  same  northern  regions,  too,  is  the  Hercynian11 
Forest,  whose  gigantic  oaks,12  uninjured  by  the  lapse  of  ages, 
and  contemporary  with  the  creation  of  the  world,  by  their  near 
approach  to  immortality  surpass  all  other  marvels  known.  Not 
to  speak  of  other  matters  that  would  surpass  all  belief,  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  their  roots,13  as  they  meet  together,  up- 
heave vast  hills ;  or,  if  the  earth  happens  not  to  accumulate 
with  them,  rise  aloft  to  the  very  branches  even,  and,  as  they 
contend  for  the  mastery,  form  arcades,  like  so  many  portals 
thrown  open,  and  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  a 
squadron  of  horse. 

(3.)  All  these  trees,  in  general,  belong  to  the  glandiferous 
class,14  and  have  ever  been  held  in  the  highest  honour  by  the 
Eoman  people. 

CHAP.  3.  (4.) THE  ACORN  OAK.       THE  CIVIC  CROWN". 

It  is  with  the  leaves  of  this  class  of  trees  that  our  civic 
crown  is  made,  the  most  glorious  reward  that  can  be  bestowed 
on  military  valour,  and,  for  this  long  time  past,  the  emblem  of 
the  imperial15  clemency ;  since  the  time,  in  fact,  when,  after 

»  See  B.  iv.  c.  28,  and  the  Note,  Vol.  i.  p.  348.  The  village  of  Her- 
cingen,  near  "Waldsee,  is  supposed  to  retain  the  ancient  name. 

12  "  Robora."  It  will  be  seen  in  this  Book  that  the  robur  has  not  been 
identified,  any  more  than  the  quercus. 

13  Fee  treats  this  story  as  utterly  fabulous.  The  branches  of  the  Ficus 
Indica  grow  downwards,  and  so  form  arcades  certainly ;  but  such  is  not  the 
case  with  any  European  tree. 

14  Not  only  oaks,  but  a  variety  of  other  trees,  were  included  under  this 
name  by  the  ancients;  the  "glans"  embracing  not  only  the  acorn,  but 
the  mast  of  the  beech,  and  the  hard  fruits  of  other  trees. 

15  He  alludes  to  the  crown  of  oak-leaves,  which  was  suspended  on  the 
gates  before  the  palace  of  the  emperors.  A  civic  crown  had  been  voted  by 
the  senate  to  Julius  Caesar,  on  the  ground  of  having  saved  his  country. 


342  plint's  natural  histoey.  [Book  XVI. 

the  impiety  of  civil  war,  it  was  first  deemed  a  meritorious 
action  not  to  shed  the  blood  of  a  fellow-citizen.  Far  inferior 
to  this  in  rank  are  the  mural16  crown,  the  vallar,17  and  the 
golden18  one,  superior  though  they  may  be  in  the  value  of  the 
material :  inferior,  too,  in  merit,  is  the  rostrate19  crown,  though 
ennobled,  in  recent  times  more  particularly,  by  two  great  names, 
those  of  M.  Yarro,20  who  was  presented  with  it  by  Pompeius 
Magnus,  for  his  great  achievements  in  the  Piratic  "War,  and  of 
M.  Agrippa,  on  whom  it  was  bestowed  by  Caesar,  at  the  end 
of  the  Sicilian  War,  which  was  also  a  war  against  pirates. 

In  former  days  the  beaks21  of  vessels,  fastened  in  front  of  the 
tribunal,  graced  the  Forum,  and  seemed,  as  it  were,  a  crown 
placed  upon  the  head  of  the  Roman  people  itself.  In  later 
times,  however,  they  began  to  be  polluted  and  trodden  under 
foot  amid  the  seditious  movements  of  the  tribunes,  the  public 
interest  was  sacrificed  to  private  advantage,  each  citizen 
sought  solely  his  own  advancement,  and  everything  looked 
upon  as  holy  was  abandoned  to  profanation — still,  from  amid 
all  this,  the  Rostra23  emerged  once  again,  and  passed  from 
beneath  the  feet  of  the  citizens  to  their  heads.  Augustus 
presented  to  Agrippa  the  rostrate  crown,  while  lie  himself 
received  the  civic  crown23  at  the  hands  of  all  mankind. 

CHAP.  4. THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  PRESENTATION  OF  CROWNS. 

In  ancient  times  crowns23  were  presented  to  none  but  a 

16  Given  to  the  first  man  who  scaled  the  wall  of  a  besieged  place.  It 
was  made  of  gold,  and  decorated  with  turrets. 

17  Given  to  the  first  soldier  who  surmounted  the  vallum  or  entrench- 
ments.    It  was  made  of  gold,  and  ornamented  with  "valli,"  or  palisades. 

13  One  of  the  varieties  of  the  triumphal  crown  was  the  "  corona  aurea," 
or  "  golden  crown." 

»  Made  of  gold,  and  decorated  with  the  "rostra,"  or  "beaks     of  ships. 

2°  See  B.  vii.  c.  31. 

2i  The  orator's  stage  in  the  Forum  was  decorated  with  the  "rostra,  or 
"  beaks  "  of  the  ships  of  the  Antiates ;  hence  it  received  the  name  cf  "  Ros- 
trum."   The  locality  of  the  Rostra  was  changed  by  Julius  Caesar. 

22  Alluding  to  the  prostitution  of  the  Rostra  by  the  tribunes  and  others 
for  the  purposes  of  sedition,  and  the  presentation  by  Augustus  of  the  ros- 
trate crown  to  Agrippa.  m 

23  Which  was  suspended,  as  already  mentioned,  at  the  gate  ot  his  palace. 
25  Athenseus  and  Fabius  Pictor  say  that  Janus  was  the  first  wearer  of  a 

crown :  Pherecydes  says  it  was  Saturn,  Diodorus  Siculus  Jupiter,  and  Leo 
JEgyptiacus  Isis,  who  wore  one  of  wheat. 


Chap.  5.]  PEESONS    CEOWjTOD    WITH   LEAVES.  343 

divinity,  hence  it  is  that  Homer26  awards  them  only  to  the 
gods  of  heaven  and  to  the  entire  army  ;  but  never  to  an  indi- 
vidual, however  great  his  achievements  in  battle  may  have 
been.  It  is  said,  too,  that  Father  Liber  was  the  first  of  all 
who  placed  a  crown  on  his  head,  and  that  it  was  made  of  ivy.27 
In  succeeding  times,  those  engaged  in  sacrifices  in  honour  of 
the  gods  began  to  wear  them,  the  victims  being  decked  with 
wreaths  as  well.  More  recently,  again,  they  were  employed 
in  the  sacred  games;28  and  at  the  present  day  they  are  be- 
stowed on  such  occasions,  not  upon  the  victor,  indeed,  but 
upon  his  country,  which  receives,  it  is  proclaimed,  this  crown  at 
his  hands.29  Hence  arose  the  usage  of  conferring  wreaths  upon 
warriors  when  about  to  enjoy  a  triumph,  for  them  to  conse- 
crate in  the  temples :  after  which  it  became  the  custom  to 
present  them  at  our  games.  It  would  be  a  lengthy  matter, 
and,  indeed,  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  work,  to  enter  upon 
a  discussion  who  was  the  first  Roman  that  received  each  kind 
of  crown ;  in  fact,  they  were  acquainted  with  none  but  such  as 
were  given  as  the  reward  of  military  prowess.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact,  however,  that  this  people  has  more  varieties  of 
crowns  than  those  of  all  other  nations  put  together. 

CHAP.  5. PEESONS  PEESENTED  WITH  A  CROWtf  OF  LEAVES. 

Romulus  presented  Hostus  Hostilius30  with  a  crown  of  leaves, 
for  being  the  first  to  enter  Fidense.  This  Hostus  was  the 
grandfather  of  King  Tullus  Hostilius.  P.  Decius  the  elder, 
the  military  tribune,  was  presented  with  a  crown  of  leaves  by 
the  army  which  had  been  saved  by  his  valour,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Cornelius  Cossus,31  the  consul,  in  the  war  with  the 
Samnites.  This  crown  was  made  at  first  of  the  leaves  of  the 
holm  oak,  but  afterwards  those  of  the  sesculus32  were  pre- 
ferred, as  being  a  tree  sacred  to  Jupiter :  this,  however,  was 
soon  employed  indifferently  with  the  quercus,  according  as 

26  II.  xiii,  736. 

27  See  cc.  34  and  35  of  the  present  Book. 

28  The  Olympian,  Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemeean  games. 

29  See  B.  vii.  c.  27. 

30  He  is  called  Tullus  Hostilius  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  the  same 
as  his  grandson. 

31  a.u.c.  411.  The  leaves  of  the  holm-oak  were  employed  by  Romulus 
on  the  occasion  above-mentioned. 

33  These  varieties  of  the  oak  will  he  considered  in  the  next  chapter. 


344  flint's  NaTUEAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

each  might  happen  to  present  itself,  the  honourable  distinction 
given  to  the  acorn  being  the  only  thing  observed.  Eigorous 
laws  were,  however,  enacted,  to  maintain  the  lofty  glories  of 
this  wreath,  by  which  it  was  placed  npon  an  equality  even 
with  the  supreme  honours  of  the  wreath  that  is  given  by 
Greece  in  presence  of  Jove33  himself,  and  to  receive  which  the 
exulting  city  of  the  victor  is  wont  to  break34  a  passage  through 
its  very  walls.  These  laws  are  to  the  effect  that  the  life  of  a 
fellow-citizen  must  be  preserved,  and  an  enemy  slain;  that 
the  spot  where  this  takes  place  must  have  been  held  by  the 
enemy  that  same  day ;  that  the  person  saved  shall  admit  the 
fact,  other  witnesses  being  of  no  use  at  all ;  and  that  the  person 
saved  shall  have  been  a  Eoman  citizen. 

To  preserve  an  ally  merely,  even  though  it  should  be  the 
life  of  a  king  that  is  so  saved,  confers  no  right  to  this  high  re- 
ward, nor  is  the  honour  at  all  increased,  even  if  it  is  the 
Eoman  general  that  has  been  thus  preserved,  it  being  the  in- 
tention of  the  framers  of  the  law  that  it  should  be  the  status 
of  the  citizen  that  is  everything.  When  a  man  has  received 
this  wreath,  it  is  his  privilege  to  wear  it  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  When  he  makes  his  appearance  at  the  celebration  of  the 
games,35  it  is  customary  for  the  Senate  even  to  rise  from  their 
seats,  and  he  has  the  right  of  taking  his  seat  next  to  the  senators. 
Exemption,  too,  from  all  civic  duties  is  conferred  upon  him  as 
well  as  his  father  and  his  father's  father.  Siccius  Dentatus,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned36  on  an  appropriate  occasion,  received 
fourteen  civic  crowns,  and  Manlius  Capitolinus37  six,38  one, 
among  the  rest,  for  having  saved  the  life  of  his  general,  Ser- 
vilius.  Scipio  Africanus  declined  to  accept  the  civic  crown 
for  having  saved  the  life  of  his  father  at  the  battle  of  Trebia. 
Times  these,  right  worthy  of  our  everlasting  admiration, 
which  accorded  honour  alone  as  the  reward  of  exploits  so 
mighty,  and  which,  while  other  crowns  were  recommended  by 
being  made  of  gold,  disdained  to  set  a  price  upon  the  safety  of 
a  citizen,  and  loudly  proclaimed  thereby  that  it  is  unrighteous 
to  save  the  life  of  a  man  for  motives  of  lucre. 

33  At  the  Olympic  games  celebrated  in  honour  of  Jupiter.  >  At  Olympia 
there  was  a  statue  of  that  god,  one  of  the  master-pieces  of  Phidias. 

34  Implying  thereby,  that  the  city  that  could  produce  a  man  who  could 
so  distinguish  himself,  stood  in  no  need  of  walls. 

35  In  the  Circus.  36  In  B.  vii.  c.  29. 

v  B.  vii.  c.  29.  ' 

38  Livy  says  eight.  He  saved  the  life  of  Servilms,  the  Master  of  the  Horse. 


Chap.  6.]                  THIRTEEN  VARIETIES  OF  THE  ACORN.  345 

CHAP.  6.  (5.) THIRTEEN  VARIETIES  OF  THE  ACORN. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  acorns39  at  this  very  day  con- 
stitute the  wealth  of  many  nations,  and  that,  too^  even  amid 
these  times  of  peace.  Sometimes,  also,  when  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  corn  they  are  dried  and  ground,  the  meal  heing  employed 
for  making  a  kind  of  bread.  Even  to  this  very  day,  in  the 
provinces  of  Spain,40  we  find  the  acorn  introduced  at  table  in 
the  second  course  :  it  is  thought  to  be  sweeter  when  roasted 
in  the  ashes.  By  the  law  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  there  is  a 
provision  made  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  a  man  to  gather  his 
acorns  when  they  have  fallen  upon  the  land  of  another. 

The  varieties  of  the  glandiferous  trees  are  numerous,  and 
they  are  found  to  diner  in  fruit,  locality,  sex,  and  taste  ;  the 
acorn  of  the  beech  having  one  shape,  that  of  the  quercus 
another,  and  that,  again,  of  the  holm-oak  another.  The  various 
species  also,  among  themselves,  offer  a  considerable  number  of 
varieties.  In  addition  to  this,  some  of  these  trees  are  of  a 
wild  nature,  while  the  fruits  of  others  are  of  a  less  acrid 
flavour,  owing  to  a  more  careful  cultivation.  Then,  too,  there 
is  a  difference  between  the  varieties  which  grow  on  the  moun- 
tains and  those  of  the  plains;  the  males  differ  from  the 
females,  and  there  are  considerable  modifications  in  the  flavour 
of  their  fruit.  That  of  the  beech 41  is  the  sweetest  of  all ;  so 
much  so,  that,  according  to  Cornelius  Alexander,  the  people  of 
the  city  of  Chios,  when  besieged,  supported  themselves  wholly 
on  mast.  The  different  varieties  cannot  possibly  be  distin- 
guished by  their  respective  names,  which  vary  according  to 

39  "  Glandes."  Under  this  name,  for  which  we  do  not  appear  to  have  any- 
English  equivalent,  were  included,  as  already  mentioned,  not  only  the 
acorn  of  the  oak,  hut  the  nut  or  mast  of  the  beech,  and  probably  most  of 
the  hard  or  kernel  fruits.  In  the  present  instance  Pliny  probably  alludes 
only  to  the  fruit  of  the  oak  and  the  beech.  Acorns  are  but  little  used  as 
an  article  of  food  in  these  days.  Roasted,  they  have  been  proposed  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee. 

40  The  acorn  of  the  Quercus  ballota  of  Linnseus  is  probably  meant,  which 
is  still  much  used  in  the  province  of  Salamanca,  and  forms  an  agreeable 
article  of  food.  This  acorn,  Fee  says,  contains  a  considerable  proportion 
of  saccharine  matter,  and' is  better  roasted  in  the  ashes  than  boiled  in  water. 
It  is  not,  however,  used  as  a  dessert,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  These 
acorns  are  sold  at  market  in  Andalusia  in  the  month  of  October. 

41  So  far  as  it  goes,  the  kernel  of  the  mast  or  beech-nut  is  not  unpa- 
latable ;  but  in  the  English  beech  it  is  very  diminutive. 


346  plint's  NATURAL  HISTOEY.  [Book  XVI. 

their  several  localities.  The  quercus43  and  the  robur43  we 
see  growing  everywhere,  but  not  so  with  the  resculus  ;44  while 
a  fourth  kind,  known  as  the  eerrus,45  is  not  so  much  as  known 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  Italy.  "We  shall  distinguish 
them,  therefore,  by  their  characteristic  features,  and  when 
circumstances  render  it  necessary,  shall  give  their  Greek  names 
as  well. 

CHAP.  7.    (6.) — THE   BEECH. 

The  acorn  of  the  beech 46  is  similar  in  appearance  to  a  kernel, 
enclosed  in  a  shell  of  triangular  shape.  The  leaf  is  thin  and 
one  of  the  very  lightest,  is  similar  in  appearance  to  that  of  the 
poplar,  and  turns  yellow  with  remarkable  rapidity.  From  the 
middle  of  the  leaf,  and  upon  the  upper  side  of  it,  there  mostly 
shoots  a  little  green  berry,  with  a  pointed  top.47  The  beech  is 
particularly  agreeable  to  rats  and  mice ;  and  hence  it  is,  that 
where  this  tree  abounds,  those  creatures  are  sure  to  be  plen- 
tiful also.  The  leaves  are  also  very  fattening  for  dormice, 
and  good  for  thrushes  too.  Almost  all  trees  bear  an  average 
crop  but  once  in  two  years ;  this  is  the  case  with  the  beech 
more  particularly. 

CHAP.  8. THE   OTHER   ACORNS — WOOD   EOR   FUEL. 

The  other  trees  that  bear  acorns,  properly  so  called,  are  the 

42  The  word  u  quercus  "  is  frequently  used  as  a  general  name  for  the 
oak ;  but  throughout  the  present  Book  it  is  most  employed  as  meaning  a 
distinct  variety  of  the  oak,  one  of  the  larger  kinds,  Fee  says,  and  answering 
to  the  Quercus  racemosa  of  Lamarck,  the  Quercus  robur  of  Linnaeus,  and 
the  Rouvre  of  the  French. 

43  This  also  has  been  much  employed  as  a  general  name  for  the  oak ;  hut 
here,  and  in  other  parts  of  this  Book,  it  is  applied  to  one  variety.  Fee 
thinks  that  it  answers  to  the  Quercus  sessiliflora  of  Smith,  sometimes  also 
called  "  rouvre"  by  the  French. 

44  The  Quercus  eesculus  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  not  improbable  that  this  oak 
is  a  different  tree  from  the  "iEsculus  "  of  Horace  and  Virgil,  which  was 
perhaps  either  a  walnut,  or  a  variety  of  the  beech. 

45  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  is  the  same  with  the  Quercus  eerrus  of 
Linneous,  and  the  Quercus  crinita  of  Lamarck,  the  gland  of  which  is  placed 
in  a  prickly  cupule.  It  is  rarely  found  in  France,  but  is  often  to  be  met 
with  in  Piedmont  and  the  Apennines. 

46  The  Fagus  silvatica  of  Lamarck.  Its  Latin  name,  "fagus,"_is  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Greek  0ayu>?  "  to  eat."  An  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  acorns  or  nuts,  that  is  much  used  in  some  parts  of  France. 

47  He  speaks  probably  of  one  of  the  galls  which  are  found  attached  to 
the  leaves  *of  the  forest  trees. 


Chap.  8.]  THE   OTHER  ACORNS.  347 

robur,  the  sesculus,  the  cerrus,  the  holm-oak,48  and  the  cork- 
tree :49  it  is  contained  in  a  rivelled  calyx,  which  embraces 
more  or  less  of  it,  according  to  the  several  varieties.  The 
leaves  of  these  trees,  those  of  the  holm-oak  excepted,  are 
weighty,  pulpy,  long,  and  jagged  at  the  edges,  and  they  do 
not  turn  yellow  before  they  fall,  as  with  the  beech  :  they  are 
also  longer  or  shorter,  as  the  case  may  be. 

There  are  two  kinds  M  of  holm-oak  :  one  of  them,  which 
belongs  to  Italy,  has  a  leaf  not  very  unlike  that  of  the  olive ; 
some  of  the  Greeks  give  it  the  name  of  "  milax,"51  and  in  our 
provinces  it  is  known  as  the  aquifolia.  The  acorn  of  these 
two  kinds  is  shorter  and  more  slender  than  in  the  others : 
Homer52  calls  it  "  acylos,"  and  by  that  name  distinguishes  it 
from  the  ordinary  acorn :  it  is  generally  said  that  the  male 
tree  of  the  holm-oak  bears  no  fruit. 

The  best  acorn,  and  the  very  largest,  is  that  which  grows 
upon  the  quercus,  and  the  next  to  it  is  the  fruit  of  the  aescu- 
lus  :  that  of  the  robur,  again,  is  diminutive,  and  the  fruit  of 
the  cerrus  has  a  meagre,  wretched  look,  being  enclosed  in  a 
calyx  covered  with  prickles,  like  the  outer  coat  of  the  ches- 
nut.  With  reference  to  the  acorn  of  the  quercus,  that  which 
grows  upon  the  female  tree53  is  sweeter  and  more  tender, 
while  that  of  the  male  is  more  solid  and  compact.  The  acorn, 
however,  of  the  latifolia54  is  the  most  esteemed,  an  oak  so 

48  "  Ilex."  Fee  thinks  that  the  varieties  known  as  the  Prinos  and  the 
Ballota  were  often  confounded  by  the  ancients  with  the  "  ilex  "  or  "  holm- 
oak."  This  tree,  he  says,  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  ordinary  oak,  except 
in  the  blossoms  and  the  fruit.  It  is  the  Ilex  of  Linnseus,  the  "  yeuse,"  or 
"  green  oak,"  of  the  French. 

19  The  Quercus  suber  of  Linnseus  ;  it  is  found  more  particularly  in  the 
department  of  the  Landes  in  France. 

50  As  Fee  remarks,  Pliny  is  clearly  in  error  here ;  one  kind  being  the 
veritable  ilex  or  holm  oak,  the  other,  the  aquifolium  or  holly,  quite  a  dif- 
ferent tree. 

61  The  smilax  or  milax  wasareal  holm  oak,but  the  aquifolia  was  the  holly. 

62  Od.  xi.  242.  Fee  remarks  that  the  berry  of  the  holly  has  no  resem- 
blance to  the  acorn  whatever,  and  he  says  that  this  statement  of  Pliny  al- 
most leads  him  to  think  that  the  second  variety  here  mentioned  by  him  was 
not  in  reality  the  holly,  but  a  variety  of  the  quercus. 

63  Fee  observes  that,  properly  speaking,  there  is  no  sex  in  the  oak,  the 
individuals  being  neither  male  nor  female.  The  Flora  Danica  however,  as 
he  observes,  gives  the  name  of  "  Quercus  fcemina"  to  the  Quercus  racemosa 
of  Lamarck. 

5*  Or  "broad-leaved"  oak;  one  of  the  varieties  of  the  Quercus  sessili- 
flora  of  Smith — Flor.  Brit. 


348  pliot's  eatueal  histoey.  [Book  XVI. 

called  from  the  remarkable  broadness  of  its  leaves.  The  acorns 
differ  also  among  themselves  in  size,  and  the  comparative 
fineness  of  the  outer  shell ;  as  also  in  the  circumstance  that 
some  have  beneath  the  shell  a  rough  coat  of  a  rusty  colour, 
while  in  others  a  white  flesh  immediately  presents  itself. 
Those,  too,  are  more  particularly  esteemed,  the  two  extre- 
mities of  the  nut  of  which,  taken  lengthwise,  are  as  hard  as  a 
stone :  and  it  is  considered  preferable  that  this  peculiarity 
should  present  itself  rather  in  the  shell  than  in  the  flesh  :  in 
either  case,  however,  it  only  exists  in  the  fruit  of  the  male  tree. 
In  some  kinds,  again,  the  acorn  is  oval,  in  others  round ; 
while  in  others  it  is  of  a  more  pointed  form.  The  colour,  too, 
varies  considerably,  according  as  it  is  blacker  or  whiter  ;  this 
last  being  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  The  extremities  of  the 
acorn  are  bitter,  but  the  flesh  in  the  middle  of  it  is  sweet;55 
another  difference,  too,  consists  in  the  comparative  length  or 
shortness  of  the  stalk. 

As  for  the  trees  themselves,  the  one  that  bears  the  acorn  of 
largest  size  is  known  as  the  "hemeris;"66  a  small  tree  with 
a  thick  bushy  foliage  all  around  it,  and  often  hollowed  at  the 
place  where  the  branch  is  joined  to  the  trunk.  The  quercus 
has  a  stronger  wood,  and  less  susceptible  of  decay :  this  also  is 
a  very  branchy  tree,  but  is  much  taller  than  the  last,  while 
the  trunk  is  considerably  thicker.  The  tegilops,57  however,  is 
the  highest  of  them  all,  and  is  much  attached  to  wild,  unculti- 
vated spots.  Next  to  this  in  height  is  the  latifolia,  but  its 
wood  is  far  from  being  so  useful  either  for  building  purposes 
or  for  charcoal.  When  rough-hewn  it  is  very  apt  to  spoil, 
hence  it  is  that  it  is  generally  used  in  an  unhewn  state.  As 
charcoal,  it  is  considered  only  economical  in  smelting  copper  ; 
for  the  moment  the  workman  ceases  to  blow,  the  fire  dies  out, 
and  hence  it  requires  to  be  repeatedly  rekindled  ;  while  at  the 
same  time  it  gives  out  great  quantities  of  sparks.     The  best 

55  This  statement  is  contrary  to  general  experience  in  modern  times, 
the  flavour  of  the  acorn  being  uniformly  acrid  and  hitter  throughout.  It 
is  not  impossible,  however,  that  the  flavour  may  have  been  more  palatable 
in  ancient  times. 

56  A  variety  of  the  common  oak,  the  Quercus  racemosa  of  Lamarck ; 
Sprengel  takes  it  to  bo  the  Quercus  ballota  of  Desfontaines. 

57  The  Quercus  segilops  of  Linnaeus.  It  is  a  native  of  Piedmont,  some 
parts  of  Italy,  and  the  island  of  Crete. 


Chap.  8.]  WOOD   FOR  FUEL.  349 

charcoal  is  that  obtained  from  the  wood  of  young  trees.58 
Square  billets  of  wood,  newly  cut,  are  piled  compactly  together 
with  clay,  and  built  up  in  the  form  of  a  chimney ;  the  pile  is 
then  set  fire  to,  and  incisions  are  made  in  the  coat  of  clay  as  it 
gradually  hardens,  by  the  aid  of  long  poles,  for  the  purpose  of 
letting  the  moisture  of  the  wood  evaporate. 

The  worst  kind  of  all,  however,  both  for  timber  and  for 
making  charcoal,  is  the  oak  known  as  the  "  haliphloeos,"59  the 
bark  of  which  is  remarkably  thick,  and  the  trunk  of  consider- 
able size,  but  mostly  hollow  and  spongy  :  it  is  the  only  one 
of  this  species  that  rots  while  the  tree  is  still  alive.  In 
addition  to  this,  it  is  very  frequently  struck  by  lightning, 
although  it  is  not  so  remarkably  lofty  in  height:  for  this 
reason  it  is  not  considered  lawful  to  employ  its  wood  for  the 
purposes  of  sacrifice.  It  is  but  rarely  that  it  bears  any  acorns, 
and  when  it  does  they  are  bitter  :  no  animal  will  touch  them, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  swine,  and  not  even  they,  if  they 
can  get  any  other  food.  An  additional  reason  also  for  its  ex- 
clusion from  all  religious  ceremonials,  is  the  circumstance 
that  the  fire  is  very  apt  to  go  out  in  the  middle  of  the 
sacrifice  when  the  wood  of  it  is  used  for  fuel. 

The  acorn  of  the  beech,  when  given  to  swine,60  makes  them 
brisk  and  lively,  and  renders  the  flesh  tender  for  cooking,  and 
light  and  easy  of  digestion ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  that  of 
the  holm  oak  has  the  effect  of  making  them  thin,  pallid, 
meagre,  and  lumpish.  The  acorn  of  the  quercus  is  of  a  broad 
shape,  and  is  the  heaviest  as  well  as  the  sweetest  of  them 
all.  According  to  Nigidius,  the  acorn  of  the  cerrus  occupies 
the  next  rank  to  this,  and,  indeed,  there  is  no  acorn  that 
renders  the  flesh  of  swine  more  firm,  though  at  the  same  time 
it  is  apt  to  impart  a  certain  degree  of  hardness.  The  same 
author  assures  us  also,  that  the  acorn  of  the  holm  oak  is  a 
trying  diet  for  swine,  unless  it  is  given  in  very  small  quan- 

58  Pliny's  account  of  making  charcoal  is  derived  from  Theophrastus, 
B.  iii.  c.  10.  Fee  remarks  that  it  differs  little  from  the  method  adopted  in 
France  at  the  present  day. 

59  The  Quercus  Hispanica,  probably,  of  Lamarck,  of  which  Fee  thinks 
the  Quercus  pseudo-suber  of  Desfontaines  is  a  variety ;  it  is  found  in 
Greece  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  near  Gibraltar.  The  Greek 
name  signifies  the  "  sea  cork- tree." 

60  The  statement  here  given  as  to  the  effect  of  beech-mast  on  swine,  is 
destitute,  Fee  remarks,  of  all  foundation.  If  fed  upon  it,  their  flesh  will 
naturally  be  of  a  soft,  spongy  nature. 


350  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

tities  at  a  time.  He  says,  too,  that  this  acorn  is  the  last 
to  fall,  and  that  the  flesh  of  swine,  if  fed  upon  the  acorns 
of  the  Eesculus,  the  robur,  or  the  cork-tree,  will  be  of  a 
spongy  nature. 

CHAP.  9. THE  GALL-NUT. 

All61  the  glandiferous  trees  produce  the  gall-nut  as  well : 
they  only  bear  acorns,  however,  in  alternate  years.  The  gall- 
nut  of  the  hemeris62  is  considered  the  choicest  of  all,  and  the 
best  adapted  for  the  preparation  of  leather :  that  of  the  lati- 
folia  closely  resembles  it,  but  is  somewhat  lighter,  and  not  by 
any  means  so  highly  approved.  This  last  tree  produces  the 
black  gall-nut  also — for  there  are  two  varieties  of  it — this  last 
being  deemed  preferable  for  dyeing  wool. 

(7.)  The  gall-nut  begins  to  grow  just  as  the  sun  is  leaving 
the  sign  of  Gemini,63  and  always  bursts  forth  in  its  entirety  in  a 
single  night.64  The  white  variety  grows,  too,  in  a  single  day,  but 
if  the  heat  happens  to  overtake  it,  it  shrinks  immediately,  and 
never  arrives  at  its  proper  size,  which  is  about  that  of  a  bean. 
The  black  gall-nut  will  remain  green  for  a  longer  period,  and 
sometimes  attains  the  size  of  an  apple65  even.  The  best  kind  is 
that  which  comes  from  Commagene,66  and  the  most  inferior 
are  those  produced  by  the  robur  :  it  may  easily  be  tested  by 
means  of  certain  holes  in  it  which  admit  of  the  passage  of  the 
light.67 

CHAP.   10. OTHER    PRODUCTIONS    ON     THESE    TREES    BESIDES    THE 

ACORN. 

The  robur,  in  addition  to  its  fruit,  has  a  great  number  of 
other  productions  :  it  bears68  the  two  varieties  of  the  gall-nut, 

61  This  assertion  is  perhaps  too  general ;  gall-nuts  are  produced  in  very 
small  quantities  hy  the  holm-oak. 

62  A  variety  of  the  Quercus  racemosa,  which  produces  the  green  gall- 
nut  of  Aleppo,  considered  in  modern,  as  in  ancient,  times  the  choicest  in 
quality. 

63  Theophrastus  says  the  end  of  June._ 

64  Its  growth,  in  reality,  is  not  so  rapid  as  this. 

65  Such  a  thing  is  never  seen  at  the  present  day. 

es  In  Syria.     We  have  mentioned  the  galls  of  Aleppo  in  Note  62.  _ 
67  This  is  the  case  when  the  inside  has  heen  eaten  away  hy  the  insect 
that  hreeds  there  ;  of  course,  in  such  case  it  is  holloAv,  light,  and  worthless, 
ea  The  ancients  were  not  aware  that  the  gall  was  produced  from  the  eggs 


Chap.  11.]  CACHETS.  351 

and  a  production  which  closely  resembles  the  mulberry,69  ex- 
cept that  it  differs  from  it  in  being  dry  and  hard :  for  the  most 
part  it  bears  a  resemblance  to  a  bull's  head,  and  in  the  inside 
there  is  a  fruit  very  similar  to  the  stone  of  the  olive.  Little 
balls70  also  are  found  growing  on  the  robur,  not  unlike  nuts  in 
appearance,  and  containing  within  them  a  kind  of  soft  wool, 
which  is  used  for  burning  in  lamps  ;  for  it  will  keep  burning 
without  oil,  which  is  the  case  also  with  the  black  gall-nut. 
It  bears  another  kind,  too,  of  little  ball,  covered  with  hair,71  but 
used  for  no  purpose :  in  spring,  however,  this  contains  a  juice  like 
honey.  In  the  hollows  formed  by  the  union  of  the  trunk  and 
branches  of  this  tree  there  are  found  also  small  round  balls,72 
which  adhere  bodily  to  the  bark,  and  not  by  means  of  a  stalk : 
at  the  point  of  junction  they  are  white,  but  the  rest  of  the 
body  is  spotted  all  over  with  black  :  inside  they  are  of  a  scarlet 
colour,  but  on  opening  them  they  are  found  to  be  empty,  and 
are  of  a  bitter  taste. 

Sometimes,  too,  the  robur  bears  a  kind  of  pumice,73  as  well 
as  little  balls,  which  are  formed  of  the  leaves  rolled  up ;  upon 
the  veins  of  the  leaves,  too,  there  are  watery  pustules,  of  a 
whitish  hue,  and  transparent  while  they  are  soft ;  in  these  a 
kind  of  gnat74  is  produced,  and  they  come  to  maturity  just  in 
the  same  way  that  the  ordinary  gall-nut  does. 

CHAP.   11.  (8.) CACHETS. 

The  robur  bears  cachrys,75  too  ;  such  being  the  name  given 

of  the  cynips,  deposited  upon  the  leaf  or  bark  of  the  tree.  Tan  and  gallic 
acid  are  its  principal  component  parts. 

_  69  A  substance  quite  unknown  now  ;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  Pliny  is 
rightly  informed  here. 

70  A  fungous  gall,  produced  by  the  Cynips  fungosa.  It  is  not  used  for 
any  domestic  purpose  at  the  present  day. 

7*  This  kind  of  gall  is  now  unknown.  Fee  questions  the  assertion  about 
its  juice. 

72  The  Cynips  quercus  baccarum  of  Linnaeus,  one  of  the  common  galls. 

13  The  root  cynips,  the  Cynips  radicum  of  Fourcroi,  produces  these 
galls,  which  lie  near  the  root,  and  have  the  appearance  of  ligneous  nodo- 
sities. It  is  harder  than  wood,  and  contains  cells,  in  which  the  larva  of  the 
insect  lies  coiled  up. 

74  This  is  a  proof,  as  Fee  remarks,  that  the  ancients  had  observed  the 
existence  of  the  cynips ;  though,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  equally  evident 
that  they  did  not  know  the  important  part  it  acts  in  the  formation  of  the 
gall. 

75  This  word,  as  employed  by  Theophrastus,  means  a  catkin,  the  Julus 


352  pliny's  natueal  histoet.  [Book  XVI. 

to  a  small  round  ball  that  is  employed  in  medicine  for  its 
caustic  properties.  It  grows  on  the  fir  likewise,  the  larch, 
the  pitch-tree,  the  linden,  the  nut-tree,  and  the  plane,  and 
remains  on  the  tree  throughout  the  winter,  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen.  It  contains  a  kernel  very  similar  to  that  of  the  pine- 
nut,  and  increases  in  size  during  the  winter.  In  spring  the 
ball  opens  throughout,  and  it  finally  drops  when  the  leaves 
are  beginning  to  grow. 

Such  is  the  multiplicity  of  the  products  borne  by  the  robur 
in  addition  to  its  acorns  ;  and  not  only  these,  but  mushrooms'6 
as  well,  of  better  or  worse  quality,  the  most  recent  stimulants 
that  have  been. discovered  for  the  appetite ;  these  last  are  found 
growing  about  its  roots.  Those  of  the  quercus  are  the  most 
highly  esteemed,  while  those  of  the  robur,  the  cypress,  and 
the  pine  are  injurious.77  The  robur  produces  mistletoe78  also, 
and,  if  we  may  believe  Hesiod,79  honey  as  well :  indeed,  it  is 
a  well-known  feet, that  a  honey80-like  dew  falling  from  heaven,  as 
we  have  already  mentioned,81  deposits  itself  upon  the  leaves  of 
this  tree  in  preference  to  those  of  any  other.  It  is  also  well 
known  that  the  wood  of  this  tree,  when  burnt,  produces  a 
nitrous82  ash. 

amentum  of  the  botanists  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  Pliny  attaches  this  meaning 
to  the  word,  as  the  lime  or  linden-tree  has  no  catkin,  but  an  inflorescence 
of  a  different  character.  It  is  not  improbable  that,  under  this  name,  he 
alludes  to  some  excrescence. 

™  These  were  the  "  boletus'7  and  the  "  suillus  ;"  the  last  of  which  seem 
only  to  have  been  recently  introduced  at  table  in  the  time  of  Pliny.  See 
tj  xxii  c*  47* 

"«  He  alludes  clearly  to  fungi  of  radically  different  qualities,  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  trees  beneath  which  they  grow  cannot  possibly  influence  them, 
any  further  than  by  the  various  proportions  of  shade  they  afford,  lhe  soil, 
however,  exercises  great  influence  on  the  quality  of  the  fungus ;  growing 
upon  a  hill,  it  may  be  innoxious,  while  in  a  wet  soil  it  may  be  productive 
0f  death.  78  See  cc.  93,  94,  and  95,  of  this  Book. 

79  Works  and  Days,  1.  230. 

80  Pliny  seems  to  have  here  taken  in  a  literal  sense,  what  has  been  said 
figuratively  by  Virgil,  Eel.  iv.  1.  26  : 

u  Et  durte  quercus  sudabunt  roscida  mella ; 
and  by  Ovid,  in  relation  to  the  Golden  Age,  Met.  i.  113  :. 

"  Flavaque  de  viridi  stillabant  ilice  mella." 
Fee  remarks,  that  we  find  on  the  leaf  of  the  lime-tree  a  thin,  sugary  de- 
posit left  by  insects,  and  that  a  species  of  manna  exudes  from  the  Coniferae, 
as  also  the  bark  of  the  beech.     This,  however,  is  never  the  case  with  the 

oak  81  B-  xi-  c-  12-  •      „ 

82  By  this  word,  Fee  observes,  we  must  not  understand  the  word  "  nitre, 


Ch;ip.  13.]  AGARIC.  353 

CHAP.    12. THE  KEEHES  BEERY. 

The  holm  oak,  however,  by  its  scarlet  berry83  alone  chal- 
lenges competition  with  all  these  manifold  productions.  This 
grain  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  a  roughness  on  the  surface  of 
the  tree,  as  it  were,  a  small  kind  of  the  aquifolia84  variety 
of  holm  oak,  known  as  the  cusculium.85  To  the  poor  in  Spain 
it  furnishes56  the  means  of  paying  one  half  of  their  tribute. 
We  have  already,  when  speaking87  of  the  purple  of  the  murex, 
mentioned  the  best  methods  adopted  for  using  it.  It  is  pro- 
duced also  in  Galatia,  Africa,  Pisidia,  and  Cilicia :  the  most 
inferior  kind  is  that  of  Sardinia. 

CHAP.   13. AGAE1C 

It  is  in  the  Gallic  provinces  more  particularly  that  the  glan- 
diferous trees  produce  agaric  ;88  such  being  the  name  given  to 
a  white  fungus  which  has  a  strong  odour,  and  is  very  useful  as 
an  antidote.  It  grows  upon  the  top  of  the  tree,  and  gives 
out  a  brilliant  light69  at  night :  this,  indeed,  is  the  sign  by 
Which  its  presence  is  known,  and  by  the  aid  of  this  light  it 
may  be  gathered  during  the  night.  The  segilops  is  the  only 
one  among  the  glandiferous  trees  that  bears  a  kind  of  dry 
cloth,90  covered  with  a  white  mossy  shag,  and  this,  not  only 
attached  to  the  bark,  but  hanging  down  from  the  branches  as 
well,  a   cubit  even  in  length  :    this  substance  has  a  strong 

in  the  modern  sense,  but  the  sub-carbonate  of  potash ;  while  the  ashes  of 
trees  growing  on  the  shores  of  the  sea  produce  a  sub-carbonate  of  soda. 

83  "  Coccus."  This  is  not  a  gall,  but  the  distended  body  of  an  insect,  tbe 
kermes,  which  grows  on  a  peculiar  oak,  the  "  Quercus  coccifera,"  found  in 
the  south  of  Europe. 

84  We  have  previously  mentioned,  that  he  seems  to  have  confounded  the 
holly  with  the  holm  oak. 

85  Poinsinet,  rather  absurdly,  as  it  would  appear,  finds  in  this  word  the 
origin  of  our  word  "cochineal." 

86  The  kermes  berry  is  but  little  used  in  Spain,  or,  indeed,  anywhere  else, 
since  the  discovery  of  the  cochineal  of  America. 

87  B.  ix.  c.  65. 

88  Not  the  white  agaric,  Fee  says,  of  modern  pharmacy  ;  but,  as  no  kind 
of  agaric  is  found  in  the  oak,  it  does  not  seem  possible  to  identify  it.  See 
B.  xxv.  c.  57. 

89  It  is  evident  that  no  fungus  would  give  out  phosphoric  light ;  but  -it 
may  have  resulted  from  old  wood  in  a  state  of  decomposition. 

90  It  is  pretty  clear  that  one  of  the  lichens  of  the  genus  usnea  is  here 
referred  to.     Amadue,  or  German  tinder,  seems  somewhat  similar. 

VOL.    III.  A   A 


354  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

odour,   as  we  have   already91   stated,  when  speaking  of  the 
perfumes. 

The  cork  is  but  a  very  small  tree,  and  its  acorn  is  of  the 
very  worst92  quality,  and  rarely  to  be  found  as  well:  the 
bark93  is  its  only  useful  product,  being  remarkably  thick,  and 
if  removed  it  will  grow  again.  When  straitened  out,  it  has 
been  known  to  form  planks  as  much  as  ten  feet  square.  This 
substance  is  employed  more  particularly  attached  as  a  buoy 
to  the  ropes94  of  ships'  anchors  and  the  drag-nets  of  fishermen. 
It  is  employed  also  for  the  bungs  of  casks  and  as  a  material 
for  the  winter  shoes95  of  females  ;  for  which  reason  the  Greeks 
not  inappropriately  call  them96  "  the  bark  of  a  tree." 

There  are  some  writers  who  speak  of  it  as  the  female  of  the 
holm  oak;  and  in  the  countries  where  the  holm  does  not 
grow,  they  substitute  for  it  the  wood  of  the  cork-tree^  more 
particularly  in  cartwrights'  work,  in  the  vicinity  of  Elis  and 
LacedaBinon  for  instance.  The  cork-tree  does  not  grow  through- 
out the  whole  of  Italy,  and  in  no97  part  whatever  of  Gaul. 

CHAP.    14.  (9.) — TREES  OF  WHICH  THE  BARK  IS  USED. 

The  bark  also  of  the  beech,  the  lime,  the  fir,  and  the  pitch- 
tree  is  extensively  used  by  the  peasantry.  Panniers  and 
baskets  are  made  of  it,  as  also  the  large  flat  hampers  which 
are  employed  for  the  carriage  of  corn  and  grapes :    roofs  of 

91  B.  xii.  c.  50. 

92  On  the  contrary,  Fee  says,  tlie  acorn  of  the  Quercus  suber  is  of  a  sweet 
and  agreeable  flavour,  and  is'much  sought  as  a  food  for  pigs.  The  hams 
of  Bayonne  are  said  to  owe  their  high  reputation  to  the  acorns  of  the  cork- 
tree 

93  The  word  "  cork"  is  clearly  derived  from  the  Latin  "  cortex,"  "  bark  " 
See  Beckmann's  History  of  Inventions,  V.  i.p.  320,  et  scq.,  Bohris  Edition, 
for  a  very  interesting  account  of  this  tree. 

u  This  passage,  the  meaning  of  which  is  so  obvious,  is  discussed  at  some 
length  by  Beckmann,  Vol.  i.  pp.  321,  322. 

95  It  is  still  employed  for  making  soles  which  are  impervious  to  the  wet. 

96  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  name  was  given  to  the  shoes,  or  the  fe- 
males who  wore  them,  and  we  have  therefore  preserved  the  doubt,  in  the 
ambiguous  "  them."  Beckmann  also  discusses  this  passage,  p.  321.  He 
informs  us,  p.  322,  that  the  E,oman  ladies  who  wished  to  appear  taller  than 
they  really  were,  were  in  the  habit  of  putting  plenty  of  cork  under  their 
soles. 

97  At  the  present  day,  it  grows  in  the  greatest  abundance  hi  France,  tbe 
Landes  more  particularly. 


Chap.  16.]  THE   PINE.  355 

cottages,98  too,  are  made  of  this  material.  "When  a  spy  has 
been  sent  out  he  often  leaves  information  for  his  general, 
written  upon  fresh  bark,  by  cutting  letters  in  the  parts  of  it 
that  are  the  most  juicy.  The  bark  of  the  beech  is  also  em- 
ployed for  religious  purposes  in  certain  sacred  rites."  This 
tree,  however,  when  deprived  of  its  bark,  will  not  survive. 

CHAP.   15.    (10.) — SHINGLES. 

The  best  shingles  are  those  made  of  the  wood  of  the  robur  ; 
the  next  best  being  those  furnished  by  the  other  glandiferous 
trees  and  the  beech.  Those  most  easily  made  are  cut  from, 
the  wood  of  the  resinous  trees,  but  they  do  not  last,1 
with  the  exception  of  those  made  of  pine.  Cornelius 
Nepos  informs  us,  that  Rome  was  roofed  solely  with  shingles 
down  to  the  time  of  the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  a  period  of  four 
hundred  and  seventy  years.  It  is  well  known  that  it  was 
remarkable  for  the  fine  forests  in  its  vicinity.  Even  at  the 
present  day,  the  name  of  Jupiter  Fagutalus  points  out  in 
what  locality  there  stood  a  grove  of  beeches  ;2  the  Querque- 
tulan  Gate  shows  where  the  quercus  once  stood,  and  the  Vi- 
minal  Hill  is  the  spot  where  the  "  vimen"3  was  sought  in 
ancient  times.  In  many  other  parts,  too,  there  were  groves 
to  be  found,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  two.  Q.  Hortensius, 
the  Dictator,  on  the  secession  of  the  plebeians  to  the  Jani- 
culum,  passed  a  law  in  the  JEsculetum/  that  what  the  ple- 
beians had  enacted  should  be  binding  upon  every  lioman 
citizen.5 

CHAP.   16. THE    PINE. 

In  those  days  they  regarded  as  exotics,  because  they  did  not 
exist  in  the  vicinity6  of  the  City,  the  pine  and  the  fir,  as  well 
as  all  the  other  varieties  that  produce  pitch  ;  of  which  we  shall 
now  proceed  to  speak,  in  order  that  the  method  of  seasoning 

98  This  is  still  the  case  in  some  of  the  poorer  provinces  of  Spain. 

59  As  Fee  remarks,  Mars  is  no  longer  the  Divinity  in  honour  of  whom 
characters  are  traced  on  the  bark  of  trees. 

1  On  the  contrary.  Fee  says,  the  resinous  woods  are  the  most  proof  of 
all  against  the  action  of  the  air. 

-  Festus  says  that  the  Fagutal,  a  shrine  of  Jupiter,  was  so  called  from 
a  beech  tree  (fagus)  that  stood  there,  and  was  sacred  to  that  god. 

3  Or  osier. 

4  Or  "  plantation  of  the  sesculus."  5  a.tj.c.  3G7. 
6  Fee  regards  this  as  an  extremely  doubtful  assertion. 

A   A    2 


356  flint's  NATUBAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

wine,  from  the  very  first,  may  be  fully  known.  "Whereas 
there  are  several  among  the  trees  already  mentioned  in  Asia 
or  the  East,  that  produce  pitch,  in  Europe  there  are  but 
six  varieties  of  kindred  trees  that  supply  it.  In  this  number 
there  are  the  pine7  and  the  pinaster,8  which  have  long  thin 
leaves  like  hair,  and  pointed  at  the  end.  The  pine  yields  the 
least  resin  of  them  all :  in  the  pine  nut,  indeed,  of  which  we 
have  previously  spoken,9  it  is  sometimes  to  be  found,  but 
hardly  in  sufficient  quantities  to  warrant  us  in  reckoning  the 
pine  among  the  resinous  trees. 

CHAr.    17. THE    PINASTEE. 

The  pinaster  is  nothing  else  but  a  wild  pine  :  it  rises  to  a 
surprising  height,  and  throws  out  branches  from  the  middle, 
just  as  the  pine  does  from  the  top.  This  tree  yields  a  more 
copious  supply  of  resin  than  the  pine  :  the  mode  in  which  this 
is  done  we  shall  set  forth 10  on  a  future  occasion.  It  grows 
also  in  flat  countries.  Many  people  think  that  this  is  the 
same  tree  that  grows  along  the  shores  of  Italy,  and  is  known 
as  the  "  tibulus  ;"  u  but  this  last  is  slender,  and  more  com- 
pact than  the  pine  ;  it  is  likewise  free  from  knots,  and  hence 
is  used  in  the  construction  of  light  gallies  ;12  they  are  both  almost 
entirely  destitute  of  resin. 

chap.  18. — the  pitch-tree:  the  pie. 
The  pitch-tree 13  loves  the  mountain  heights  and  cold  loca- 
lities. This  is  a  funereal  tree,  and,  as  an  emblem  of  death,  is 
placed  before  the  door  of  the  deceased,  and  is  left  to  grow  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  funeral  pile.  Still,  however,  it  is  now 
some  time  since  it  was  admitted  into  our  gardens,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  facility  with  which  it  is  clipped  into  various 
shapes.     It  gives  out  considerable  quantities  of  resin,14  which 

7  The  Pinus  pinea  of  Linnaeus,  the  cultivated  pine. 
§  The  Pinus  silvestris  of  Linnaeus,  the  wild  pine;  the  Pinus  maritima  of 
Lamarck  is  a  variety  of  it. 
p  B.  xv.  c.  9.  10  Ln  c.  23  of  this  Book. 

11  A  variety  of  the  Pinus  silvestris  of  Linnaeus. 

12  "  Liburnicae."     See  B.  ix.  cc.  5  and  48. 

13  The  Abies  excelsa  of  Decandolle— the  Pesse  or  Faux  sapin  (false  fir) 
of  the  French.  This  tree,  however,  has  not  the  pectinated,  or  comb-like 
leaf,  mentioned  by  Plinv  in  c.  38.  .    ,      .m  '    ' 

"  It  is  still  known  in  commerce  as  "  false  incense  ;    and  is  otten  sola 


Chap.  U.]  THE   LAECH.  357 

is  intermingled  with  white  granulations  like  pearls,  and  so 
similar  in  appearance  to  frankincense,  that  when  mixed,  it  is 
impossible  to  distinguish  them ;  hence  the  adulterations  we 
find  practised  in  the  Seplasia.15  All  this  class  of  trees  have  a 
short  bristly  leaf,  thick  and  hard,  like  that  of  the  cypress. 
The  branches  of  the  pitch-tree  are  of  moderate  size,  and  ex- 
tend from  almost  the  very  root  of  the  tree,  adhering  to  the 
sides  like  so  many  arms  :  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  fir,16 
the  wood  of  which  is  held  in  great  esteem  for  ship-building. 

This  tree  grows  upon  the  summits  of  lofty  mountains,  as 
though,  in  fact,  it  had  an  antipathy  to  the  sea,  and  it  does  not 
at  all  diifer  from  the  pitch-tree  in  appearance :  the  wood  is 
also  very  highly  esteemed  for  the  construction  of  rafters,  and 
many  other  appliances  of  life.  A  flow  of  resin,  which  in  the 
pitch-tree  constitutes  its  great  merit,  is  looked  upon  as  a 
defect  in  the  fir,17  though  it  will  generally  exude  in  some 
small  quantity  on  exposure  of  the  wood,  to  the  action  of  the 
sun.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wood  which  in  the  fir-tree  is 
remarkably  fine,  in  the  pitch-tree  is  only  used  for  making 
shingles,  vats,  and  a  few  other  articles  of  joiners'  work. 

CHAP.    19. THE    LAECH  :    THE    TOECH-TEEE. 

The  fifth  kind  of  resinous  tree  has  the  same  localities,  and 
is  very  similar  in  appearance ;  it  is  known  as  the  larch.13  The 
wood  of  this  tree  is  far  more  valuable,  being  unimpaired  by 
time,  and  proof  against  all  decay ;  it  is  of  a  reddish  colour, 
and  of  an  acrid  smell.  Besin  19  flows  from  this  wood  in  still 
greater  quantities ;  it  is  of  the  colour  of  honey,  more  viscous 
than  the  other  varieties,  and  never  turns  hard. 

as  incense  for  the  rites  of  the  Roman  church  :  while  sometimes  it  is  pur- 
posely employed,  as  being  cheaper. 

15  A  great  street  in  Capua,  which  consisted  entirely  of  the  shops  of  sellers 
of  unguents  and  perfumes. 

16  It  has  the  same  pyramidal  form  as  the  pitch-tree.  It  is  still  much 
used  in  ship-buildiug,  both  for  its  resinous  and  durable  qualities  and  the 
lightness  of  the  wood. 

17  The  presence  of  resin  is  not  looked  upon  as  any  defect  in  the  fir  at  the 
present  day.  It  produces  what  is  known  in  commerce  as  "  Strasbourg  tur- 
pentine." 

1S  The  Abies  larix  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  Larix  Europrea,  it  is  thought, 
of  Decandolles. 

;  19  It  is  the  Venice  turpentine  of  commerce.  Each  tree  will  furnish  seren 
or  eight  pounds  each  year  for  half  a  century. 


358  pliny's  natural  ihstory.  [Book  XYI. 

A  sixth  variety  is  the  torch-tree,20  properly  so  called, 
which  gives  out  more  resin  than  any  of  the  others,  with  the 
exception  of  the  pitch-tree ;  but  its  resin  is  more  liquid  than 
that  of  this  last.  The  wood,  too,  of  this  tree  is  more  particu- 
larly employed  for  kindling  fires  and  giving  torch-light  in 
religious  ceremonials.  Of  this  tree  it  is  the  male  only  that 
bears  what  is  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the  name  of  "  syce,"21 
remarkable  for  its  extremely  powerful  odour.  When  the 
larch22  is  changed  into  the  torch-tree,  it  is  a  proof  that  it  is  in 
a  diseased  state. 

The  wood  of  all  these  trees,  when  set  fire  to,  gives  out  im- 
moderate volumes  of  sooty  smoke,23  and  sputters  every  now  and 
then  with  a  sudden  crackling  noise,  while  it  sends  out  red- 
hot  charcoal  to  a  considerable  distance — with  the  sole  exception 
of  that  of  the  larch,  which  will  neither  burn24  nor  char,  nor,  in 
fact,  suffer  any  more  from  the  action  of  fire  than  a  stone.  All 
these  trees  are  evergreens,  and  are  not  easily25  distinguished 
by  the  foliage,  even  by  those  who  are  best  acquainted  with 
them,  so  nearly  related  are  they  to  one  another.  The  pitch- 
tree,  however,  is  not  so  high  as  the  larch ;  which,  again,  is 
stouter,  and  has  a  smoother  back,  with  a  more  velvety  leaf, 
more  unctuous  to  the  touch,  thicker,  and  more  soft  and  flexi- 
ble.26 The  pitch-tree,  again,  has  a  leaf  more  sparsely  scattered 
and  drier  ;  it  is  thinner  also,  and  of  a  colder  nature,  rougher  all 
over  in  appearance,  and  covered  with  a  resinous  deposit :  the 
wood  of  this  tree  is  most  like  that  of  the  fir.     The  larch,  when 

20  It  is  doubtful  if  the  tseda,  or  torch-tree,  has  been  identified.  Some 
take  it  to  be  the  Pinus  mugho  of  Miller,  the  torch-pine  of  the  French  ; 
others,  again,  suggest  that  it  is  the  same  as  the  Finus  cembro  of  the  bo- 
tanists. 

21  So  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  fig.  Fee  says  that  there  is  little 
doubt  that  this  pretended  fruit  was  merely  a  resinous  secretion,  which 
hardens  and  assumes  the  form  of  a  fig. 

22  He  somewhat  mistranslates  a  passage  of  Theophrastus  here,  _  who, 
without  transforming  the  larch  into  another  tree,  says  that  it  is  a  sign  of 
disease  in  the  larch,  when  its  secretions  are  augmented  to  such  a  degree 
that  it  seems  to  turn  itself  into  resin. 

23  The  lamp-black  of  commerce  is  made  from  the  soot  of  the  pine. 

24  This  statement,  though  supported  by  that  of  Vitruvius,  B.  ii.  c.  9,  is 
quite  erroneous.  The  wood  of  the  larch  gives  out  more  heat  than  that  of 
the  fir,  and  produces  more  live  coal  in  proportion. 

25  This,  Fee  remarks,  is  the  fact. 

36  This  description  is  inexact,  and  we  should  have  some  difficulty  in 
recognizing  here  the  larch  as  known  to  us. 


Chap.  19.]  THE   LARCH.  359 

the  roots  are  once  burnt,  will  not  throw  out  fresh  shoots, 
which  the  pitch-tree  will  do,  as  was  found  to  be  the  case  in  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  after  the  Pyrrhaean  grove  had  been  burnt 
there. 

In  the  same  species  too,  the  variety  of  sex-7  is  found  to  con- 
stitute a  considerable  difference :  the  male  is  the  shorter  tree, 
and  has  a  harder  wood ;  while  the  female  is  taller,  and  bears  a 
leaf  more  unctuous  to  the  feel,  smooth  and  free  from  all 
rigidity.  The  wood  of  the  male  tree  is  hard  and  awry,  and 
consequently  not  so  well  suited  for  carpenters'  work ;  while 
that  of  the  female  is  softer,  as  may  be  very  easily  perceived  on 
the  application  of  the  axe,  a  test,  in  fact,  which,  in  every 
variety,  immediately  shows  us  which  trees  are  males ;  the  axe 
in  such  case  meeting  with  a  greater  resistance,  falling  with 
a  louder  noise,  and  being  withdrawn  from  the  wood  with  con- 
siderably greater  difficulty  :  the  wood  of  the  male  tree  is  more 
parched  too,  and  the  root  is  of  a  blacker  hue.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Mount  Ida,  in  Troas,  the  circumstance  whether  the  tree  grows 
in  the  mountain  districts  or  on  the  sea-shore,  makes  another 
considerable  difference.  In  Macedonia  and  Arcadia,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Elis,  the  names  of  the  several  varieties  have 
been  totally  altered,  and  it  has  not  been  agreed  by  authors 
which  name  ought  to  be  given  to  each  :  we  have,  therefore, 
contented  ourselves  with  employing  the  Roman  denominations 
solely. 

The  fir  is  the  largest  of  them  all,  the  female  being  the  taller 
of  the  two  ;  the  wood,  too,  is  softer  and  more  easily  worked. 
This  tree  is  of  a  rounder  form  than  the  others,  and  its  leaves 
are  closely  packed  and  feathered,  so  as  not  to  admit  of  the 
passage  of  rain  ;  the  appearance,  too,  of  the  tree  is  altogether 
more  cheerful,  From  the  branches  of  these  different  varieties, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  the  larch,28  there  hang  numbers  of 
scaly  nuts  of  compact  shape,  like  so  many  catkins.  The  nuts 
found  upon  the  male  fir  have  a  kernel  in  the  fore-part,  which  is 

27  Pliny  is  in  error  here,  there  being  no  distinction  of  sex  in  the  coni- 
ferous trees.  All  that  he  relates  relative  to  the  differences  between  the 
male  and  female  pine  is  consequently  false.  He  has,  however,  in  this  in- 
stance, only  perpetuated  an  erroneous  opinion  of  Theophrastus. 

28  This  is  an  erroneous  statement.  The  larch  has  its  cone,  as  well  as 
the  rest.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  its  small  size  may  have  caused  it  to 
be  overlooked  by  Pliny. 


360  pliny's  natueal  history.  [Book  XVI. 

not  the  case  with  those  on  the  female  tree.  In  the  pitch-tree, 
again,  these  kernels,  which  are  very  small  and  black,  occupy 
the  whole  of  the  catkin,  which  is  smaller  and  more  slender 
than  in  the  other  varieties ;  hence  it  is  that  the  Greeks  call 
this  tree  by  the  name  of  phthirophoron.29  In  this  tree,  too,  the 
nuts  on  the  male  are  more  compressed,  and  less  moist  with 
resin. 

CHAP.  20. — THE  TEW, 

Not  to  omit  any  one  of  them,  the  yew zo  is  similar  to  these 
other  trees  in  general  appearance.  It  is  of  a  colour,  however, 
but  slightly  approaching  to  green,  and  of  a  slender  form ;  of 
sombre  and  ominous  aspect,  and  quite  destitute  of  juice  :  it  is 
the  only  one,  too,  among  them  all,  that  bears  a  berry.  In  the 
male  tree  the  fruit  is  injurious  ;  indeed,  in  Spain  more  particu- 
larly, the  berries  contain  a  deadly  poison.31  It  is  an  ascertained 
fact  that  travellers'  vessels,32  made  in  Gaul  of  this  wood,  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  wine,  have  caused  the  death  of  those  who 
used  them.  Sextius  says,  that  in  Greece  this  tree  is  known  by 
the  name  of  "  smilax,"  and  that  in  Arcadia  it  is  possessed  of  so 
active  a  poison,  that  those  who  sleep  beneath  it,  or  even  take 
food33  there,  are  sure  to  meet  their  death  from  it.  There  are 
authors,  also,  who  assert  that  the  poisons  which  we  call  at 
the  present  day  "  toxica,"  and  in  which  arrows  are  dipped, 
were  formerly  called  taxica,34  from  this  tree.  It  has  been 
discovered,  also,  that  these  poisonous  qualities  are  quite  neu- 
tralized by  driving  a  copper  nail  into  the  wood  of  the  tree. 

29  Or  "louse-bearing."     As  Fee  says,  it  is  difficult  to  see  the  analogy. 

30  The  Taxus  baccata  of  Linnaeus.  The  account  here  given  is  in  general 
very  correct. 

31  It  is  supposed  that  Pliny  derives  this  notion  as  to  the  yew  berry  from 
Julius  Caesar,  who  says  that  "  Cativulcus  killed  himself  with  the  yew,  a 
tree  which  grows  in  great  abundance  in  Gaul  and  Germany."  It  is,  how- 
ever, now  known  that  the  berry  is  quite  innocuous ;  but  the  leaves  and 
shoots  are  destructive  of  animal  life. 

32  "  Viatoria;"  probably  not  unlike  our  travelling  flasks  and  pocket-pis- 
tols.    This  statement  made  by  Pliny  is  not  at  all  improbable. 

33  This  statement  does  not  deserve  a  serious  contradiction. 

34  It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  ro^ov,  an  "arrow,"  is  of  older 
date  than  "  taxus,"  as  signifying  the  name  of  the  yew. 


Chap.  22.]  HOW    THICK   PITCH    IS    PREPARED.  361 

CHAP.    21.    (11.) METHODS    OF    MAKING    TAP HOW   CEDRIUM    IS 

MADE. 

In  Europe,  tar  is  extracted  from  the  torch-tree33  by  the 
agency  of  fire ;  it  is  employed  for  coating  ships  and  for  many 
other  useful  purposes.36  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  chopped"" 
into  small  billets,  and  then  put  into  a  furnace,  which  is  heated 
by  fires  lighted  on  every  side.  The  first  steam  that  exudes 
flows  in  the  form  of  water  into  a  reservoir  made  for  its  recep- 
tion :  in  Syria  this  substance  is  known  as  "cedrium;"38  and 
it  possesses  such  remarkable  strength,  that  in  Egypt  the  bodies 
of  the  dead,  after  being  steeped  in  it,  are  preserved  from  all 
corruption.39 

CHAP.  22. METHODS  BY  WHICH  THICK  PITCH  IS  PREPARED. 

The  liquid  that  follows  is  of  a  thicker  consistency,  and  con- 
stitutes pitch,  properly  so  called.  This  liquid,  thrown  again 
into  a  brazen  cauldron,  and  mixed  with  vinegar,  becomes  still40 
thicker,  and  when  left  to  coagulate,  receives  the  name  of 
"  Bruttian" 41  pitch.  It  is  used,  however,  only  for  pitching  the 
insides  of  dolia42  and  other  vessels,  it  differing  from  the  other 
kinds  in  being  more  viscous,  of  a  redder  colour,  and  more 
unctuous  than  is  usually  the  case.  All  these  varieties  of  pitch 
are  prepared  from  the  pitch-tree,  by  putting  red-hot  stones, 
with  the  resinous  wood,  in  troughs  made  of  strong  oak ;  or 
if  these  troughs  are  not  attainable,  by  piling  up  billets  of  the 

35  Numerous  varieties  of  the  coniferae  supply  us  with  tar,  aud  Pliny  is 
in  error  in  deriving  it  solely  from  the  torch-tree,  the  Pinus  mugho  of  Lin- 
naeus. 36  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  23. 

37  It  is  still  ohtained  in  a  similar  way. 

38  Fee  remarks,  that  Pliny  is  in  error  here  ;  this  red,  watery  fluid  formed 
in  the  extraction  of  tars,  being  quite  a  different  thing  from  "  cedvium,"  the 
alkitran  or  kit  ran  of  the  Arabs ;  which  is  not  improbably  made  from  a 
cedar,  or  perhaps  the  Juniperus  Phcenicea,  called  "Cedrus"  by  the  two 
Bauhins  and  Tournefort.  He  says  that  it  is  not  likely  that  the  Egyptians 
would  use  this  red  substance  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  dead,  charged 
as  it  is  with  empyreumatic  oil,  and  destitute  of  all  properties  peculiar  to 
resins.  39  See  B.  xxi.  c.  3,  and  B.  xxiv.  c.  23.. 

40  This  is  impracticable  ;  neither  vinegar,  wine,  nor  water,  will  mingle 
with  pitch.  These  resins,  however,  if  stirred  up  briskly  in  hot  water,  be- 
come of  a  paler  colour,  and  acquire  an  additional  suppleness. 

41  Perhaps  so  called  from  Calabria,  a  country  where  the  pine  abounded, 
and  part  of  which  was  called  Bruttium, 

42  Or  wine-vats. 


362  PLIin's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

wood  in  the  method  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  char- 
coal.43 It  is  this  pitch  that  is  used  for  seasoning  wine,  being 
first  pounded  and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder :  it  is  of  a  blacker 
colour,  too,  than  the  other  sort.  The  same  resin,  if  boiled  gently 
with  water,  and  then  strained  off,  becomes  viscous,  and  assumes 
a  red  colour;  it  is  then  known  as  "distilled44  pitch:"  for 
making  this,  the  refuse  portions  of  the  resin  and  the  bark  of 
the  tree  are  generally  selected. 

Another  method  is  adopted  for  the  manufacture  of  that  used 
as  crapula.45  Raw  flower  of  resin  is  taken,  direct  from  the 
tree,  with  a  plentiful  sprinkling  of  small,  thin  chips  of  the 
wood.  These  are  then  pounded46  down  and  passed  through  a 
sieve,  after  which  they  are  steeped  in  water,  which  is  heated 
till  it  comes  to  a  boil.  The  unctuous  portion  that  is  extracted 
from  this  is  the  best  resin  :  it  is  but  rarely  to  be  met  with, 
and  then  only  in  a  few  places  in  Italy,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Alps:  it  is  in  considerable  request  for  medicinal  purposes. 
For  this,  they  generally  boil  a  congius  of  white  resin  to  two 
congii  of  rain-water  : 47  some  persons,  however,  think  it  better48 
to  boil  it  without  water  for  one  whole  day  by  a  slow  fire, 
taking  care  to  use  a  vessel  of  white  copper.49  Some,  again, 
are  in  the  habit  of  boiling  the  resin  of  the  terebinth50  in  a  flat 
pan51  placed  upon  hot  ashes,  and  prefer  it  to  any  other  kind. 
The  resin  of  the  mastich52  is  held  in  the  next  degree  of  esti- 
mation.63 

43  See  c.  8  of  the  present  Book. 

44  Stillaticia.  45  See  B.  xiv.  c.  25. 

46  This  operation  removes  from  the  pitch  a  great  portion  of  its  essential 
oil,  and  disengages  it  of  any  extraneous  bodies  that  may  have  been  mixed 
with  it. 

47  Fee  remarks  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  this  selection,  though  no 
doubt  rain-water  is  superior  to  spring  or  cistern  water,  for  some  purposes, 
from  its  holding  no  terreous  salts  in  solution. 

48  This  would  colour  the  resin  more  strongly,  Fee  says,  and  give  it  a 
greater  degree  of  friability. 

49  See  B.  xxxiv.  c.  20.  50  See  B.  xiv.  c.  25,  and  B.  xxiv.  c.  22. 
51  "  Sartago."     Generally  understood  to  be  the  same  as  our  frying-pan. 

Fee  remarks  that  this  method  would  most  inevitably  cause  the  mass  in 
fusion  to  ignite ;  and  should  such  not  be  the  case,  a  coloured  resin  would 
be  the  result,  coloured  with  a  large  quantity  of  carbon,  and  destitute  of  all 
the  essential  oil  that  the  resin  originally  contained. 

«  See  B.  xiv.  c.  20. 

53  The  terebinthine  of  the  mastich,  Fee  says,  is  an  oleo-resin,  or  in 
other  words,  composed  of  an  essential  oil  and  a  resin. 


Chap.  23.]  HOW   RESItf   IS   PREPARED.  363 

CHAP.  23.  (12.) HOW  THE    RESIST    CALLED    ZOPISSA.  IS  PREPARED. 

We  must  not  omit,  too,  that  the  Greeks  call  by  the  name  of 
zopissa54  the  pitch  mixed  with  wax  which  has  been  scraped 
from  off  the  bottoms  of  sea-going  ships  ;55  for  there  is  nothing, 
in  fact,  that  has  been  left  untried  by  mankind.  This  composi- 
tion is  found  much  more  efficient  for  all  those  purposes  in 
which  pitch  and  resin  are  employed,  in  consequence  of  the 
superior  hardness  which  has  been  imparted  to  it  by  the  sea- 
salt. 

The  pitch-tree  is  opened56  on  the  side  that  faces  the  sun, 
not  by  means  of  an  incision,  but  of  a  wound  made  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  bark :  this  opening  being  generally  two  feet  in 
width  and  one  cubit  from  the  ground,  at  the  very  least,  The 
body  of  the  tree,  too,  is  not  spared  in  this  instance,  as  in  others, 
for  even  the  very  chips  from  off  it  are  considered  as  having 
their  use ;  those,  however,  from  the  lower  part  of  the  tree  are 
looked  upon  as  the  best,  the  wood  of  the  higher  parts  giving 
the  resin  a  bitter57  taste.  In  a  short  time  all  the  resinous 
juices  of  the  entire  tree  come  to  a  point  of  confluence  in  the 
wound  so  inflicted  :  the  same  process  is  adopted  also  with  the 
torch-tree.  When  the  liquid  ceases  to  flow,  the  tree  is  opened 
in  a  similar  manner  in  some  other  part,  and  then,  again,  else- 
where :  after  which  the  whole  tree  is  cut  down,  and  the  pith58 
of  it  is  used  for  burning.59 

So,  too,  in  Syria  they  take  the  bark  from  off  the  terebinth ; 
and,  indeed,  in  those  parts  they  do  not  spare  even  the  root  or 
branches,  although  in  general  the  resin  obtained  from  those 
parts  is  held  in  disesteem.  In  Macedonia  they  subject  the 
whole  of  the  male  larch  to  the  action  of  fire,  but  of  the  female60 

54  Apparently  meaning  "boiled  pitch." 

55  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  26. 

56  This  account  has  been  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B  ix. 
c.  ii.  The  modern  method  of  extracting  the  resin  of  the  pine  is  very 
similar.  57  There  is  no  foundation  whatever  for  this  statement. 

58  The  pith  of  the  pine  cannot  be  separated  from  the  wood,  and,  indeed, 
is  not  easily  distinguished  from  it.  Fee  says  that  in  some  of  these  trees 
masses  of  resin  are  found  in  the  cavities  which  run  longitudinally  with  the 
fibres,  and  queries  whether  this  may  not  be  the  ''marrow"  or  "pith"  of 
the  tree  mentioned  by  Pliny.  59  As  a  torch  or  candle,  probably. 

60  This  division  of  the  larch  into  sexes,  as  previously  mentioned,  is  only 
fanciful,  and  has  no  foundation  in  fact.  The  result  of  this  operation,  Fee 
says,  would  be  only  a  sort  of  tar. 


3fi  1  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XV r. 

onty  the  roots.  Theopompus  has  stated  in  his  writings  that  in 
the  territory  of  the  Apolloniates  there  is  found  a  kind  of  mineral 
pitch,61  not  inferior  to  that  of  Macedonia.  The  best  pitch03 
everywhere  is  that  obtained  from  trees  planted  on  sunny  spots 
with  a  north-east  aspect ;  while  that  which  is  produced  from 
more  shaded  localities  has  a  disagreeable  look  and  a  repulsive 
odour.  Pitch,  too,  that  is  produced  amid  the  cold  of  winter  is 
of  inferior  quality,  being  in  smaller  quantity,  too,  and  compara- 
tively colourless.  Some  persons  are  of  opinion  that  in  moun- 
tainous localities  this  liquid  is  produced  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance, and  that  it  is  of  superior  colour  and  of  a  sweeter  taste 
and  has  a  finer  smell  so  long  as  it  remains  in  a  state  of  resin ; 
but  that  when,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  subjected  to  boiling,  it 
yields  a  smaller  quantity  of  pitch,  because  so  much  of  it  goes63 
off  in  a  serous  shape.  They  say  that  the  resinous  trees,  too, 
that  grow  on  mountains  are  thinner  than  those  that  are  found 
on  plains,  but  that  they  are  apt,  both  of  them,  to  be  unpro- 
ductive in  clear,  dry  weather. 

Some  trees,  too,  afford  a  flow  of  resinous  juice  the  year  after 
the  incision  is  made,  some,  again,  in  the  second  year,  and 
others  in  the  third.  The  wound  so  made  is  filled  with  resin, 
but  not  with  bark,  or  by  the  cicatrization  of  the  outer  coat ; 
for  the  bark  in  this  tree  never  unites.  Among  these  varie- 
ties some  authors  have  made  the  sappium64  to  constitute  a 
peculiar  kind,  because  it  is  produced  from  the  seed  of  a  kin- 
dred variety,  as  we  have  already  stated  when  speaking  of  the 
nuts65  of  trees ;  and  they  have  given  the  name  of  tseda66  to 
the  lower  parts  of  the  tree  ;  although  in  reality  this  tree  is  no- 
thing else  but  a  pitch-tree,  which  by  careful  cultivation  has 
lost  some  small  portion  of  its  wild  character.  The  name 
"sappinus"  is  also  given  to  the  timber  of  these  trees  when 
cut,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  mention67  hereafter. 

61  See  B.  xxxv.  c.  51.  He  alludes  to  the  bitumen  known  as  asphalt, 
bitumen  of  Judsea,  mineral  pitch,  mountain  pitch,  malthe,  pissalphate. 

62  These  particulars,  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  are  in  general  correct. 

63  This  is  not  the  fact ;  the  essential  oil  in  which  the  resin  so  greatly 
abounds,  becomes  volatile  with  remarkable  facility. 

*4  Most  probably  one  of  the  varieties  of  the  pine  ;  but  the  mode  in  which 
Pliny  expresses  himself  renders  it  impossible  to  identify  it  with  any 
precision.  65  B.  xv.  c.  9. 

66  The  name  borne  also  by  the  torch-tree. 

67  See  c.  76  cf  this  Book." 


Chap.  24.]  FOUR   VARIETIES    OF    THE    ASH.  36*5 

CHAP.  24.   (13.) TREES  TT1E  "WOOD  OF  WHICH  IS  HIGHLY  VALUED. 

FOUR  VARIETIES  OF  THE  ASH. 

It  is  for  the  sake  of  their  timber  that  Nature  has  created  the 
other  trees,  and  more  particularly  the  ash,68  whieh  yields  it  in 
greater  abundance.  This  is  a  tall,  tapering  tree,  with  a 
feather-like  leaf:  it  has  been  greatly  ennobled  by  the  enco- 
miums of  Homer,  and  the  fact  that  it  formed  the  spear  of 
Achilles  : 69  the  wood  of  it  is  employed  for  numerous  purposes. 
The  ash  which  grows  upon  Mount  Ida,  in  Troas,  is  so  ex- 
tremely like  the  cedar,70  that,  when  the  bark  is  removed,  it 
will  deceive  a  purchaser. 

The  Greeks  have  distinguished  two  varieties  of  this  tree, 

the  one  long  and  without  knots,  the  other  short,  with  a  harder 

wood,  of  a  darker  colour,  and  a  leaf  like  that  of  the  laurel. 

In  Macedonia  they  give  the  name  of  "bumelia"71  to  an  ash 

>f  remarkably  large  size,  with  a  wood  of  extreme  flexibility. 

iome  authors  have  divided  this  tree  into  several  varieties,  ac- 

ording  to  the  localities  which  it  inhabits,   and  say  that  the 

sh  of  the  plains  has  a  spotted  wood,  while  that  of  the  moun- 

ain  ash  is  more  compact.     Some  Greek  writers  have  stated 

hat  the  leaf  of  the  ash  is  poisonous72  to  beasts  of  burden,  but 

harmless  to  all  the  animals  that  ruminate.73     The  leaves  of 

his  tree  in  Italy,  however,  are  not  injurious  to  beasts  of  bur- 

len  even ;  so  far  from  it,  in  fact,  that  nothing  has  been  found 

o  act  as  so  good  a  specific  for  the  bites  of  serpents74  as  to  drink 

he  juice  extracted  from  the  leaves,  and  to  apply  them  to  the 

wounds.     So  great,  too,   are  the  virtues  of  this  tree,  that  no 

serpent  will  ever  lie  in  the  shadow  thrown  by  it,  either  in  the 

68  He  does  not  speak  in  this  place  of  the  "  ornus  "  or  "  mountain  ash ;" 
nor,  as  Fee  observes,  does  he  mention  the  use  of  the  bark  of  the  ash  as  a 
ebrifuge,  or  of  its  leaves  as  a  purgative.  This  ash  is  the  Fraxinus  ex- 
.  elsior  of  Decandolles.  69  II.  xxlv.  277. 

70  Pliny  makes  a  mistake  here,  in  copying  from  Theophrastus,  who  says 
that  it  is  the  yew  that  bears  so  strong  a  resemblance  to  the  cedar. 

71  Or  "bull's-ash."     This  variety  does  not  seem  to  have  been  identified. 

72  This  statement  results  from  his  misinterpretation  of  the  language  of 
Theophrastus,  who  is  really  speaking  of  the  yew,  which  Pliny  mistakes 

>r  the  ash. 

73  Miller  asserts  that,  if  given  to  cows,  this  leaf  will  impart  a  bad  flavour 
to  the  milk ;  a  statement  which;  Fee  says,  is  quite  incorrect. 

74  A  merely  fanciful  notion,  without  apparently  the  slightest  foundation  : 
the  same,  too,  may  be  said  of  the  alleged  antipathy  of  the  serpent  to  the 
beech-tree,  which  is  neither  venomous  nor  odoriferous. 


3C6  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI* 

morning  or  the  evening,  be  it  ever  so  long ;  indeed,  they  will 
always  keep  at  the  greatest  possible  distance  from  it.  We 
state  the  fact  from  ocular  demonstration,75  that  if  a  serpent 
and  a  lighted  fire  are  placed  within  a  circle  formed  of  the  leaves 
of  the  ash,  the  reptile  will  rather  throw  itself  into  the  fire  than 
encounter  the  leaves  of  the  tree.  By  a  wonderful  provision 
of  Nature,  the  ash  has  been  made  to  blossom  before  the  ser- 
pents leave  their  holes,  and  the  fall  of  its  leaf  does  not  take 
place  till  after  they  have  retired  for  the  winter. 

CHAP.  25.  (14.) — TWO  VAEIETIES  OF  THE  LINDEN-TREE. 

In  the  linden- tree  the  male76  and  the  female  are  totally  dif- 
ferent. In  the  male  the  wood  is  hard  and  knotty,  of  a  redder 
hue,  and  with  a  stronger  smell ;  the  bark,  too,  is  thicker,  and, 
when  taken  off,  has  no  flexibility.  The  male  bears  neither 
seed  nor  blossom  as  the  female  does,  the  trunk  of  which  is 
thicker,  and  the  wood  white  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  is  a 
singular77  thing,  but  no  animal  will  touch  the  fruit  of  this 
tree,  although  the  juice  of  the  leaves  and  the  bark  is  sweet. 
Between  the  bark  and  the  wood  there  are  a  number  of  thin 
coats,  formed  by  the  union  of  numerous  fine  membranes ;  of 
these  they  make  those  bands78  which  are  known  to  us  as  "tiliae." 
The  finer  membranes  are  called  "philyraB,"  and  are  rendered 
famous  by  the  honourable  mention  that  the  ancients  have 
made  of  them  as  ribbons  for  wreaths79  and  garlands.     The 

75  This  story  of  Pliny  has  been  corroborated  by  M.  de  Verone,  and  as 
strongly  contradicted  by  Caraerarius  and  Charras  :  with  M.  Fee,  then,  we 
must  leave  it  to  the  reader  to  judge  which  is  the  most  likely  to  be  speaking 
the  truth.  It  is  not  improbable  that  Pliny  may  have  been  imposed  upon, 
as  his  credulity  would  not  at  all  times  preclude  him  from  being  duped. 

76  There  is  no  such  distinction  in  the  linden  or  lime,  as  the  flowers  are 
hermaphroditical.  They  are  merely  two  varieties  :  the  male  of  Pliny  being 
the  Tilia  microphylla  of  Pecaudolles,  and  a  variety  of  the  Tilia  Europaea 
of  Linnaeus ;  and  the  female  being  the  Tilia  platyphyllos,  another  variety 
of  the  Tilia  Europasa  of  Linnaeus. 

77  Not  at  all  singular,  Fee  says,  the  fruit  being  dry  and  insipid. 

78  In  France  these  cords  are  still  made,  and  are  used  for  well-ropes, 
wheat-sheafs,  &c.  In  the  north  of  France,  too,  brooms  are  made  of  the 
outer  bark,  and  the  same  is  the  case  in  Westphalia. 

79  See  B.  xxi.  c.  4.  Ovid,  Fasti,  B.  v.  1.  337,  speaks  of  the  revellers  at 
drunken  banquets  bindiug  their  hair  with  the  philyra. 


Chap.  26.]  VARIETIES    OP   THE    MAPLE.  367 

■wood  of  this  tree  is  proof  against  the  attacks  of  worms  : 80  it  is 
of  moderate  height81  only,  but  of  very  considerable  utility. 

CHAP.  26.   (15.) TEN  VARIETIES  OP  THE  MAPLE. 

The  maple,  which  is  pretty  nearly  of  the  same82  size  as  the 
lime,  is  inferior  to  the  citrus83  only  for  the  beauty  of  its  wood 
when  employed  for  cabinet  work,  and  the  exquisite  finish  it 
admits  of.  There  are  numerous  varieties84  of  this  tree;  the 
light  maple,  remarkable  for  the  extreme  whiteness  of  its  wood, 
is  known  as  the  "  Gallic"  &5  maple  in  Italy  beyond  the  Padus, 
being  a  native  of  the  countries  beyond  the  Alps.  Another 
kind  is  covered  with  wavy  spots  running  in  all  directions. 
In  consequence  of  its  superior  beauty  it  has  received  its  name,86 
from  its  strong  resemblance  to  the  marks  which  are  seen  in 
the  tail  of  the  peacock ;  the  finest  kinds  are  those  which  grow 
in  Istria  and  Rhsetia.  An  inferior  sort  of  maple  is  known  as 
"  crassivenium." 87 

The  Greeks  distinguish  the  varieties  according  to  their  re- 
spective localities.  The  maple  of  the  plains, S8  they  say,  is 
•white,  and  not  wravy;  they  give  it  the  name  of  "  glinon." 
On  the  other  hand,  the  mountain  maple,89  they  say,  is  of  a 
more  variegated  appearance,  and  harder,  the  wood  of  the  male 
tree  being  more  particularly  so,  and  the  best  adapted  for  spe- 

80  « Teredo."  If  he  means  under  this  name  to  include  the  tinea  as 
well,  the  assertion  is  far  too  general,  as  this  wood  is  eaten  away  by  insects, 
though  more  slowly  than  the  majority  of  the  non-resinous  woods.  It  is 
sometimes  perforated  quite  through  by  the  larvse  of  the  byrrhus,  our  death- 
watch. 

81  This  is  incorrect.  It  attains  a  very  considerable  height,  and  some- 
times an  enormous  size.  The  trunk  is  known  to  grow  to  as  much  as  forty 
or  fifty  feet  in  circumference. 

82  The  maple  is  much  less  in  size  than  what  the  lime  or  linden  really  is. 

83  See  B.  xiii.  c.  29. 

84  Fee  says  there  are  but  five  varieties  of  the  maple  known  in  France. 
He  doubts  whether  the  common  maple,  the  Acer  campestre  of  Linnaeus, 
was  known  to  the  ancients. 

85  Fee  identifies  it  with  the  Acer  pseudo-platanus  of  Linnaeus,  the  Acer 
montanum  candidurn  of  C.  Bauhin.     This  tree  is  not  uncommon  in  Italy. 

86  "  Acer  pavonaceum  :"  "  peacock  maple."  He  gives  a  similar  account 
of  the  spots  on  the  wood  of  the  citrus,  B.  xiii.  c.  19. 

87  Or  "  thick-veined  "  maple. 

83  Supposed  by  Fee  to  be  the  Acer  Monspessulanus  of  Linnaeus,  also  the 
Acer  trilobum  of  Linnaeus. 

M  A  variety  of  the  Acer  pseudo-platanus  of  Linnaeus,  according  to  Fee. 


3GS  PLINY'S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

cimens  of  elegant  workmanship.  A  third  kind,  again,  accord- 
ing to  the  Greeks,  is  the  zygia,90  with  a  red  wood,  which  is 
easily  split,  and  a  pale,  rough  bark.  Other  authors,  however, 
prefer  to  make  of  this  last  a  peculiar  species,  and  give  it  in 
Latin  the  name  of  "  carpinus." 

chap.  27.  (16.) — bruscum:  molluscum;  the  staphylodexdron. 

But  the  most  beautiful  feature  of  all  in  the  maple  is  what  is 
known  as  bruscum,  and,  even  more  particularly  so,^  the  mol- 
luscum.  These  are  both  of  them  tuberosities  of  this  tree,  the 
bruscum  presenting  veins  more  violently  contorted,  while  those 
of  the  mollusc um  are  disposed  in  a  more  simple  and  uniform 
manner :  indeed,  if  this  last  were  of  sufficiently  large  size  to 
admit  of  tables  being  made  of  it,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it 
would  be  preferred  to  the  wood  of  the  citrus  even.  At  the 
present  day,  however,  we  find  it  but  little  used  except  for  the 
leaves  of  tablets,  or  as  a  veneer  for  couches.91  Tuberosities  are 
also  found  on  the  alder,92  but  as  much  inferior  to  those  already 
mentioned,  as  the  alder  itself  is  to  the  maple.  In  the  maple 
the  male  tree93  is  the  first  to  blossom.  The  trees  that  frequent 
dry  spots  are  preferred  to  those  that  grow  in  watery  localities, 
which  is  the  case  also  with  the  ash. 

There  is  found  in  the  countries  beyond  the  Alps  a  tree,  the 
wood  of  which  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  white  maple,  and 
which  is  known  as  the  staphylodendron.94  This  tree  bears  a 
pod95  in  which  there  is  found  a  kernel,  which  has  the  flavour 
of  the  hazel-nut. 

CHAP.  28. THREE  VARIETIES  OF  THE  BOX- TREE. 

One  of  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  all  the  woods  is  the 
90  The  Carpinus  betulus  of  Linnams  ;  the  horn-beam  or  yoke-elm. 
81  "  Silicios."     This  word  appears  to  be  explained  by  the  accompanying 
word  "  laminas  ;"  but  it  is  very  doubtful  what  is  the  correct  reading. 

92  The  Alnus  glutinosa  of  Decandolles.  In  c.  38,  Plinysays,  very  in- 
correctly, that  the  alder  has  a  remarkably  thick  leaf;  and  in  c.  45,  with 
equal  incorrectness,  that  it  bears  neither  seed  nor  fruit. 

93  Fee  observes,  that  it  is  incorrect  to  say  that  the  male  tree  blossoms 
before  the  female,  if  such  is  Pliny's  meaning  here. 

9*  From  the  Greek,  meaning  "  a  tree  with  clusters."  It  is  the  btapnylea 
pinnata  of  Linnteus,  the  wild  or  false  pistachio  of  the  French. 

95  "  Siiiqua."  This  term,  Fee  says,  is  very  inappropriate  to  the  fruit  of 
this  tree,  which  is  contained  in  a  membranous  capsule.  The  kernel  is  oily, 
and  has  the  taste  of  the  almond  more  than  the  nut. 


Chap.  28.]  THREE   VARIETIES    OF    THE    BOX-TREE.  369 

box,96  but  it  is  seldom  veined,  and  then  only  the  wood  of  the 
root.  In  other  respects,  it  is  a  wood,  so  to  say,  of  quiet  and 
unpretending  appearance,  but  highly  esteemed  for  a  certain 
degree  of  hardness  and  its  pallid  hue  :  the  tree,  too,  is  very 
extensively  employed  in  ornamental  gardening.97  There  are 
three98  varieties  of  it:  the  Gallic99  box,  which  is  trained  to 
shoot  upwards  in  a  pyramidal  form,  and  attains  a  very  consi- 
derable height;  the  oleaster,1  which  is  condemned  as  being 
utterly  worthless,  and  emits  a  disagreeable  odour  ;  and  a  third, 
known  as  the  "  Italian"  box,2  a  wild  variety,  in  my  opinion, 
which  has  been  improved  by  cultivation.  This  last  spreads 
more  than  the  others,  and  forms  a  thick  hedge  :  it  is  an  ever- 
green, and  is  easily  clipped. 

The  box-tree  abounds  on  the  Pyrenean3  range,  the  moun- 
tains of  Cytorus,  and  the  country  about  Berecynthus.*  The 
trunk  grows  to  the  largest  size  in  the  island  of  Corsica,5  and 
its  blossom  is  by  no  means  despicable  ;  it  is  this  that  causes 
the  honey  there  to  be  bitter.6  The  seed  of  the  box  is  held  in 
aversion  by  all  animals.  That  which  grows  upon  Mount 
Olympus  in  Macedonia  is  not  more  slender  than  the  other 
kinds,  but  the  tree  is  of  a  more  stunted  growth.  It  loves 
spots  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  and  the  sun :  in  fire,  too,  it 
manifests  all  the  hardness  of  iron  ;  it  gives  out  no  ilaine,  and 
is  of  no  use  whatever  for  the  manufacture  of  charcoal.7 

96  The  Buxus  sempervirens  of  Linnaeus. 

97  It  is  still  extensively  used  for  a  similar  purpose. 

93  There  are  only  two  species  now  known :  that  previously  mentioned, 
and  the  Buxus  Balearica  of  Lamarck.  The  first  is  divided  into  the  four 
varieties,  arborescens,  angustifolia,  suffruticosa,  and  myrtifolia. 

99  The  Buxus  sempervirens  of  Linnaeus  ;  very  common  in  the  south  of 
France,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire. 

5  It  is  doubtful  if  this  is  a  box  at  all.  The  wild  olive,  mentioned  in  B. 
xv.  c.  7,  has  the  same  name;  all  the  varieties  of  the  box  emit  a  disagree- 
able smell. 

8  A  variety  of  the  Buxus  sempervirens,  the  same  as  the  Buxus  suffruti- 
cosa of  Lamarck. 

;<  The  Pyrenean  box  is  mostly  of  the  arborescent  kind. 

4  In  Phrygia.     See  B.  v.  c.  29. 

5  The  arborescent  variety. 

6  This  is  doubted  by  I  ee,  but  it  is  by  no  means  impossible.  In  Penn- 
sylvania the  bees  collect  a'poisouous  honey  from  the  Kalmia  latifolia. 

7  A  very  good  charcoal  might  be  made  from  it,  but  the  wood  is  too 
valuable  for  such  a  purpose.  It  burns  with  a  bright,  clear  flame,  and 
throws  out  a  considerable  heat. 

VOL.    III.  B    B 


3/0  flint's    NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book XVI. 

CHAP.   29.   (17.) — FOUR  VARIETIES  OF  TIIE  ELM. 

Midway  between  the  preceding  ones  and  the  fruit-trees 
stands  the  elm,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  former  in  its 
wood,  and  being  akin  to  the  latter  in  the  friendship  which  it 
manifests  for  the  vine.8  The  Greeks  distinguish  two  varieties  of 
this  tree  :  the  mountain9  elm,  wrhich  is  the  larger  of  the  two, 
and  that  of  the  plains,  which  is  more  shrubby.  Italy  gives 
the  name  of  "  Atinia"10  to  the  more  lofty  kinds,  and  gives  the 
preference  to  those  which  are  of  a  dry  nature  and  will  not 
grow  in  damp  localities.  Another  variety  is  the  Gallic  elm,11 
and  a  third,  the  Italian,12  with  leaves  lying  closer  together,  and 
springing  in  greater  numbers  from  a  single  stalk.  A  fourth 
kind  is  the  wild  elm.  The  Atinia  does  not  produce  any 
samara,13  that  being  the  name  given  to  the  seed  of  the  elm. 
All  the  elms  will  grow  from  slips  or  cuttings,  and  all  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Atinia,  may  be  propagated  from 
seed. 

CHAP.  30.  (18.) THE  NATURES  OF  THE  VARIOUS  TREES  ACCORDING 

TO  THEIR  LOCALITIES  !    THE   MOUNTAIN  TREES,    AND   THE    TREES 
OF  THE  PLAIN. 

Having  now  made  mention  of  the  more  remarkable  trees,  it 
remains  for  me  to  state  some  general  facts  connected  with 
them  all.  The  cedar,  the  larch,  the  torch-tree,  and  the  other 
resinous  trees  prefer  mountainous  localities  : u  the  same  is 
the  case  also  with  the  aquifolia,  the  box,  the  holm-oak,  the 
juniper,  the  terebinth,  the  poplar,  the  wild  mountain-ash,  and 

8  Although  (in  common,  too,  with  other  trees)  it  is  used  as  a  support  for 
the  vine,  that  does  not  any  the  more  make  it  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
fruit-trees. 

9  The  Ulmus  cffusa  of  Willdenow  ;  the  Ulmus  montana  of  Smith  :  Flor. 
Brit. 

10  The  Ulmus  campestris  of  Linnseus ;  the  Ulmus  marita  of  other  be- 
tanists,  n  The  ordinary  elm,  Fee  thinks. 

:2  A  variety  of  the  Ulmus  campestris,  probably. 

13  This  name  is  still  preserved  by  botanists.  Pliny  is  incorrect  in  saying 
that  the  large  elm  produces  no  seed,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  seed 
is  smaller  than  in  the  other  kinds.  Columella,  B.  v.  c.  6,  contradicts  the 
statement  here  made  by  Pliny,  but  says  that  it  appears  to  be  sterile,  in 
comparison  with  the  others. 

14  The  Tinas  maritima  of  Linnaeus,  which  produces  the  greater  part  of 
the  resins  used  in  France,  is  found,  however,  in  great  abundance  in  the 
fiat  country  of  the  Landes. 


Chap.  30.]  NATURES    OF    VARIOUS    TREES.  371 

the  yoke-elm.15  On  the  Apennines  there  is  also  found  a  shrub 
known  as  the  "cotinus,"16  famous  for  imparting  to  cloth  a 
purple  colour  like  that  of  the  murex.  The  fir"  the  robur,  the 
chesnut,  the  lime,  the  holm-oak,  and  the  cornel  will  grow 
equally  well  on  mountain  or  in  valley;  while  the  maple,17  the 
ash,  the  service,  the  linden,  and  the  cherry,  more  particularly 
prefer  a  watery  spot  on  the  slope  of  a  hilly  declivity.  It  is 
not  often  that  we  see  the  plum,  the  pomegranate,  the  olive, 
the  walnut,  the  mulberry,  or  the  elder,  growing  on  an  elevated 
site :  the  cornel,  too,  the  hazel,  the  quercus,  the  wild  ash,  the 
maple,  the  ash,  the  beech,  and  the  yoke-elm,  descend  to  the 
plains;  wdiile  the  elm,  the  apple,  the  pear,  the  laurel,  the 
myrtle,  the  blood-red18  shrub,  the  holm-oak,  and  the  brooms19 
that  are  employed  in  dyeing  cloths,  all  of  them  aspire  to  a 
more  elevated  locality. 

The  sorb,20  and  even  still  more  the  birch,21  are  fond  of  a 
cold  site ;  this  last  is  a  native  of  Gaul,  of  singular  whiteness 
and  slender  shape,  and  rendered  terrible  as  forming  the  fasces 
of  the  magistracy.  Prom  its  flexibility  it  is  employed  also  in 
making  circlets  and  the  ribs  of  panniers.  In  Gaul,22  too,  they 
extract  a  bitumen  from  it  by  boiling.  To  a  cold  site,  also, 
belongs  the  thorn,  which  affords  the  most  auspicious  torches23 

15  On  the  contrary,  the  yoke-elm,  or  horn-beam,  grows  almost  exclusively 
on  the  plains ;  and  the  same  with  tiie  cornel  and  the  poplar. 

16  The  Rhus  cotinus  of  Linnaeus,  the  fustic.  See  B.  xiii.  c.  41.  This, 
however,  imparts  a  yellow  colour,  while  Pliny  speaks  of  a  purple.  It  has 
heen  asserted,  however,  that  the  roots  of  it  produce  a  fine  red.  There  is 
no  tree  in  Europe  that  produces  a  purple  for  dyeing. 

17  The  maple,  the  ash,  and  the  service-tree,  are  as  often  found  in  the 
plains  as  on  the  hills. 

18  See  c.  43f  and  B.  xxiv.  c.  43.  The  Cornus  sanguinea  of  Linnaeus, 
the  blood-red  cornel ;  the  branches  of  which  are  red  in  the  winter,  and  the 
fruit  filled  with  a  blood-red  juice.  This  is  probably  the  same  shrub  as  the 
male  cornel,  mentioned  further  on  by  Pliny. 

19  The  Genista  tinctoria  of  Linnseus,  or  "dyers'"  broom. 

20  Or  "service-tree,"  the  Sorbus  domestica  of  Linnaeus.  It  thrives  just 
as  well  in  a  warm  locality  as  a  cold  one. 

21  The  Betula  alba  of  Linnaeus.  It  was  an  object  of  terror  not  only 
in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  lictor,  but  in  those  of  the  pedagogue  also, 
and  is  still  to  some  extent.  Hence  it  was  formerly  nicknamed  "  Arbor 
sapientiae,"  the  "  tree  of  wisdom." 

22  This  is  no  longer  done  in  France,  but  it  is  in  Russia,  where  they  ex- 
tract from  it  an  empyreumatic  oil,  which  is  used  in  preparing  Russia  leather, 
and  which  imparts  to  it  its  agreeahle  smell. 

23  Beys,  both  of  whose  parents  were  surviving,  used  to  carry  before  the 

B    B    2 


372  plots:' S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

of  all  for  the  nuptial  ceremony ;  from  the  circumstance,  as 
Massurius  assures  us,  that  the  shepherds,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  rape  of  the  Sabine  women,  made  their  torches  of  the  wood 
of  this  tree  :  at  the  present  day,  however,  the  woods  of  the 
yoke-elm  and  the  hazel  are  more  generally  employed  for  this 
purpose. 

CHAP.   31. TREES    WHICH    GROW    ON    A    DRY    SOIL:    THOSE  WHICH 

ARE  FOUND    IN  WET    LOCALITIES  :    THOSE  WHICH    ARE    EOUND    IN 
BOTH  .INDIFFERENTLY. 

The  cypress,  the  walnut,  the  chesnut,  and  the  laburnum,24 
are  averse  to  water.  This  last  tree  is  also  a  native  of  the 
Alps,  and  far  from  generally  known :  the  wood  is  hard  and 
white,25  and  the  flowers,  which  are  a  cubit26  in  length,  no  bee 
will  ever  touch.  The  shrub,  too,  known  as  Jupiter's  beard,27 
manifests  an  equal  dislike  to  water :  it  is  often  clipped,  and  is 
employed  in  ornamental  gardening,  being  of  a  round,  bushy 
form,  with  a  silvery  leaf.  The  willow,  the  alder,  the  poplar,28 
the  siler,29  and  the  privet,30  so  extensively  employed  for  making 
tallies,31  will  only  grow  in  damp,  watery  places ;  which  is  the 

bride  a  torch  of  white  thorn.  This  thorn  was,  not  improbably  the  "  Cra- 
taegus oxyacantha"  of  Linnseus,  which  bears  a  white  flower.     See  B.  xxiv. 

24  The  Cytisus  laburnum  of  Linnaeus,  also  known  as  "  false  ebony,"  still 
a  native  of  the  Alps. 

25  But  blackish  in  the  centre;  whence  its  name  of  false  ebony. 
25  Meaning  the  clusters  of  the  flowers. 

27  The  Anthyllis  barba  Jovis  of  modern  botanists.  The  leaves  have 
upon  them  a  silvery  down,  whence  the  name  "  argyrophylla,"  given  to  it 
by  Msench. 

2§  But  in  c.  30.,  he  says  that  the  poplar  grows  on  hilly  or  mountainous 

declivities. 

29  This  tree  has  not  been  satisfactorily  identified  ;  but  Fee  is  of  opinion 
that  it  is  probably  a  variety  of  the  willow,  the  Salix  vitellina  of  Linnaeus. 
Snrengel  thinks  that  it  is  the  Salix  capraea. 

*3<>  The  Ligustrum  vulgare  of  Linnaeus.     It  has  black  fruit  and  a  white 
flower,  and  is  rendered  famous  by  the  lines  of  Virgil— Eel.  ii.  17  : 
"  0  formose  puer,  nimium  ne  crede  colori ; 
Alba  ligustra  cadunt,  vaccinia  nigra  leguntur." 
It  is  evidently  this  juxtaposition  that  has  prompted  Pliny  to  mention  the 
v.iccinium  in  the  succeeding  passage.     In  B.  xii.  c.  51,  and  B.  xxiv.  c.  45, 
Plinv  seems  inclined  to  confound  this  shrub  with  the  Cyprus,  the  Lawsonia 
inermis  of  Linnaeus,  the  Henna  of  the  east,  a  totally  different  plant. 

n  Wooden  tallies  used  by  public  officers  in  keeping  their  accounts.  They 
were  employed  till  the  middle  ages. 


Chap.  33]  THE    RHODODENDRON.  373 

case  also  with  the  vaccinium,32  grown  in  Italy  for  drugging  our 
slaves,33  and  in  Gaul  for  the  purpose  of  dyeing  the  garments  of 
slaves  a  purple  colour.  All  those  trees34  which  are  common 
to  the  mountains  and  the  plains,  grow  to  a  larger  size,  and  are 
of  more  comely  appearance  when  grown  on  the  plains,  while 
those  found  on  the  mountains  have  a  better  wood  and  more 
finely  veined,  with  the  exception  of  the  apple  and  the  pear. 

CHAP.  32.   (19.) DIVISION  OF  TREES  INTO  VARIOUS  SPECIES. 

In  addition  to  these  particulars,  some  of  the  trees  lose  their 
leaves,  while  others,  again,  are  evergreens.  Before,  however, 
we  treat  of  this  distinction,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to  touch 
upon  another.  There  are  some  trees  that  are  altogether  of  a 
wild  nature,  while  there  are  others,  again,  that  are  more 
civilized,  such  being  the  names35  by  which  man  has  thought 
fit  to  distinguish  the  trees.  Indeed,  these  last,  which  by  t'heir 
fruits  or  some  other  beneficial  property,  or  else  by  the  shade 
which  they  afford,  show  themselves  the  benefactors  of  man, 
are  not  inappropriately  called  "civilized"36  trees. 

CHAP.     33.     (20.) TREES    WHICH    DO    NOT    LOSE    THEIR    FOLIAGE. 

THE  RHODODENDRON.       TREES  WHICH    DO   NOT   LOSE   THE  WHOLE 
OF  THEIR  FOLIAGE.       PLACES  IN  WHICH  THERE  ARE  NO  TREES. 

Belonging  to  this  last  class,  there  are  the  following  trees 
which  do  not  lose  their  leaves  :  the  olive,  the  laurel,  the 
palm,  the  myrtle,  the  cypress,  the  pine,  the  ivy,  the  rhodo- 
dendron,37 and,  although  it  may  be  rather  called  a  herb  than  a 
tree,  the  savin.38  The  rhododendron,  as  its  name  indicates, 
comes  from  Greece.  By  some  it  is  known  as  the  nerium,39 
and  by  others  as  the  rhododaphne.     It  is  an  evergreen,  bear- 

32  The  Primus  mahaleb,  Desfcmtaines  says ;  but  Fee  ^identifies  it  with  the 
black  heath-berry,  or  whortle-berry,  still  called  "  vaciet  "  in  France.  It 
does  not,  however,  grow,  as  Pliny  says,  in  watery  places,  but  in  woods  and 
on  shrubby  hills.  "  See  B.  xxi.  c   97. 

34  These  observations,  Fee  says,  are  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  Hist. 
Plant.  B.  hi.  c.  4,  and  are  founded  on  truth. 

35  "  Silvestres,"  and  "  urbaniores."  36  Urban ae. 

37  The  Nerion  oleander  of  Linnaeus ;  the  laurel-rose,  or  rose  of  St.  .An- 
thony of  the  French ;  it  has  some  distant  resemblance  to  the  olive-tree, 
but  its  leaf  is  that  of  the  laurel,  and  its  flower  very  similar  to  that  of 

triP  TOS6 

38  See  b.  xxiv.  c.  61.  so  "  Nerion"  is  the  Greek  name. 


374  PLINY* S    NATUEAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

ing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  rose-tree,  and  throwing  out 
numerous  branches  from  the  stem  ;  to  beasts  of  burden,  goats, 
und  sheep  it  is  poisonous,  but  for  man  it  is  an  antidote40  against 
the  venom  of  serpents.  . 

(21.)  The  following  among  the  forest-trees  do  not  lose  their 
leaves:  the  fir,  the  larch,  the  pinaster,  the  juniper,  the  cedar, 
the  terebinth,  the  box,  the  holm-oak,  the  aquifolia,  the  cork, 
the  yew,  and  the  tamarisk.41  A  middle  place  between  the 
evergreens  and  those  which  are  not  so,  is  occupied  by  the  an- 
drachle42  in  Greece,  and  by  the  arbutus43  in  all  parts  ofthe 
world ;  as  they  lose  all  their  leaves  with  the  exception  of  those 
on  the  top  of  the  tree.  Among  certain  of  the  shrubs,  too,  the 
bramble  and  the  calamus,  the  leaves  do  not  fall.  In  the  territory 
of  Thurii,  where  Sybaris  formerly  stood,  from  the  city  there 
was  a  single  oak44  to  be  seen  that  never  lost  its  leaves,  and 
never  used  to  bud  before  midsummer :  it  is  a  singular  thing 
that  this  fact,  which  has  been  so  often  alluded  to  by  the  Greek 
writers,  should  have  been  passed  over  in  silence  by  our  own. 
Indeed,  so  remarkable  are  the  virtues  that  we  find  belonging 
to  some  localities,  that  about  Memphis  in  Egypt,  and  at  Ele- 
phantina  in  Thebais,  the  leaves46  tail  from  none  of  the  trees, 
not  the  vine  even. 

CHAF.    34.    (22.) THE    NATTTEE    OF    THE    LEAVES   WHICH    WITHER 

AND  FALL. 

All  the  trees,  with  the  exception  of  those  already  men- 

40  It  has  certain  dangerous  properties,  which  cause  the  herbivorous  ani- 
mals to  avoid  touching  it.  It  acts  strongly  on  the  muscular  system,  and, 
as  Fee  remarks,  used  as  an  antidote  to  the  stings  of  serpents,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  its  effect  would  be  the  worst  of  the  two. 

u  See  B  xiii.  c  b7.  The  tamarisk  of  the  moderns  is  not  an  evergreen, 
which  has  caused  writers  to  doubt  if  it  is  identical  with  the  tamariscus  of 
the  ancients,  and  to  be  dispqsed  to  look  for  it  among  the  larger  encse  or 
heaths.  The  leaves  of  the  larch  fall  every  year  ;  those  of  the  other  ever- 
o-reens'mostly  every  two  or  three  years.  42  See  B.  xiii.  c.  40. 

43  see  b,  xiii.  c.  40.  This  assertion  of  Pliny  is  erroneous,  as  these  trees 
are  in  reality  evergreens,  though  all  trees  of  that  class  are  liable  to  lose  their 
leaves  through  certain  maladies. 

44  "  Quercus  "     Tbe  ilex  or  holm-oak  is  an  evergreen. 

«  Pliny  is  in  error  here.  Varro,  De  He  Rust.  B.  i.  c.  7,  has  made  men- 
tion of  this  tree.  ,        ,  ' 

*fl  The  hot  climates  possess  a  greater  number  of  evergreens  than  the  tem- 
perate regions,  but  not  of  the  same  species  or  genus.  The  vine  invariably 
loses  its  ieaves  each  year. 


Chap.  35.]        TREES  WITH  LEAVES  OF  VARIOUS  COLOURS.  37 O 

tioned — a  list  which  it  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate — lose 
their  leaves,  and  it  has  been  observed  that  the  leaf  does  not 
dry  up  and  wither  unless  it  is  thin,  broad,  and  soft ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  leaves  that  do  not  fall  are  those  which 
are  fleshy,  thick,  and  narrow.47  It  is  an  erroneous  theory 
that  the  leaf  does  not  fall  in  those  trees  the  juices  of  which 
are  more  unctuous  than  the  rest ;  for  who  could  make  out  that 
such  is  the  case  with  the  holm-oak,  for  instance  ?  Timaeus, 
the  mathematician,  is  of  opinion  that  the  leaves  fall  while  the 
sun  is  passing  through  the  sign  of  Scorpio,  being  acted  upon  by 
the  influences  of  that  luminary,  and  a  certain  venom  which 
exists  in  the  atmosphere  :  but  then  we  have  a  right  to  wonder 
how  it  is  that,  the  same  reasons  existing,  the  same  influence 
is  not  exercised  equally  on  all. 

The  leaves  of  most  trees  fall  in  autumn,  but  in  some  at  a 
later  period,  remaining  on  the  tree  till  the  approach  of  winter, 
it  making  no  difference  whether  they  have  germinated  at  an 
earlier  period  or  a  later,  seeing  that  some  that  are  the  very 
first  to  bud  are  among  the  last  to  lose  their  leaves  —  the 
almond,  the  ash,  and  the  elder,  for  instance  :  the  mulberry, 
on  the  other  hand,  buds  the  last  of  all,  and  loses  its  leave  s 
among  the  very  first.  The  soil,  too,  exercises  a  very  consi- 
derable influence  in  this  respect:  the  leaves  falling  sooner 
where  it  is  dry  and  thin,  and  more  particularly  when  the  tree 
is  old  :  indeed,  there  are  many  trees  that  lose  them  before  the 
fruit  is  ripe,  as  in  the  case  of  the  late  fig,  for  instance,  and  the 
winter  pear :  on  the  pomegranate,  too,  the  fruit,  when  ripe, 
beholds  nothing  but  the  trunk  of  the  parent  tree.  And  not 
even  upon  those  trees  which  always  retain  their  foliage  do  the 
same  leaves  always  remain,  for  as  others  shoot  up  beneath  them, 
the  old  leaves  gradually  wither  away  :  this  takes  place  about 
the  solstices  more  particularly. 

CHAP.    35. TREES    WHICH    HAVE    LEAVES    OF    VARIOUS    COLOURS; 

TREES    WITH    LEAVES    OF    VARIOUS    SHAPES.        THREE    VARIETIES 
OF    THE    POPLAR. 

The  leaves  continue  the  same  upon  every  species  of  tree, 

47  This  last  assertion,  Fee  says,  is  far  from  true,  in  relation  to  the  coni- 
ferous trees. 


376  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

with  the  exception  of  the  poplar,  the  ivy,  and  the  croton, 
which  we  have  already  mentioned  as  being  called  the  "cicus."48 
(23.)  There  are  three  kinds  of  poplar;  the  white,49  the 
black,50  and  the  one  known  as  the  Libyan51  poplar,  with  a  very 
diminutive  leaf,  and  extremely  black  ;  much  esteemed  also  for 
the  fungi  which  grow  from  it.  The  white  poplar  has  a*  parti- 
coloured leaf,  white  on  the  upper  side  and  green  beneath. 
This  poplar,  as  also  the  black  variety,  and  the  croton,  have  a 
rounded  leaf  when  young,  as  though  it  had  been  described  with 
a  pair  of  compasses,  but  when  it  becomes  older  the  leaf  throws 
out  angular  projections.  On  the  other  hand,  the  leaf  of  the 
ivy,52  which  is  angular  at  first,  becomes  rounder,  the  older  the 
tree.  From  the  leaves  of  the  poplar  there  falls  a  very  thick 
down  ;53  upon  the  white  poplar,  which,  it  is  said,  has  a  greater 
quantity  of  leaves  than  the  others,  this  down  is  quite  white, 
resembling  locks  of  wool.  The  leaves  of  the  pomegranate  and 
the  almond  are  red. 

CHAP.  36. LEAVES  WHICH  TURN  ROUND  EVERY  YEAR. 

"We  find  a  most  remarkable  and,  indeed,  a  marvellous  peculi- 
arity54 existing  in  the  elm,  the  lime,'  the  olive,  the  white  pop- 
lar, and  the  willow  ;  for  immediately  after  the  summer  solstice 
the  leaves  of  these  trees  turn  completely  round ;  indeed,  we 
have  no  sign  which  indicates  with  greater  certainty  that  that 
period  has  past. 

(21.)  These  trees  also  present  in  their  leaves  the  same  dif- 
ference that  is  to  be  observed  in  those  of  all  the  rest :  the 
underside,   which  looks  towards  the  ground,  is  of  a  green, 

48  See  B.  xv.  c.  7.  49  The  Populus  alba  of  Linnaeus. 

50  The  Populus  nigra  of  Linnaeus. 

51  The  Populus  tremula  of  Linnaeus.  This  statement  as  to  the  leaves  of 
the  poplar  is  verified  by  modern  experience. 

52  This  does  not  appear  to  be  exactly  correct  as  to  the  ivy.  The  leaves 
on  the  young  suckers  or  the  old  and  sterile  branches  are  divided  into  three 
or  five  regular  lobes,  while  those  which  grow  on  the  branches  destined 
to  bear  the  blossoms  are  ovals  or  lanceolated  ovals  in  shape. 

53  It  is  not  from  the  leaves,  but  from  the  fruit  of  the  tree  that  this  down 
falls ;  the  seeds  being  enveloped  with  a  cottony  substance.  This  passage 
is  hopelessly  corrupt. 

54  See  B.  xviii.  c.  68,  where  he  enlarges  still  further  on  this  asserted 
peculiarity;  he  borrows  his  statement  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant. 
B.  i.  c.  16. 


Chap.  38:]  FACTS    CONNECTED   WITH    LEAVES.  ^77 

grassy  colour,  and  has  a  smooth  surface  ;55  while  the  veins,  the 
callous  skin,  and  the  articulations,  lie  upon  the  upper  face,  the 
veins,  making  incisions  in  the  parts  beneath,  like  those  to  be 
seen  upon  the  human  hand.  The  leaf  of  the  olive  is  whiter 
above,  and  not  so  smooth ;  the  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  that 
of  the  ivy.  The  leaves  of  all  trees  turn56  every  day  to- 
wards the  sun,  the  object  being  that  the  under  side  may  be 
warmed  by  its  heat.  The  upper  surface  of  them  all  has  a 
down  upon  it,  in  however  small  quantity  it  may  be  ;  in  some 
countries  this  down  is  used  as  a  kind  of  wool.57 

CHAP.  37. THE    CARE    BESTOWED    ON    THE    LEAVES  OF    THE  PALM, 

AND  THE  USES  TO  WHICH  THEY  AB.E  APPLIED. 

We  have  already  said58  that  in  the  East  strong  ropes  are 
made  of  the  leaves  of  the  palm,  and  that  they  are  improved  by 
lying  in  the  water.  Among  ourselves,  too,  the  leaves  of  the 
palm  are  generally  plucked  immediately  after  harvest,  the  best 
being  those  that  have  no  divisions  in  them.  These  leaves  are 
left  to  dry  under  cover  for  four  days,  after  which  they  are 
spread  out  in  the  sun,  and  left  out  in  the  open  air  all  night, 
till  they  have  become  quite  white  and  dry  :  after  this  they 
are  split  before  they  are  put  to  any  use. 

CHAP.  38. — REMARKABLE  FACTS  CONNECTED  WITH  LEAYES. 

The  broadest  leaves  are  those  of  the  fig,  the  vine,  and  the 
plane ;  while  those  of  the  myrtle,  the  pomegranate,  and  the 
olive  are  narrow.  The  leaf  of  the  pine  and  the  cedar  is  fine 
and  resembles  hair,  while  that  of  the  holly  and  one  variety  of 
the  holm  oak59  is  prickly — indeed,  in  the  juniper,  we  find  a 

55  These  statements  are  quite  conformahle  with  the  fact. 

56  This  statement  is  quite  true,  so  far  as  the  fact  that  the  leaves  have 
not  the- same  position  in  the  day-time  as  during  the  night :  the  changes  of 
position  vary  greatly,  however,  in  the  different  kinds.  It  is  generally  thought 
that  an  organic  irritability  is  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon. 

57  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "  In  aliis  gentium  lana  est."  He 
alludes,  probably,  to  cotton  or  silk  :  see  B.  vi.  c.  20.  Thunberg  tells  us  that 
at  Roodesand,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  there  grows  so  thick  a  down 
ou  the  Buplevrum  giganteum  of  Lamarck,  that  it  is  employed  to  imitate  a 
sort  of  white  velvet,  and  is  used  for  bonnets,  gloves,  stockings,  &c. 

5»  B.  xiii.  c.  7. 

59  "  Genere  ilicum."  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  here  refers  to  the  variety 


378  plint's  natukal  histoht.  [Book  XVL 

thorn  in  place  of  a  leaf.  The  leaf  of  the  cypress  and  the  tama- 
risk60 is  flesh}-,  and  that  of  the  alder  is  remarkable  for  its 
thickness.61  In  the  reed,  the  willow,  and  the  palm,62  the  leaf 
is  long,  and  in  the  latter  tree  it  is  double  as  well :  that  of  the 
pear  is  rounded,  and  it  is  pointed  in  the  apple.63  In  the  ivy 
the  leaf  is  angular,  and  in  the  plane  divided.64  In  the  pitch- 
tree65  and  the  fir  the  leaf  is  indented  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb ; 
while  in  the  robur  it  is  sinuous  on  the  whole  of  the  outer 
margin :  in  the  bramble  it  has  a  spiny  surface.  In  some 
plants  the  leaf  has  the  property  of  stinging,  the  nettle  for  in- 
stance ;  while  in  the  pine,66  the  pitch-tree,  the  fir,  the  larch, 
the  cedar,  and  the  holly,  it  is  prickly.  In  the  olive  and  the 
holm-oak  it  has  a  short  stalk,  in  the  vine  a  long  one  :  in  the 
poplar  the  stalk  of  the  leaf  is  always  quivering,67  and  the  leaves 
of  this  tree  are  the  only  ones  that  make  a  crackling  noise08 
when  coming  in  contact  with  another. 

In  one  variety  of  the  apple-tree69  we  find  a  small  leaf  pro- 
truding from  the  very  middle  of  the  fruit,  sometimes,  indeed, 
a  couple  of  them.  Then,  again,  in  some  trees  the  leaves  are 
arranged  all  round  the  branches,  and  in  others  at  the  extremities 
of  them,  while  in  the  robur  they  are  found  upon  the  trunk 
itself.  They  are  sometimes  thick  and  close,  and  at  others 
thinly  scattered,  which  is  more  particularly  the  case  where  the 
leaf  is  large  and  broad.   In  the  myrtle70  they  are  symmetrically 

of  the  holm-oak  which  he  has  previously  called  "aquifolia,"  apparently 
confounding  it  with  the  holly.     See  c.  8  of  this  Book. 

60  See  B.  xiii.  c.  37. 

6*  This  must  be  understood  of  the  young  leaf  of  the  alder,  which  has  a 
sort  of  thick  gummy  varnish  on  it. 

62  B.  xiii.  c.  7. 

63  B.  xv.  c.  15.  Pliny  is  not  correct  here;  the  leaf  of  the  pear  is  oval 
or  lanceolated,  while  that  of  the  apple  is  oval  and  somewhat  angular,  though 
not  exactly  "  mucronata,"  or  sharply  pointed. 

64  Not  exactly  "divided,"  but  strongly  lobed. 

65  If  this  is  the  case,  the  pitch-tree  can  hardly  be  identical  with  the 
false  fir,  the  Abies  exeelsa  of  Decandolles.  See  c.  18  of  this  Book,  and 
the  Note. 

66  This  passage  would  be  apt  to  mislead,  did  we  not  know  that  the  leaves 
of  the  coniferous  trees  here  mentioned  are  not  prickly,  in  the  same  sense 
an  those  of  the  holly,  which  are  armed  with  very  formidable  weapons. 

67  More  particularly  in  the  Populus  trernula,  the  "  quivering"  poplar. 
w  Crepitantia. 

69  See  B.  xv.  c.  15.     Not  a  species,  but  an  accidental  monstrosity. 
10  See  B.  xv.  c.  37?  where  he  speaks  of  the  Hexastich  myrtle. 


Chap.  39.]  OEDEE  OF  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  PLANTS.         '370 

arranged,  in  the  box,  concave,  and,  upon  the  apple,  scattered 
without  any  order  or  regularity.  In  the  apple  and  the  pear 
we  find  several  leaves  issuing  from  the  same  stalk,  and  in  the 
elm  and  the  cytisus71  they  are  covered  with  ramified  veins. 
To  the  above  particulars  Cato72  adds  that  the  leaves  of  the 
poplar  and  the  quercus  should  not  be  given  to  cattle  after  they 
have  fallen  and  become  withered,  and  he  recommends  the 
leaves  of  the  fig,73  the  holm-oak,  and  the  ivy  for  oxen:  the 
leaves,  too,  of  the  reed  and  the  laurel  are  sometimes  given 
them  to  eat.  The  leaves  of  the  service-tree  fall  all  at  once, 
but  in  the  others  only  by  degrees.  Thus  much  in  reference 
to  the  leaves. 

CHAP.  39.    (25.)— THE    NATUKAL    OBDEE    0E    THE    PBODUCTION    OF 

PLANTS. 

The  following  is  the  order  in  which  the  operations  of  Na- 
ture take  place  throughout  the  year.  The  first  is  fecundation, 
which  takes  place  when  the  west  wind  begins  to  prevail,  gene- 
rally about  the  sixth  day  before  the  ides  of  February.74  By 
the  agency  of  this  wind  all  the  productions  of  the  earth  are 
impregnated  ;  to  such  an  extent,  indeed,  that  the  mares  even 
in  Spain  are  impregnated  by  it,  as  we  have  already  stated.75 
This  is  the  generating  principle  of  the  universe,  and  it  re- 
ceives its  name  of  Favonius,  as  some  think,  from^our  word 
"fovere,"  which  means  "to  warm  and  cherish:"  it  blows 
from  due  west  at  the  opening  of  the  spring.  The  peasantry 
call  this  period  of  the  year  the  "  time  of  heat,"76  because  Na- 
ture is  then  longing  to  receive  the  seeds  of  her  various  pro- 
ductions, and  is  imparting  life  to  everything  that  is  planted. 
The  vegetables  conceive77  on  various  days,  each  according  to 

7l  The  leaves  of  the  elm  and  the  tree  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
cytisus,of  the  ancients  have  no  characteristics  in  common.  See  B.  xiii. 
c.  47,  and  the  Notes. 

«  Ue  he  Rust.  cc.  5,  30,  45.  . 

73  Very  inappropriate  food  for  cattle,  it  would  appear:  the  fig  leaf  being 
charged  with  a  corrosive  milky  juice  ;  the  leaf  of  the  holm  oak,  hard  and 
leathery  ;  and  that  of  the  ivy,  bitter  and  nauseous  in  the  highest  di  gree. 

7i  Eighth  of  February.  75  See  B.  viii.  c.  67. 

76  Catlitio. 

"7  He  alludes  to  the  period  of  the  rising  of  the  sap ;  an  entirely  dis- 
tinct process  from  germination. 


•80  flint's  natural  history. 


[Book  XVI. 


its  respective  nature:  some  immediately,  as  with  animals, 
others,  again,  more  slowly,  carrying  with  them  for  a  longer 
period  the  produce  of  their  conception,  a  state  which  has  from 
that  circumstance  obtained  the  name  of  "  germination."  When 
the  plant  flowers,  it  may  be  said  to  bring  forth,  and  the  flower 
makes  its  appearance  by  bursting  its  little  capsule,  which  has 
acted  to  it  as  an  uterus.  The  period  of  training  and  education 
is  the  growth  of  the  fruit.  This,  as  well  as  that  of  germina- 
tion, is  a  laborious  process. 

CHAP.  40. TREKS  WHICH  NEVER  BLOSSOM.       THE  JUNIPER. 

The  appearance  of  the  blossom  bespeaks  the  arrival  of  the 
spring  and  the  birth  anew  of  the  year ;  this  blossom  is  the 
very  pride  and  delight  of  the  trees.  Then  it  is  that  they 
show  themselves  quite  renewed,  and  altogether  different  from 
what  they  really  are  ;  then  it  is  that  they  quite  revel  in  the  con- 
test with  each  other  which  shall  excel  in  the  various  hues 
and  tints  which  they  display.  This  merit  has,  however,  been 
denied  to  many  of  them  ;  for  they  do  not  all  blossom,  and 
there  are  certain  sombre  trees  which  do  not  participate  in  this 
joyous  season  of  the  year.  The  holm-oak,  the  pitch-tree,  the 
larch,  and  the  pine  are  never  bedecked  with  blossoms,  and 
with  them  there  is  no  particular  forerunner  sent  forth  to  an- 
nounce the  yearly  birth  of  their  respective  fruits.  The  same 
is  the  case,  too,  with  the  cultivated  and  the  wild  fig,78  which 
immediately  present  their  fruit  in  place  of  any  blossom.  Upon 
the  fig,  too,  it  is  remarkable  that  there  are  abortive  fruit  to  be 
seen  which  never  ripen. 

The  juniper,  also,  is  destitute79  of  blossom ;  some  writers, 
however,  distinguish  two  varieties  of  it,  one  of  which  blossoms 
but  bears  no  fruit,60  while  the  other  has  no  blossom,  but  pre- 
sents the  berries  immediately,  which  remain  on  the  tree 
for  so  long  a  period  as  two  years  :  this  assertion,  however,  is 

78  This  statement,  as  also  that  relative  to  the  holm  oak,  and  other  trees 
previously  mentioned,  is  quite  incorrect.  The  blossoms  of  the  fig-tree  are 
very  much  concealed,  however,  from  view  in  the  involucre  of  the  clinau- 
thium. 

79  This  is  not  the  fact,  though  the  blossom  of  the  juniper  is  of  humble 
character,  and  not  easily  seen.  Theophrastus,  B.  iii.  c.  6,  ouly  says  that 
it  is  a  matter  of  doubt,  what  Pliny  so  positively  affirms. 

*  This  is  the  fact ;  the  male  tree  is  sterile,  but  it  fecundates  the  female. 


Chap.  41.]  THE   FECUNDATION    OF    TREES.  381 

utterly  fallacious,  and  all  the  junipers  always  present  the  same 
sombre  appearance.  So,  too,  in  life,  the  fortunes  of  many 
men  are  ever  without  their  time  of  blossoming. 

CHAP.  41. THE  FECUNDATION  OF  TREES.   GEEMINATION  :  THE 

APPEARANCE  OF  THE  FRUIT. 

All  trees  germinate,  however,81  even  those  which  do  not 
blossom.  In  this  respect  there  is  a  very  considerable  differ- 
ence in  relation  to  *the  various  localities;  for  in  the  same 
species  we  find  that  the  tree,  when  planted  in  a  marshy  spot, 
will  germinate  earlier  than  elsewhere ;  next  to  that,  the  trees 
that  grow  on  the  plains,  and  last  of  all  those  that  are  found  in 
the  woods  :  the  wild  pear,  too,  is  naturally  later  in  budding 
tli  an  the  other  pears.  At  the  first  breath  of  the  west  wind82 
the  cornel  buds,  and  close  upon  it  the  laurel ;  then,  a  little 
before  the  equinox,  we  find  the  lime  and  the  maple  germi- 
nating. Among  the  earlier  trees,  too,  are  the  poplar,  the  elm, 
the  willow,  the  alder,  and  the  nut-trees.  The  plane  buds, 
too,  at  an  early  period. 

Others,  again,  germinate  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  the 
holly,  for  instance,  the  terebinth,  the  paliurus,82*  the  chesnut, 
and  the  glandiferous  trees.  On  the  other  hand,  the  apple  is 
late  in  budding,  and  the  cork-tree  the  very  last  of  all.  Some 
trees  germinate  twice,  whether  it  is  that  this  arises  from  some 
exuberant  fertility  of  the  soil,  or  from  the  inviting  tempe- 
rature of  the  atmosphere ;  this  takes  place  more  particularly 
in  the  several  varieties  of  the  cereals.  Excessive  germination, 
however,  has  a  tendency  to  weaken  and  exhaust  the  tree. 

Besides  the  spring  budding,  some  trees  have  naturally  an- 
other budding,  which  depends  upon  the  influence  of  their  own 
respective  constellations,83  a  theory  which  we  shall  find  an 

81  These  remarks,  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  are  generally  consis- 
tent with  our  expeiience. 

82  Fee  remarks  that  Pliny  here  copies  from  Theophrastus,  a  writer  of 
Greece,  without  making  allowance  for  the  difference  of  localities.  Theo- 
phrastus, however,  gives  the  laurel  an  earlier  period  for  budding  than 
Pliny  does. 

82*  The  Rhamnus  paliurus  of  Linnaeus. 

83  This  is  entirely  fanciful :  though  it  is  the  case  that  in  some  trees, 
the  ligneous  ones,  namely,'  there  are  two  germinations  in  the  year,  one 
at  the  beginning  of  spring,  which  acts  more  particularly  on  the  branches, 
and  the  other  at  the  end  of  summer,  which  acts  more  upon  the  parts 
nearer  the  roots. 


382  pliky's  natuhal  history.  [Book  XVI. 

opportunity  of  more  conveniently  discussing  in  the  next  Book 
but  one.84  The  winter  budding  takes  place  at  the  rising  of 
the  Eagle,  the  summer  at  that  of  the  Dog-star,  and  a  third  bud- 
ding85 again  at  that  of  Arcturus.  Some  persons  think  that  these 
two  buddings  are  common  to  all  trees,  but  that  they  are  to  be 
remarked  more  particularly  in  the  fig,  the  vine,  and  the  pome- 
granate ;  seeing  that,  when  this  is  the  case,  the  crop  of  figs,  in 
Thessaly  and  Macedonia  more  particularly,  is  rem arkably  abun- 
dant :  but  it  is  in  Egypt  more  especially  that  illustrations  of 
this  vast  abundance  are  to  be  met  with.  All  the  trees  in 
general,  when  they  have  once  begun  to  germinate,  proceed 
continuously  with  it;  the  robur,  however,  the  fir-tree,  and 
the  larch  germinate  intermittently,  ceasing  thrice,  and  as 
many  times86  beginning  to  bud  again,  and  hence  it  is  that  they 
shed  the  scales  of  their  bark87  three  several  times ;  a  thing 
that  takes  place  with  all  trees  during  the  period  of  germina- 
tion, the  outer  coat  of  the  tree  bursting  while  it  is  budding. 

With  these  last  trees  the  first  budding  takes  place88  at  the 
beginning  of  spring,  and  lasts  about  fifteen  days ;  and  they  ger- 
minate a  second  time  when  the  sun  is  passing  through  the 
si  on  of  Gemini :  hence  it  is  that  we  see  the  points  of  the  first 
buds  pushed  upwards  by  those  beneath,  a  joint  marking  the 
place  where  they  unite.89  The  third  germination  of  these 
trees  takes  place  at  the  summer  solstice,  and  lasts  no  more 
than  seven  days  :  at  this  period  we  may  very  distinctly  detect 
the  articulations  by  which  the  buds  are  joined  to  one  another 
as  they  grow.  The  vine  is  the  only  tree  that  buds  twice  ;  the 
first  time  when  it  first  puts  forth  the  grape,  and  the  second  time 
when  the  grape  comes  to  maturity.  In  the  trees  which  do  not 
blossom  there  is  only  the  budding,  and  then  the  gradual  ripen- 

84  See  B.  xviii.  c.  57. 

85  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  third  budding. 

83  As  already  stated,  there  are  never  more  than  two  germinations. 

87  This  rupture  of  the  epidermis,  caused  by  the  formation  beneath  of 
new  ligneous  and  conical  layers,  takes  place  not  solely,  as  Pliny  and 
Theophrastus  state,  at  the  time  of  germination,  but  slowly  and  conti- 
nuously. .  , 

8a  On  the  contrary,  they  are  irregular  both  in  their  commencement  and 

their  duration. 

89  This  is  not  the  case ;  each  bud  is  independent  of  the  one  that  has 
preceded  it.  A  sucker,  however,  newly  developed  may  ^ive  birth  to  buds 
nut  at  the  extremity,  but  throughout  the  whole  length  of  it. 


Chap.  42.]  IN   WHAT    ORDER  TREES   BLOSSOM.  383 

ing  of  the  fruit.  Some  trees  blossom  while  they  are  budding, 
and  pass  rapidly  through  that  period ;  but  the  fruit  is  slow  in 
coming  to  maturity,  as  in  the  vine,  for  instance.  Other  trees, 
again,  blossom  and  bud  but  late,  while  the  fruit  comes  to 
maturity  with  great  rapidity,  the  mulberry,90  for  example, 
which  is  the  very  last  to  bud  of  all  the  cultivated  trees,  and 
then  only  when  the  cold  weather  is  gone  :  for  this  reason 
it  has  been  pronounced  the  wisest  among  the  trees.  But  in 
this,  the  germination,  when  it  has  once  begun,  bursts  forth  all 
over  the  tree  at  the  very  same  moment ;  so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  it  is  accomplished  in  a  single  night,  and  even  with  a 
noise  that  may  be  audibly  heard.91 

CHAP.  42. IN"  WHAT  ORDER  THE  TREES  BLOSSOM. 

Of  the  trees  which,  as  we  have  already  stated,92  bud  in  win- 
ter at  the  rising  of  the  Eagle,  the  almond  blossoms  the  first 
of  all,  in  the  month  of  January93  namely,  while  by  March  the 
fruit  is  well  developed.  Next  to  it  in  blossoming  is  the  plum9i 
of  Armenia,  and  then  the  tuber  and  the  early  peach,95  the  first 
two  being  exotics,  and  the  latter  forced  by  the  agency  of  culti- 
vation. Among  the  forest  trees,  the  first  that  blossoms  in.  the 
course  of  nature  is  the  elder,96  which  has  the  most  pith  of  any, 
and  the  male  cornel,  which  has  none97  at  all.  Among  the 
cultivated  trees  we  next  have  the  apple,  and  immediately  after 
— so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  would  almost  appear  that  they 
blossom  simultaneously — the  pear,  the  cherry,  and  the  plum. 
ISfext  to  these  is  the  laurel,  and  then  the  cypress,  and  after 
that  the  pomegranate  and  the  fig :  the  vine,  too,  and  the  olive 
are  budding  when  these  last  trees  are  in  flower,  the  period  of 
their  conception98  being  the  rising  of  the  Vergiliae,"  that  being 

90  See  B.  xviii.  c.  67.  What  Pliuy  says  here  is  in  general  true,  though 
its  germination  does  not  take  place  with  such  rapidity  as  he  states. 

91  A  mere  fahle,  of  course.  9i  In  the  last  Chapter. 

93  In  Paris,  Fee  says,  the  almond  does  not  blossom  till  March.  If  the 
tree  should  blossom  too  soon,  it  is  often  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit. 

94  Probably  the  apricot.     See  B.  xv.  c.  12. 

95  See  B.  xv.  c.  11.  9«  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  8. 

97  This,  of  course,  is  not  the  fact.     As  to  the  succeeding  statements, 
they  are  borrowed  mostly  from  Theophrastus,  and  are  in  general  correci. 
ys  The  rising  of  the  sap. 
99  The  Pleiades.     See  B.  xviiL  cc.  59,  60. 


384  pltny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

their  constellation.1  As  for  the  vine,  it  blossoms  at  the  summer 
solstice,  and  the  olive  begins  to  do  so  a  little  later.  All  blos- 
soms remain  on  the  trees  seven  days,  and  never  fall  sooner ; 
some,  indeed,  fall  later,  but  none  remain  on  more  than  twice 
seven  days.  The  blossoms  are  always  off  before  the  eighth 
day2  of  the  ides  of  July,  the  period  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
Etesian3  winds. 

CHAP.    43.     (26.) — AT    WHAT    PERIOD    EACH    TREE    BEARS    FRUIT. 

THE  CORNEL. 

Upon  some  trees  the  fruit  does  not  follow  immediately  upon 
the  fall  of  the  blossom.  The  cornel4  about  the  summer  sol- 
stice puts  forth  a  fruit  that  is  white  at  first,  and  after  that 
the  colour  of  blood.  The  female5  of  this  tree,  after  autumn, 
bears  a  sour  berry,  which  no  animal  will  touch  ;  its  wood, 
too,  is  spongy  and  quite  useless,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
of  the  male  tree  is  one  of  the  Very  strongest  and  hardest6  woods 
known:  so  great  a  difference  do  we  find  in  trees  belonging  to 
the  same  species.  The  terebinth,  the  maple,  and  the  ash  pro- 
duce their  seed  at  harvest-time,  while  the  nut-trees,  the  apple, 
and  the  pear,  with  the  exception  of  the  winter  or  the  more 
early  kinds,  bear  fruit  in  autumn.  The  glandiferous  trees 
bear  at  a  still  later  period,  the  setting  of  the  Vergilise,7  with 
the  exception  of  the  aesculus,8  which  bears  in  the  autumn  only  ; 
while  some  kinds  of  the  apple  and  the  pear,  and  the  cork-tree, 
bear  fruit  at  the  beginning  of  winter. 

The  fir  puts  forth  blossoms  of  a  saffron  colour  about  the 
summer  solstice,  and  the  seed  is  ripe  just  after  the  setting  of 
the  Vergilise.  The  pine  and  the  pitch-tree  germinate  about 
fifteen  days  before  the  fir,  but  their  seed  is  not  ripe  till  after 
the  setting  of  the  Vergiliae. 

1  It  was  supposed  in  astrology  that  the  stars  exercised  an  effect  equally 
upon  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

2  25th  of  July.  3  See  B.  xviii.  c.  68. 

4  The  Cornus  mas  of  botanists  ;  probably  the  Frutex  sanguineus  men- 
tioned in  c.  30.     See  also  B.  xv.  c.  31. 

5  Probably  the  Lonicera  Alpigena  of  Linnaeus ;  the  fruit  of  which  resem- 
bles a  cherry,  but  is  of  a  sour  flavour,  and  produces  vomiting. 

6  The  wood  is  so  durable,  that  a  tree  of  this  kind  in  the  forest  of  Mont- 
morency is  said  to  be  a  thousand  years  old. 

«  Serf  B.  xviii.  cc.  59,  60.  8  See  c.  6  of  this  Book. 


Chap.  45.]'  TREES   WniCH   BEAR   NO   FRUIT.  385 

CHAP.  44. TREES  "WHICH  BEAR  THE  WHOLE  YEAR.       TREES  WHICH 

HAVE  ON  THEM  THE  FRUIT  OF  THREE  TEARS. 

The  citron- tree,9  the  juniper,  and  the  holm-oak  are  looked 
upon  as  having  fruit  on  them,  the  whole  year  through,  and 
upon  these  trees  we  see  the  new  fruit  hanging  along  with  that 
of  the  preceding  year.  The  pine,  however,  is  the  most  re- 
markable of  them  all ;  for  it  has  upon  it  at  the  same  moment 
the  fruit  that  is  hastening  to  maturity,  the  fruit  that  is  to 
come  to  maturity  in  the  ensuing  year,  and  the  fruit  that  is  to 
ripen  the  next  year  but  one.10  Indeed,  there  is  no  tree  that 
is  more  eager  to  develope  its  resources ;  for  in  the  same  month 
in  which  a  nut  is  plucked  from  it,  another  will  ripen  in  the 
same  place ;  the  arrangement  being  such,  that  there  is  no 
month  in  which  the  nuts  of  this  tree  are  not  ripening.  Those 
nuts  which  split  while  still  upon  the  tree,  are  known  by  the 
name  of  azanias  ;n  they  are  productive  of  injury  to  the  others, 
if  not  removed. 

CHAP.  45. TREES  WHICH    BEAR   NO    FRUIT:    TREES    LOOKED    UPON 

AS    ILL-OMENED. 

The  only  ones  among  all  the  trees  that  bear  nothing  what- 
ever, not  so  much  as  any  seed  even,  are  the  tamarisk,12  which 
is  used  only  for  making  brooms,  the  poplar,13  the  alder,  the 
Atinian  elm,14  and  the  alaternus,15  which  has  a  leaf  between 
that  of  the  holm-oak  and  the  olive.  Those  trees  are  regarded 
as  sinister,16  and  are  considered  inauspicious,  which  are  never 
propagated  from  seed,  and  bear  no  fruit.  Cremutius  informs 
us,  that  this  tree,  being  the  one  upon  which  Phyllis17  hanged 

9  See  B.  xii.  c.  7. 

10  This  supposed  marvel  merely  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  fruit  has  a 
strong  ligneous  stalk,  which  almost  precludes  the  possibility  of  its  drop- 
ping off.  This  is  the  case,  too,  not  only  with  the  pine,  hut  with  numerous 
other  trees  as  well. 

11  "Dried"  nuts.  12  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  41. 

13  But  in  B.  xxiv.  c.  32,  he  speaks  of  the  fruit  of  the  black  poplar  as  an 
antidote  for  epilepsy.  In  fact,  he  is  quite  in  error  in  denying  a  seed  to 
any  of  these  trees.  14  See  c.  29  of  this  Book. 

15  The  Rhamnus  alaternus  of  Linnaeus,  the  Phylica  elatior  of  C.  Bauhin. 
In  reality,  it  bears  a  small  black  berry,  of  purgative  qualities. 

16  "  Infelices,"  "unhappy"  rather. 

17  Daughter  of  Sithon,  king  of  Thrace,  who  hanged  herself  on  account 
of  the  supposed  inconstancy  of  her  lover,  Demophoon.    See  Ovid,  Heroid.  2. 

vol.  in  c  c 


386  PLTNY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

herself,  is  never  green.  Those  trees  which  produce  a  gum 
open  of  themselves  after  germination  :  the  gum  never  thickens 
until  after  the  fruit  has  been  removed. 

CHAP.  46. TREES  WHICH    LOSE    THEIR  ERT7IT    OR   FLOWERS  MOST 

READILY. 

Young  trees  are  unproductive18  so  long  as  they  are  growing. 
The  fruits  which  fall  most  readily  before  they  come  to  maturity 
are  the  date,  the  fig,  the  almond,  the  apple,  the  pear,  and  the 
pomegranate,  which  last  tree  is  also  very  apt  to  lose  its  blossom 
through  excessive  dews  and  hoar  frosts.  For  this  reason  it  is, 
too,  that  the  growers  bend  the  branches  of  the  pomegranate,  lest, 
from  being  straight,  they  may  receive  and  retain  the  moisture 
that  is  so  injurious  to  them.  The  pear  and  the  almond,19  even 
if  it  should  not  rain,  but  a  south  wind  happen  to  blow  or  the 
weather  become  cloudy,  are  apt  to  lose  their  blossoms,  and  their 
first  fruit  as  well,  if,  after  the  blossom  has  fallen,  there  is  a 
continuance  of  such  weather.  But  it  is  the  willow  that  loses 
its  seed  the  most  speedily  of  all,  long,  indeed,  before  it  is  ripe ; 
hence  it  is  that  Homer  has  given  it  the  epithet  of  "  fruit- 
losing."20  Succeeding  ages,  however,  have  given  to  this  term 
an  interpretation  conformable  to  their  own  wicked  practices,  it 
being  a  well-known  fact  that  the  seed  of  the  willow  has  the 
effect  of  producing  barrenness  in  females. 

In  this  respect,  however,  Nature  has  employed  her  usual 
foresight,  bestowing  but  little  care  upon  the  seed  of  a  tree 
which  is  produced  so  easily,  and  propagated  by  slips.  There 
is,  however,  it  is  said,  one  variety  of  willow,21  the  seed  of  which 
arrives  at  maturity :  it  is  found  in  the  Isle  of  Crete,  at  the 
descent  from  the  grotto  of  Jupiter :  the  seed  is  unsightly  and 
ligneous,  and  in  size  about  as  large  as  a  chick-pea. 

18  This  must  not  be  taken  to  the  letter ;  indeed,  Fee  thinks  that  the 
proper  meaning  is  : — "Young  trees  do  not  produce  fruit  till  they  have 
arrived  at  a  certain  state  of  maturity."  Trees  mostly  continue  on  the 
increase  till  they  die. 

19  See  B.  xvi'i.  c.  2.  The  assertion  here  made  has  not  been  confirmed 
by  experience. 

20  «  Frugiperda :"  in  the  Greek,  uktviKapirov.  See  Homer.  Od.  x.  1.  510. 
It  has  been  suggested,  Pliny  says,  that  the  willow  seed  had  this  epithet 
from  its  effect  in  causing  abortion ;  but  he  does  not  seem  to  share  the 
opinion. 

-1  This  cannot  be  a  willow,  Fee  remarks ;  indeed,  Theophrastus,  B,  iii. 
c.  5,  speaks  of  a  black  poplar  as  growing  there. 


Chap.  48.]  THE  MODE  IN  WHICH  TEEES  BEAR.  .38/ 

CHAT.  47. —  TREES  WHICH  ARE  UNPRODUCTIVE  IN  CERTAIN    PLACES'. 

Certain  trees  also  become  unproductive,  owing  to  some  fault 
in  the  locality,  such,  for  instance,  as  a  coppice-wood  in  the 
island  of  Pares,  which  produces  nothing  at  all :  in  the  Isle  of 
Rhodes,  too,  the  peach-trees22  never  do  anything  more  than 
blossom.  This  distinction  may  arise  also  from  the  sex ;  and 
when  such  is  the  case,  it  is  the  male23  tree  that  never  produces. 
Borne  authors,  however,  making  a  transposition,  assert  that  it 
is  the  male  trees  only  that  are  prolific.  Barrenness  may  also 
arise  from  a  tree  being  too  thickly  covered  with  leaves. 

CHAP.  48. THE  MODE  IN  WHICH  TREES  BEAR. 

Some  among  the  fruit-trees24  bear  on  both  the  sides  of  the 
branches  and  the  summit,  the  pear,  for  instance,  the  tig- 
tree,  and  the  myrtle.  In  other  respects  the  trees  are  pretty 
nearly  of  a  similar  nature  to  the  cereals,  for  in  them  we  find 
the  ear  growing  from  the  summit,  while  in  the  leguminous 
varieties  the  pod  grows  from  the  sides.  The  palm,  as  we  have 
already25  stated,  is  the  only  one  that  has  fruit  hanging  down 
in  bunches  enclosed  in  capsules. 

CHAP.  49. TREES  IN  WHICH  THE  FRUIT  APPEARS  BEFORE  THE 

LEAVES. 

The  other  trees,  again,  bear  their  fruit  beneath  the  leaves, 
for  the  purpose  of  protection,  with  the  exception  of  the  fig,  the 
leaf  of  which  is  very  large,  and  gives  a  great  abundance  of 
shade ;  hence  it  is  that  we  find  the  fruit  placed  above  it ;  in 
addition  to  which,  the  leaf  makes  its  appearance  after  the  fruit. 
There  is  said  to  be  a  remarkable  peculiarity  connected  with 
one  species  of  fig  that  is  found  in  Cilicia,  Cyprus,  and  Hellas  ; 
the  fruit  grows  beneath  the  leaves,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
green  abortive  fruit,  that  never  reaches  maturity,  is  seen  grow- 
ing on  the  top  of  them.     There  is  also  a  tree  that  produces  an 

22  See  B.  xv.  c.  13.  It  is  not  impossible  that  Pliny  may  have  mistaken 
here  the  Persea,  or  Balanites iEgyptiaca,  for  the  Persica,  or  peach.  See  p.  296. 

23  Fee  remarks,  that  this  expression  is  remarkable  as  giving  a  just  notion 
of  the  relative  functions  of  the  male  and  female  in  plants.  He  says  that 
one  might  almost  be  tempted  to  believe  that  they  suspected  something 
of  the  nature  and  functions  of  the  pistils  and  stamens. 

24  This  statement,  which  is  drawn  from  Theophrastus,  is  rather  fanciful 
than  rigorously  true.  25  B.  xiii.  c.  7. 

C   C  2 


388  ploy's  .natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

early  fig,  known  to  the  Athenians  hy  the  name  of  "  prodro- 
mos."26  In  the  Laconian  varieties  of  this  fruit  more  parti- 
cularly, we  find  trees  that  bear  two  crops27  in  the  year. 

CHAP.  50.  (27.) TREES  THAT  BEAR  TWO  CROPS  IN"  A  YEAR.     TREES 

THAT  BEAR  THREE  CROPS. 

In  the  island  of  Cea  there  are  wild  figs  that  bear  three  times 
in  one  year.  By  the  first  crop  the  one  that  succeeds  is  sum- 
moned forth,  and  by  that  the  third.  It  is  by  the  agency  of 
this  last  crop  that  caprification28  is  performed.  In  the  wild 
fig,  too,  the  fruit  grows  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  leaves. 
There  are  some  pears  and  apples,  too,  that  bear  two  crops  in 
the  year,  while  there  are  some  early  varieties  also.  The  wild 
apple  bears  twice29  in  the  year,  its  second  crop  coming  on  after 
the  rising  of  Arcturus,30  in  sunny  localities  more  particularly. 
There  are  vines,  too,  that  will  even  bear  three  times  in  the 
year,  a  circumstance  that  has  procured  for  them  the  name  of 
"  frantic" 31  vines.  On  these  we  see  grapes  just  ripening,  others 
beginning  to  swell,  and  others,  again,  in  blossom,  all  at  the 
same  moment. 

M.  Varro32  informs  us,  that  there  was  formerly  at  Smyrna, 
near33  the  Temple  of  the  Mother  of  the  Gods,  a  vine  that  bore 
two  crops  in  the  year,  as  also  an  apple-tree  of  a  similar  nature 
in  the  territory  of  Consentia.  This,  however,  is  constantly  to 
be  witnessed  in  the  territory  of  Tacapa,34  in  Africa,  of  which 
we  shall  have  to  speak  more  fully  on  another  occasion,35  so 
remarkable  is  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  cypress  also  bears 
three  times  in  the  year,  for  its  berries  are  gathered  in  the 

26  Or  "  forerunner."  The  Spaniards  call  a  similar  fig  "brevas,"  the 
"  ready  ripener." 

27  See  B.  xv.  c.  19.  28  See  B.  xv.  c.  21. 

29  This  does  not  happen  in  the  northern  climates  ;  though  sometimes  it 
is  the  case  that  a  fruit-tree  blossoms  again  towards  the  end  of  summer,  and 
if  the  autumn  is  fine  and  prolonged,  these  late  fruits  will  ripen.  Such  a 
phenomenon,  however,  is  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

30  See  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 

31  "  Insanse."  There  are  some  varieties  of  the  vine  which  blossom  more 
than  once,  and  bear  green  grapes  and  fully  ripe  ones  at  the  same  moment. 

33  De  Re  Rust.  c.  7. 

33  The  suggested  reading,  "  apud  matrem  magnam,"  seems  preferable 
to  "apud  mare,"  and  receives  support  from  what  is  said  relative  to  Smyrna 
in  B.  xiv.  c.  6.  s4  See  B.  v.  c.  3. 

35  B.  xviii.  c.  51. 


Chap.  51.]   DIFFERENCES  OF  TREES  IN  RESPECT  TO  AGE.   #89 

months  of  January,  May,  and   September,  being  all  three  of 
different  size. 

There  are  also  certain  peculiarities  observed  in  the  different 
modes  in  which  the  trees  bear  their  fruit,  the  arbutus  and  the 
quercus  being  most  fruitful  in  the  upper  part,  the  walnut  and 
the  marisca36  fig  in  the  lower.  All  trees,  the  older  they  grow, 
the  more  early  they  bear,  and  this  more  particularly  in  sunny 
spots  and  where  the  soil  is  not  over- rich.  All  the  forest-trees 
are  slower  in  bringing  their  fruit  to  maturity  ;  and  indeed,  in 
some  of  them  the  fruit  never  becomes  fully  ripe.37  Those  trees, 
too,  about  the  roots  of  which  the  earth  is  ploughed  or  broken 
and  loosened,  bring  their  fruit  to  maturity  more  speedily  than 
those  in  which  this  has  been  neglected;  by  this  process  they 
are  also  rendered  more  fruitful. 

CHAP.  51. WHICH  TREES  BECOME  OLD  WITH  THE  GREATEST 

RAPIDITY,  AND  WHICH  MOST  SLOWLY. 

There  are  great  differences  also  in  trees  in  respect  to  age. 
The  almond  and  the  pear38  are  the  most  fruitful  when  old,  which 
is  the  case  also  with  the  glandiferous  trees  and  a  certain  spe- 
cies of  fig.  Others,  again,  are  most  prolific  when  young, 
though  the  fruit  is  later  in  coming  to  maturity,  a  thing  parti- 
cularly to  be  observed  in  the  vine ;  for  in  those  that  are  old 
the  wine  is  of  better  quality,  while  the  produce  of  the  younger 
trees  is  given  in  greater  abundance.  The  apple-tree  becomes 
old  very  early,  and  the  fruit  which  it  produces  when  old  is  of 
inferior  quality,  being  of  smaller  size  and  very  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  maggots :  indeed,  these  insects  will  breed  in  the 
tree  itself.  The  fig  is  the  only  one  of  all  the  fruit-trees  that  is 
submitted  to  any  process  with  the  view  of  expediting  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit,39  a  marvellous  thing,  indeed,  that  a  greater 
value  should  be  set  upon  produce  that  comes  out  of  its  proper 
season  !  All  trees  which  bear  their  fruit  before  the  proper 
time  become  prematurely40  old ;  indeed,  some  of  them  wither 

36  B.  xv.  c.  19. 

37  This  is  not  the  fact :  the  fruits  of  all  trees  have  their  proper  time  for 
ripening. 

3S  He  speaks  here  in  too  general  terms :  the  pear,  for  instance,  is  not 
more  fruitful  when  old  than  when  young. 

39  He  speaks  of  the  process  of  caprification.     See  B.  xv.  c.  21. 

40  So  our  proverb,  "  Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten ;"  applicable  to  mankind  as 
well  as  trees.     See  B.  xxiii.  c.  23. 


390  pliny's  nattjeal  history.  [Book  XVI. 

and  die  all  of  a  sudden,  being  utterly  exhausted  by  the  too 
favourable  influence  of  the  weather,  a  thing  that  happens  to 
the  vine  more  particularly. 

(28.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  mulberry  becomes  aged41  but 
very  slowly,  and  is  never  exhausted  by  its  crops.  Those  trees, 
too,  the  wood  of  which  is  variegated,  arrive  at  old  age  but 
slowly, — the  palm,  the  maple,  and  the  poplar,  for  instance. 

(29.)  Trees  grow  old  more  rapidly  when  the  earth  is 
ploughed  and  loosened  about  the42  roots  ;  forest  trees  at  a  later 
period.  Speaking  in  general  terms,  we  may  say  that  care 
employed  in  the  culture  of  trees  seems  to  promote  their  fer- 
tility, while  increased  fertility  accelerates  old  age.  Hence  it 
is  that  the  carefully  tended  trees  are  the  first  to  blossom,  and 
the  first  to  bud  ;  in  a  word,  are  the  most  precocious  in  every 
respect :  but  all  natural  productions  which  are  in  any  way 
weakened  are  more  susceptible  of  atmospheric  influences. 

CHAP.    52. TEEES  WHICH  BEAR  VAEIOTJS  PEODTJCTS.       CBAT^GT/M. 

Many  trees  bears  more  than  one  production,  a  fact  which, 
we  have  already  mentioned43  when  speaking  of  the  glandi- 
ferous trees.  In  the  number  of  these  there  is  the  laurel, 
which  bears  its  own  peculiar  kind  of  grape,  and  more  parti- 
cularly the  barren  laurel,44  which  bears  nothing  else ;  for 
which  reason  it  is  looked  upon  by  some  persons  as  the  male 
tree.  The  filbert,  too,  bears  catkins,  which  are  hard  and  com- 
pact, but  of  no  use45  whatever. 

(30.)  But  it  is  the  box- tree  that  supplies  us  with  the  great- 
est number  of  products,  not  only  its  seed,  but  a  berry  also, 
known  by  the  name  of  cratsegum  ;46  while  on  the  north  side 

41  See  B.  xv.  c.  27.     The  mulberry  tree  will  live  for  several  centuries. 

42  This  stimulates  the  sap,  and  adds  to  its  activity :  but  the  tree  grows 
old  all  the  sooner,  being  the  more  speedily  exhausted. 

43  In  cc.  9 — 14  of  the  present  Book. 

44  This  passage  is  quite  unintelligible ;  and  it  is  with  good  reason  that 
Fee  questions  whether  Pliny  really  understood  the  author  that  he  copied 
from. 

45  Fee  remarks,  that  Pliny  does  not  seem  to  know  that  the  catkin  is  an 
assemblage  of  flowers,  and  that  without  it  the  tree  would  be  totally  barren. 

46  Pliny  blunders  sadly  here,  in  copying  from  Theophrastus,  B.  iii.  c.  16. 
He  mixes  up  a  description  of  the  box  and  the  Crataegus,  or  holm-oak,  making 
the  latter  to  be  a  seed  of  the  former  :  and  he  then  attributes  a  mistletoe  to 
the  box,  which  Theophrastus  speaks  of  as  growing  on  the  Crataegus. 


Chap.  53]         THE    TRUNKS   AND   BRANCHES   OE   TREES.  391 

it  produces  mistletoe,  and  on  the  f^^tZ^^lJ^ 
growing  upon  it  at  the  same  moment. 

CHAP.    53.-rIEEERENCES   IN    TREES   IN    RESPECT    OE    THE  TRUNKS 

AND    BKANCHES. 

Some  trees  are  of  a  simple  form,  and  have  hut  a  single  trunk 
lisinTfrom  the  root,  together  with  numerous  branches ;  such 
afthe  ote,  for  instance  Sthe  fig  and  the  vine;  ot herein  are 
of  a  shrubby  nature,  such  as  the  pahurus  *ejyri^  and 
the  filbert;  which  last,  indeed,  is  all  the  better,  ana  tne 
more  abundant  its  fruit,  the  more  numerous  its  bran ch  .  in 
some  tree=  again,  there  is  no  trunk  at  all,  as  is  tne  case  wuu 
one  species  of  box,"  and  the  lotus™  of  the  parts  beyond  sea 
Some  toes  are  bifurcated,  while  there  are  some  that  branch 
ouTfiT  o  as  many  as  five  parts. .  Others,  W**™£  m  the 
trunk  but  have  no  branches,  as  m  the  case  of  the  elder ,  wnue 
others  have  no  division  in  the  trunk  but  throw  out  branches, 
such  as  the  pitch-tree,  for  instance.  ,    ._m_ad   the 

In  some  trees  the  branches  are  symmetrica ^  «"«« the 
pitch-tree  and  the  fir,  for  example;  ^^°ft?5ota? 
£  diTfnd1he°Uper  Sffi«t£ 

LaXs  are  cu?' though,  if  takenoff  *J^»W*2 
i*  r-rnduoed  If  it  is  cut,  too,  below  the  place  where  me 
£  we,  the  part  of 'the  tree  which  is  left  ^  contoue 
to  live  ;  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  top  only  of  the  tree  is 
removed,  the  whole  of  it  will  die. 

47  See  c.  93,  where  he  enlarges  on  the  varieties  of  the  mistletoe. 

several  cicatrices  united. 


392  PLINT's   NATURAL   HISTORY. 


[Book  XVI. 


Some  trees,  again,  throw  out  branches  from  the  roots,  the 
elm  for  example ;  while  others  are  branchy  at  the  top,  the 
pine  for  instance,  and  the  lotus55  or  Grecian  bean,  the  fruit  of 
which,  though  wild,  resembles  the  cherry  very  closely,  and  is 
called  the  lotus  at  Eome,  on  account  of  its  sweetness.     For 
sheltering  houses  these  trees  are  more  particularly  esteemed, 
as  they  throw  out  their  branches  to  a  considerable  distance,' 
from  a  short  trunk,  thus  affording  a  very  extensive  shade,  and 
very  frequently  encroaching  upon  the  neighbouring  mansions. 
There  is  no  tree,  however,  the  shade  afforded  by  which  is  less 
long-lived  than  this,  and  when  it  loses  its  leaves  in  winter, 
it  affords  no  shelter  from  the  sun.     No  tree  has  a  more  sightly 
bark,  or  one  which  has  greater  attractions  for  the  eye ;   or 
branches  which  are  longer,   stouter,  or  more  numerous ;'  in- 
deed, one  might  almost  look  upon  them  as  forming  so  many 
trees.     The  bark56  of  it  is  used  for  dyeing  skins,  and  the  root 
for  colouring  wool. 

The  branches  of  the  apple-tree  have  a  peculiar  conformation ; 
knots  are  formed  which  resemble  the  muzzles57  of  wild  beasts^ 
several  smaller  ones  being  united  to  a  larger. 

CHAP.    54. THE    BRANCHES    OF    TREES. 

Some  of  the  branches  are  barren,  and  do  not  germinate;  this 
takes  place  either  from  a  natural  deficiency  of  strength,  or  else 
some  injury  received  in  consequence  of  having  been  cut,  and 
the  cicatrix  impeding  the  natural  functions.  The  same  that  the 
branch  is  in  the  trees  that  spread  out,  is  the  eye58  in  the  vine 
and  the  joint  in  the  reed.  All  trees  are  naturally  the  thickest 
in  the  parts  that  are  nearest  the  ground.  The  fir,  the  larch,  the 
palm,  the  cypress,  and  the  elm,  and,  indeed,  every  tree  that 
has  but  a  single  trunk,  develope  themselves  in  their  remark- 
able height.  Among  the  branchy  trees  the  cherry  is  some- 
times59 found  to  yield  a  beam  forty  cubits  in  length  by  two  in 

55  The  Celtis  australis  of  Linnceus.  Pliny  is  in  error  in  calling-  this  tree 
the  ''Grecian  bean."  In  B.  xiii.  c.  22,  he  erroneously  calls  the  African 
lotus  by  the  name  of  "  celtis,"  which  only  belongs  to  the  lotus  of  Italy  • 
that  of  Africa  being  altogether  different.  ' 

56  The  bark,  which  is  astringent,  is  still  used  in  preparing  skins,  and  a 
black  colouring  matter  extracted  from  the  root  is  employed  in  dyeing  wool. 

57  Quite  an  accidental  resemblance,  if,  indeed,  it  ever  existed. 

58  "  Oculus  "—the  bud  on  the  trunk. 

59  This  must  be  either  a  mistake  or  an  exaggeration ;  the  cherry  never 
being  a  very  large  tree. 


Chap.  56.]  THE    ROOTS   OF   TREES.  393 

thickness  throughout.     Some  trees  divide  into  branches  from 
the  very  ground,  as  in  the  apple-tree,  for  example. 

CHAP.  55.  (31.) THE  BARK  OP  TREES. 

In  some  trees  the  bark60  is  thin,  as  in  the  laurel  and  the 
lime ;  in  others,  again,  it  is  thick,  as  in  the  robur ;  in  some  it  is 
smooth,  as  in  the  apple  and  the  fig,  while  in  the  robur  and  the 
palm  it  is  rough  :  in  all  kinds  it  becomes  more  wrinkled  when 
the  tree  is  old.  In  some  trees  the  bark  bursts  spontaneously, 
as  in  the  vine  for  instance,  while  in  others  it  falls  off  even,  as 
we  see  in  the  apple  and  the  arbutus.  In  the  cork-tree  and 
the  poplar,  the  bark  is  substantial  and  fleshy  ;  in  the  vine  and 
the  reed  it  is  membraneous.  In  the  cherry  it  is  similar  to 
the  coats  of  the  papyrus,  while  in  the  vine,  the  lime,  and  the 
fir,  it  is  composed  of  numerous  layers.  In  others,  again,  it  is 
single,  the  fig  and  the  reed  for  instance. 

CHAP.  56. —  THE    ROOTS    OP    TREES. 

There  are  great  differences,  too,  in  the  roots  of  trees.  In  the 
fig,  the  robur,  and  the  plane,  they  are  numerous  ;  in  the  apple 
they  are  short  and  thin,  while  in  the  fir  and  the  larch  they 
are  single ;  and  by  this  single  root  is  the  tree  supported,  al- 
though we  find  some  small  fibres  thrown  out  from  it  laterally. 
They  are  thick  and  unequal  in  the  laurel  and  the  olive,  in 
which  last  they  are  branchy  also  ;  while  in  the  robur  they 
are  solid  and  fleshy.61  The  robur,  too,  throws  its  roots  down- 
wards to  a  very  considerable  depth.  Indeed,  if  we  are  to  be- 
lieve Virgil,62  the  sesculus  has  a  root  that  descends  as  deep 
into  the  earth  as  the  height  to  which  the  trunk  ascends  in  the 
air.  The  roots  of  the  olive,  the  apple,  and  the  cypress,  creep 
almost  upon  the  very  surface  :  in  some  trees  they  run  straight 
and  horizontally,  as  in  the  laurel  and  the  olive ;  while  in  others 
they  have  a  sinuous  course — the  fig  for  example.  In  some 
trees  the  roots  are  bristling  with  small  filaments,  as  in  the 
fir,  and  many  of  the  forest  trees ;  the  mountaineers  cut  off 

60  It  is  evident  that  he.  is  speaking  of  the  epidermis  only,  and  not  the 
cortical  layers  and  the  liber. 

61  The  roots  of  trees  being  ligneous,  "  carnosae,"  Fee  remarks,  is  an  in- 
appropriate term. 

62  Georsr.  ii.  291. 


394  PLINY* S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XYL 

these  fine  filaments,   and  weave  with  them  very  handsome 
flasks,63  and  various  other  articles. 

Some  writers  say  that  the  roots  of  trees  do  not  descend 
below  the  level  to  which  the  sun's  heat  is  able  to  penetrate  ; 
which,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  whether 
it  happens  to  be  thin  or  dense.  This,  however,  I  look  upon64 
as  a  mistake :  and,  in  fact,  we  find  it  stated  by  some  authors 
that  a  fir  was  transplanted,  the  roots  of  which  had  penetrated 
eight  cubits  in  depth,  and  even  then  the  whole  of  it  was  not 
dug  up,  it  being  torn  asunder.65  The  citrus  has  a  root  that 
goes  the  very  deepest  of  all,  and  is  of  great  extent ;  next  after 
it  come  the  plane,  the  robur,  and  the  various  glandiferous 
trees.  In  some  trees,  the  laurel  for  instance,  the  roots  are 
more  tenacious  of  life  the  nearer  they  are  to  the  surface : 
hence,  when  the  trunk  withers,  it  is  cut  down,  and  the  tree 
shoots  again  with  redoubled  vigour.  Some  think  that  the 
shorter  the  roots  are,  the  more  rapidly  the  tree  decays ;  a  sup- 
position which  is  plainly  contradicted  by  the  fig,  the  root  of 
which  is  among  the  very  largest,  while  the  tree  becomes  aged 
at  a  remarkably  early  period.  I  regard  also  as  incorrect  what 
some  authors  have  stated,  as  to  the  roots  of  trees  diminishing66 
when  they  are  old ;  for  I  once  saw  an  ancient  oak,  uprooted 
by  a  storm,  the  roots  of  which  covered  a  jugerum  of  ground. 


CHAP.  57. TREES  WHICH  HAVE  GROWN  SPONTANEOUSLY  EROM  THE 

GROUND. 

It  is  a  not  uncommon  thing  for  trees  when  uprooted  to  re- 
ceive new  strength  when  replanted,  the  earth  about  their  roots 
forming  a  sort  of  cicatrix67  there.     This  is  particularly  the 

68  "Lagenas."  Fee  takes  this  to  mean  here  vessels  to  hold  liquids,  and 
remarks  that  the  workers  in  wicker  cannot  attain  this  degree  of  perfection 
at  the  present  day. 

64  Pliny  is  in  error  in  rejecting  this  notion. 

65  See  B.  xii.  c.  5,  and  B.  xiii.  c.  29.  What  Pliny  states  of  the  fir,  or 
Abies  pectinata,  Theophrastus  relates  of  the  ttsiikt],  or  Abies  excelsa  of 
Decandolles.  There  is  little  doubt  that  in  either  case  the  statement  is  in- 
correct. 

66  On  the  contrary,  the  roots  of  trees  increase  in  size  till  the  period  of 
their  death. 

67  By  preventing  the  action  of  the  air  from  drying  the  roots,  and  so  kill- 
ing the  tree. 


Chap.  58.]  nOW   TEEES    GROW   SPONTANEOUSLY.  395 

case  with  the  plane,  which,  from  the  density  of  its  branches, 
presents  a  remarkably  broad  surface  to  the  wind :  when  this 
happens,  the  branches  are  cut  off,  and  the  tree,  thus  lightened, 
is  replaced  in  its  furrow  :  this,  too,  has  also  been  done  before 
now  with  the  walnut,  the  olive,  and  many  others. 

(32.)  We  have  many  instances  cited  also  of  trees  falling  to 
the  ground  without  there  being  any  storm  or  other  perceptible 
cause,  but  merely  by  way  of  portentous  omen,  and  then  rising 
again  of  themselves.  A  prodigy  of  this  nature  happened  to 
the  citizens  of  Home  during  their  wars  with  the  Cimbri :  at 
jSTuceria,  in  the  grove  consecrated  to  Juno,  an  elm  inclined 
to  such  a  degree,  even  after  the  top  had  been  cut  off,  as 
to  overhang  the  altar  there,  but  it  afterwards  recovered  itself 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  blossom  immediately :  it  was  from  that 
very  moment,  too,  that  the  majesty  of  the  Eoman  people  began 
to  flourish  once  again  after  it  had  been  laid  low  by  disaster 
and  defeat.  A  similar  circumstance  is  said  to  have  taken 
place  also  at  Philippi,  where  a  willow,  which  had  fallen  down, 
and  the  top  of  which  had  been  taken  off,  rose  again ;  and  at 
Stagira,  in  the  Museum68  there,  where  the  same  thing  occurred 
to  a  white  poplar;  all  which  events  were  looked  upon  as 
favourable  omens.  But  what  is  most  wonderful  of  all,  is  the 
fact  that  a  plane,  at  Antandros,  resumed  its  original  posi- 
tion even  after  its  sides  had  been  rough-hewn  all  round  with 
the  adze,69  and  took  root  again :  it  was  a  tree  fifteen  cubits 
long,  and  four  ulnse  in  thickness. 

CHAP.    58. HOW    TEEES    GEOW    SPONTANEOUSLY DIVEESITIES    IN 

THEIE  NATURE,  THE  SAME  TREES  NOT  GROWING  EVERYWHERE. 

The  trees  which  we  owe  to  Nature  are  produced  in  three 
different  ways;  spontaneously,  by  seed  sown,  or  by  a  slip 
which  throws  out  a  root.  Art  has  multiplied  the  methods  of 
reproduction,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  state  in  its  own 
appropriate  Book  :70  at  present  our  sole  subject  is  the  operations 
of  Nature,  and  the  manifold  and  marvellous  methods  she  adopts. 
The  trees,  as  we  have  already  stated,71  do  not  all  of  them  grow 

68  A  grove,  probably,  consecrated  to  the  Muses. 

69  These  stories  must  be  regarded  as  either  fables  or  impostures ;  though 
it  is  very  possible  for  a  tree  to  survive  after  the  epidermis  has  been  removed 
with  the  adze. 

70  See  E.  xvii.  c.  9.  71  In  c.  7  of  this  Book. 


396  pliny"s  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

in  every  locality,  nor  will  they  live,  many  of  them,72  when 
transplanted  :  this  happens  sometimes  through  a  natural  an- 
tipathy on  the  part  of  the  tree,  sometimes  through  an  innate 
stubbornness,  but  more  frequently  through  the  weakness  of 
the  variety  so  transplanted,  either  the  climate  being  unfavour- 
able, or  the  soil  repulsive  to  it. 

CHAP.    59. PLANTS   THAT   WILL   NOT    GEOW   IN    CERTAIN   PLACES. 

Balsamum73  will  grow  nowhere  but  [in74  Judaea]  :  and  the 
citron  of  Assyria  refuses  to  bear  fruit  in  any  other  country. 
The  palm,  too,  will  not  grow  everywhere,  and  even  if  it  does 
grow  in  some  places,  it  will  not  bear :  sometimes,  indeed,  it 
may  make  a  show  and  promise  of  bearing,  but  even  then  its 
fruit  comes  to  nothing,  it  seeming  to  have  borne  them  thus  far 
in  spite  of  itself.  The  cinnamon75  shrub  has  not  sufficient 
strength  to  acclimatize  itself  in  the  countries  that  lie  in  the 
vicinity  of  Syria.  Amomum,76  too,  and  nard,77  those  most 
delicate  of  perfumes,  will  not  endure  the  carriage  from  India 
to  Arabia,  nor  yet  conveyance  by  sea ;  indeed,  King  Seleucus 
did  make  the  attempt,  but  in  vain.  But  what  is  more  parti- 
cularly wonderful,  is  the  fact  that  most  of  the  trees  by  care 
may  be  prevailed  upon  to  live  when  transplanted ;  for  some- 
times the  soil  may  be  so  managed  as  to  nourish  the  foreigner 
and  give  support  to  the  stranger  plant ;  climate,  however,  can 
never  be  changed.  The  pepper-tree78  will  live  in  Italy,  and 
cassia79  in  the  northern  climates  even,  while  the  incense- tree80 

72  It  is  not  improbable  that  he  has  in  view  here  tbe  passage  in  Virgil's 
Georgics,  B.  ii.  1.  109,  et  seq. 

73  Or  balm  of  Gilead.  See  B.  xii.  c.  54.  Bruce  assures  us  that  it  is 
indigenous  to  Abyssinia ;  if  so,  it  has  been  transplanted  in  Arabia.  It  is 
no  more  to  be  found  in  Judaea. 

74  This  is  inserted,  as  it  is  evident  that  the  text  without  it  is  imperfect. 
Fee  says  tbat  even  in  Judaea  it  was  transplanted  from  Arabia. 

75  As  to  tbe  identification  of  the  cinnamomum  of  Pliny,  see  B.  xii.  cc. 
41  and  42,  and  the  Notes. 

76  As  to  tbe  question  of  the  identity  of  the  amomum,  see  B.  xii.  c.  28. 

77  See  B.  xii.  c.  26. 

78  This  cannot  be  tbe  ordinary  Piper  nigrum,  or  black  pepper,  which 
does  not  deserve  the  title  "  arbor."  It  is,  no  doubt,  the  pepper  of  Italy, 
which  he  mentions  in  B.  xii.  c.  14. 

79  The  Cassia  Italica,  probably,  of  B.  xii.  c.  43.  The  cassia  of  the  East 
could  not  possibly  survive  in  Italy.  The  fact  is,  no  doubt,  that  the  llomans 
gave  the  names  of  cassia,  piper,  and  amomum,  to  certain  indigenous  plants, 
and  then  persuaded  themselves  that  they  had  the  genuine  plants  of  the 
East.  60  See  B.  xii.  c.  30. 


Chap.  60.]  THE    CYPJRESS.  SQ7 

has  been  known  to  lire  in  Lydia :  but  how  are  we  to  impart 
to  these  productions  the  requisite  warmth  of  the  sun,  in  order 
to  make  all  the  crude  juices  go  off  by  evaporation,  and  ripen 
the  resins  that  distil  from  them  ? 

Nearly  as  great  a  marvel,  too,  is  the  fact  that  the  nature  of 
the  tree  may  be  modified  by  circumstances,   and  yet  the  tree 
itself  be  none  the  less  vigorous  in  its  growth.     Nature  ori- 
ginally gave  the  cedar81  to  localities  of  burning  heat,  and  yet 
we  find  it  growing  in  the  mountains  of  Lycia  and  Phry°ia 
She  made  the  laurel,  too,   averse  to  cold,  and  yet  there  is&no 
tree  that  grows  in  greater  abundance  on  Mount  Olympus.     At 
the  city  of  Panticapaeum,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cimmerian  Bos- 
porus, King  Mithridates  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  place  used 
every  possible  endeavour,   with  a  view  to  certain  religious 
ceremonies,  to  cultivate  the  myrtle82  and  the  laurel :  they  could 
not  succeed,  however,  although  trees  abound  there  which  re- 
quire  a  hot  climate,  such  as  the  pomegranate  and  the  fig,  as 
well  as  apples  and  pears  of  the  most  approved  quality.     In  the 
same  country,  too,  the  trees  that  belong  to  the  colder  climates 
such  as  the  pine,  the  fir,  and  the  pitch-tree,  refuse  to  grow' 
But  why  go  search  for  instances  in  Pontus  ?     In  the  vicinity 
of  Borne  itself  it  is  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty83  that  the 
cherry  and  the  chesnut  will  grow,  and  the  peach-tree,  too,  at 
lusculum  :  the  Greek  nut,  too,   is  grown  there  from  grafts 
only  at  a  cost  of  considerable  labour,  while  Tarracina  abounds 
with  whole  woods  of  it. 

CHAP.   60.  (33.)— THE  CYPRESS. 

The  cypress84  is  an  exotic,  and  has  been  reckoned  one  of  the 
trees  that  are  naturalized  with  the  greatest  difficulty  ;  so  much 
so,  indeed,  that  Cato85  has  expatiated  upon  it  at  greater  length 
and  more  frequently  than  any  of  the  others.  This  tree  is 
naturally  of  a  stubborn86  disposition,  bears  a  fruit  that  is  utterly 

be^nSl^ZB^tTi110   *"**   "**  °f  **P**~*™ 

tolfdi^ffiS^-ffiS—  The  myrtie  has  beenkno™ 

Thl2Zftn°  d°AaS  *f  fyS'  S0lel?  t0  bad  methods  of  cultivation. 

84  t?  V     '  the  grafted  peach  and  tbe  Greek  nut  or  almond 

Tw™!i  n     pre88TU  semPervirens  of  Linnaeus,  the  Lupressus  fastigiata  of 
D?6    ,  v'  -       ,  85  De  Re  Rust-  cc-  43,  151.   ° 

'  Morosa  ;     meaning  that  it  reaches  maturity  but  very  slowly. 


398  pltnt's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

useless,  a  berry  that  causes  a  wry*7  face  when  tasted,  and  a  leaf 
that  is  bitter :  it  also  gives  out  a  disagreeable  pungent  smell, 
and  its  shade  is  far  from  agreeable.    The  wood  that  it  furnishes 
is  but  scanty,  so  much  so  indeed,  that  it  may  be  almost  regarded 
as  little  more  than  a  shrub.     This  tree  is  sacred  to  Pluto 
and  hence  it  is  used  as  a  sign  of  mourning89  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  a  house  :  the  female90  tree  is  for  a  long  time  barren. 
The  pyramidal  appearance  that  it  presents  has  caused  it  not  to 
be  rejected,  but  for  a  long  time  it  was  only  used  for  marking 
the  intervals  between  rows  of  pines  :  at  the  present  day,  how- 
ever, it  is  clipped  and  trained  to  form  hedge-rows,  or  else  is 
thinned  and  lengthened  out  in  the  various  designs91  employed  in 
ornamental  gardening,  and  which  represent  scenes  of  hunting 
fleets,  and  various  other  objects:  these  it  covers  with  a  thin 
small  leaf,  which  is  always  green.  *ml-:fl» 

There  are  two  varieties  of  the  cypress;  the  one9- tapering 
and  pyramidal,  and  which  is  known  as  the  female  ;  w^ile  the 
male  tree93  throws  its  branches  straight  out  from  the  body,  and 
is  often  pruned  and  employed  as  a  rest  for  the  vine  Both 
the  male  and  the  female  are  permitted  to  throw  out  their 
branches,  which  are  cut  and  employed  for  poles  and  props, 
being  worth,  after  thirteen  years'  growth,  a  denarius  a-piece. 
Iu  respect  of  income,  a  plantation  of  cypress  w  remarkably 
profitable,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  ™\*^^*2" 
hat  a  cypress-wood  is  a  dowry  for  a  daughter.94  The  native 
country  of  this  tree  is  the  island  of  Crete,  although  Cato9* 
calls  it  Tarentine,  Tarentum  being  the  first  place,  I. suppose, 
in  which  it  was  naturalized  :  in  the  island  of  ^nana,96  also, 

87  Tristis  tentantum  sensu  torquebit  amaror.— Virg.  Georg.  ii.  247. 
?3  This  statement  is  exaggerated.  ,  Proprp  flTHi 

89  It  is  still  to  be  seen  very  frequently  in  the  cemeteries  of  Greece  and 

C°9noS  The  Cypress  is  in  reality  monoecious,  the  structure  of  the  same  plant 
heino-  "both  male  and  female.  _ '  v.^ 

SS This  was  formerly  done  with  the  cypress,  m  England,  to  a  cons.der- 

°raJ3E?tetaSWjBta;  the  variety  B  of  the  C.  sem- 

PTae  pS"£»e  given  to  this  tree  in  the  island  of  Crete,  is  the 
«  daughter's  dowry."  ... 

ro  fie  Re  Bust.  c.  151.  96  B.  uu  c.  12. 


Chap.  62.]  THE  IYT.  399 

if  the  cypress  is  cut  down,  it  will  grow  again97  from  the  root. 
But,  in  the  Isle  of  Crete,  in  whatever  place  the  earth  is  moved, 
this  tree  will  shoot  up98  of  its  own  natural  vigour,  and  imme- 
diately appear  above  the  soil ;  indeed,  in  that  island  there  is 
no  occasion  even  to  solicit  the  soil,  for  it  grows  spontaneously 
there,  on  the  mountains  of  Ida  more  particularly,  and  those 
known  as  the  White  Mountains.  On  the  very  summit  of 
these  elevations,  from  which  the  snows  never  depart,  we  find 
the  cypress  growing  in  great  abundance  ;  a  thing  that  is  truly 
marvellous — seeing  that,  in  other  countries,  it  will  only  grow 
in  warm  localities ;  from  which  it  would  appear  to  have  a  great 
dislike  to  its  native  climate. 


CHAP.  61. THAT    THE    EARTH    OFTEN    BEARS  PRODUCTIONS  WHICH 

IT  HAS  NEVER  BORNE  BEFORE. 

It  is  not  only  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  the  unchanging 
influences  of  the  climate  that  affect  the  nature  of  trees,  but 
wet  and  showery  weather  also,  temporarily  at  least.  Indeed, 
the  torrents  very  often  bring  down  with  them  seeds,  and  some- 
times we  find  those  of  unknown  kinds  even  floating  along. 
This  took  place  in  the  territory  of  Cyrenaica,  at  the  period 
when  laser  was  first  grown  there,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
mention  when  we  speak  of  the  nature  of  the  various  herbs.99 
A  forest,  too,  sprang1  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Cyrene, 
just  after  a  shower  of  rain,  of  a  dense,  pitchy  nature,  about 
the  year  of  the  City  of  Rome  430. 

CHAP.  62.   (34.) THE  IVY — TWENTY  VARIETIES  OF  IT. 

It  is  said  that  the  ivy  now  grows  in  Asia,2  though  Theo- 
phrastus5 has  denied  that  such  is  the  fact,  ancl  asserts  that  it 
grows  nowhere  in  India,  except  upon  Mount  Meros.3*  He  says, 
too,  that  Harpalus  used  every  possible  exertion  to  naturalize 

97  This,  Fee  says,  is  the  case  with  none  of  the  coniferous  trees. 

98  Of  course  this  spontaneous  creation  of  the  cypress  is  fabulous  ;  and, 
indeed,  the  whole  account,  which  is  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  is  greatly 
exaggerated. 

99  E.  adx.  c.  15; 

1  This  story,  which  is  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  is  evidently  fabu- 
lous. 3  Meaning  Asia  Minor. 
a  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iii  c.  10.  3*  See  B.  vi.  c.  23. 


400  PLTNY's   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

it  in  Media,  but  to  no  purpose ;  and  that  Alexander,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  rarity  of  this  plant,  had  himself  crowned4 
with  it,  after  the  example  of  Father  Liber,  when  returning 
victorious  with  his  army  from  India :  and  at  the  present  day 
even,  it  is  used  to  decorate  the  thyrsus  of  that  god,  and  the 
casques  and  bucklers  employed  by  the  nations  of  Thrace  in 
their  sacred  ceremonials.  The  ivy  is  injurious5  to  all  trees 
and  plants,  and  makes  its  way  through  tombs  and  walls;  it 
forms  a  haunt  much  frequented  by  serpents,  for  its  refreshing 
coolness;  so  that  it  is  a  matter  for  astonishment  that  there 
should  have  been  such  remarkable  veneration  for  this  plant. 

The  two  principal  kinds  in  the  ivy,  as  in  other  plants,  are 
the  male  tree,  and  the  female.6  The  male  is  said  to  have  a 
larger  trunk  than  the  female,  and  a  leaf  that  is  harder  and 
more  unctuous,  with  a  flower  nearly  approaching  to  purple : 
indeed,  the  flower  of  both  the  male  and  female  tree  strongly 
resembles  the  wild7-rose,  were  it  not  destitute  of  smell.  ^  Each 
of  these  kinds  of  ivy  is  divided  into  three  other  varieties ; 
the  white8  ivy,  the  black,9  and  a  third  known  as  the  helix.10 
These  varieties  are  again  subdivided  into  others,  _  as  there  is 
one  in  which  the  fruit  only  is  white,  and  another  in  which  it 
is  only  the  leaf  that  is  so.  In  those  which  have  a  white  fruit, 
the  berry  in  some  cases  is  closely  packed  and  large,  the  clusters, 
which  are  known  as  "  corymbi,"  being  of  a  spherical  form. 
So,  too,  with  the  selenitium,  which  has  a  smaller  berry,  and 
fewer  clusters ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  black  ivy. 
One  kind  has  a  black  seed,  and  another  a  seed  of  a  saffron11 
colour — it  is  this  last  that  poets  use  for  their  chaplets,12  and 
the  leaves  of  it  are  not  so  black  as  in  the  other  kinds  :  by  some 

4  Bacchus,  after  the  alleged  conquest  hy  him  of  India,  was  said  to 
have  returned  crowned  with  ivy,  and  seated" in  a  car  drawn  by  tigers. 

5  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 'that  the  ivy  exhausts  the  juices  of  trees. 
Its  tendrils  fasten  upon  the  cortical  fissures ;  and,  if  the  tree  is  hut  small, 
its  development  is  apt  to  be  retarded  thereby.  It  is  beneficial,  rather 
than  destructive,  to  walls. 

6  This  plant  is  really  monoecious  or  androgynous. 

7  The  Rosa  Eglanteria. 

8  The  Hedera  helix  of  Linnaeus,  or,  possibly,  a  variety  of  it  with  varie- 
gated leaves. 

9  The  Hedera  arborea  of  C.  Bauhin,  the  common  ivy. 

10  The  Hedera  major  sterilis  of  C.  Bauhin. 

11  The  first  variety  of  the  common  ivy,  the  Hedera  helix  of  Linnaeus. 

12  A  wreath  of  ivy  was  the  usual  prize  in  the  poetic  contests. 


Chap.  62:]  THE  IVY.  401 

it  is  known  as  the  ivy  of  Nysa,  by  others  as  that  of  Bacchus  :13 
it  is  the  one  that  among  the  black  varieties  has  the  largest 
clusters  of  all.  Some  of  the  Greek  writers  even  distinguish 
in  this  last  kind  two  varieties,  according  to  the  colour  of  the 
berries,  the  erythranum14  and  the  chrysocarpus.15 

It  is  the  helix,  however,  that  has  the  most  peculiarities  of 
all,  and  in  the  appearance  of  the  leaf  more  particularly,  which 
is  small,  angular,  and  of  a  more  elegant  shape,  the  leaf  in  all 
the  other  kinds  being  plain  and  simple.  It  differs,  too,  in  the 
distance  between  the  joints,  and  in  being  barren  more  espe- 
cially, as  it  never  bears  fruit.  Some  authors,  however,  think 
that  this  difference  exists  solely  in  respect  of  age  and  not  of 
kind,  and  are  of  opinion  that  what  is  the  helix  when  young, 
becomes  the  ordinary  ivy  when  old.  This,  however,  is  clearly 
proved  to  be  an  error  upon  their  part,  for  we  find  more  varieties 
of  the  helix  than  one,  and  three  in  particular — that  of  a  grass- 
green  colour,  which  is  the  most  abundant  of  all,  the  kind  wTith 
a  white  leaf,  and  a  third,  which  is  parti-coloured,  and  known 
as  the  Thracian  helix.  In  that  of  a  grass-green  colour,  the 
leaves  are  smaller,  more  closely  packed  together,  and  symmetri- 
cally arranged ;  while  in  the  other  kinds  the  features  are  alto- 
gether different.  In  the  parti-coloured  kind,  also,  one  variety 
has  a  smaller  leaf  than  usual,  similarly  arranged,  and  lying 
closer  together,  while  in  the  other  none  of  these  features  are 
observed.  The  leaves,  too,  are  either  greater  or  smaller  and 
differ  in  the  disposition  of  the  spots  upon  them,  and  in  the 
white  helix  some  of  them  are  whiter  than  others :  the  grass- 
green  variety,  however,  is  the  one  that  grows  to  the  greatest 
height. 

The  white  helix  is  in  the  habit  of  killing  trees  by  depriving 
them  of  their  juices,  and  increases  to  such  a  degree  of  density 
as  to  be  quite  a  tree  itself.  Its  characteristics  are,  a  very 
large,  broad,  leaf,  and  projecting  buds,  which  in  all  the  other 
kinds  are  bent  inwards;  its  clusters,  too,  stand  out  erect. 
Although,  too,  all  the  ivies  have  arms  that  throw  out  a  root, 
those  of  this  variety  are  particularly  branchy  and  strong  ;  next 
to  it  in  strength,  are  those  of  the  black  ivy. 

13  See  B.  v.  c.  16,  and  B.  vi.  c.  23. 

14  The  "red  berry"  and  the  " golden  fruit." 

-5  The  berries  are  yellow  in  the  first  variety  of  the  common  ivy,  the 
Hedera  poetica  of  C.  Bauhin. 

VOL.    III.  D    D 


402  plant's  nattjeal  histoet.  [Book  XVI 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  white  ivy  to  throw  out  arms  from 
the  middle  of  the  leaves,  with  which  it  invariably  embraces  any 
object  that  may  be  on  either  side  of  it ;  this  is  the  case,  too, 
with  walls,  even  though  it  should  not  be  able  to  clasp  them. 
If  the  trunk  is  cut  across  in  ever  so  many  places,  it  will  still 
live  and  thrive,  having  as  many  fresh  roots  as  it  has  arms,  by 
means  of  which  it  ensures  safety  and  impunity,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  sucks  and  strangles  the  trees  to  which  it  clings. 
There  are  great  differences  also  in  the  fruit  of  both  the  white 
ivy  and  the  black  ;  for  in  some  of  them  the  berry  is  so  bitter 
that  birds  will  not  touch  it.  There  is  an  ivy  also  which  grows 
upright,16  and  stands  without  any  support;  being  the  only 
one  that  does  so  among  all  the  varieties,  it  has  thence  ob- 
tained the  distinctive  name  of  "  cissos."  The  ehamaecissos,17 
on  the  other  hand,  is  never  found  except  creeping  upon  the 
ground. 

CHAP.    63.    (35.) THE    SMIL  AX. 

Very  similar  to  the  ivy  is  a  plant  which  first  came  from 
Cilicia,  but  is  now  more  commonly  found  in  Greece,  and 
known  by  the  name  of  smilax.18  It  has  numerous  thick  stalks 
covered  with  joints,  and  thorny  branches  of  a  shrub-like  form  : 
the  leaf  resembles  that  of  the  ivy,  but  is  not  angular,  while 
from  the  foot-stalk  it  throws  out  tendrils  ;  the  flower  is  white, 
and  has  the  smell  of  the  lily.  It  bears  clusters  like  those  of 
the  wild  vine  and  not  the  ivy,  and  of  a  reddish  colour.  The 
larger  berries  contain  three  stones,  the  smaller  but  one  only  : 
these  berries  are  black  and  hard.  This  plant  is  looked  upon 
as  ill-omened,  and  is  consequently  banished  from  all  sacred 
rites,  and  is  allowed  to  form  no  part  of  chaplets ;  having  re- 
ceived this  mournful  character  from  the  maiden  Smilax,  who 
upon  her  love  being  slighted  by  the  youth  Crocus,  was  trans- 
formed into  this  shrub.  The  common  people,  being  mostly 
ignorant  of  this,  not  unfrequently  take  it  for  ivy,  and  pollute 
their  festivities  with  its  presence  ;  for  who,  in  fact,  is  unaware 

16  This  is  the  case  sometimes  with  the  black  ivy,  the  Hedera  arborea  of 
C.  Bauhin.     Only  isolated  cases,  however,  are  to  be  met  with. 

17  There  is  an  ivy  of  this  kind,  the  Hedera  humi  repens  of  botanists ; 
but  most  of  the  commentators  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  the  ground  ivy,  the 
Glechoma  hederacea  of  Linnaeus,  that  is  spoken  of.  Sprengel  takes  it  to 
be  the  Anthirrinum  Azarina,  from  which  opinion,  however,  Fee  dissents.. 

18  The  Smilax  aspera  of  Linnaeus;  the  sarsaparilla  plant. 


Chap.  64.]  WATER  PLANTS.  403 

that  the  ivy  is  used  as  a  chaplet  by  poets,  as  also  by  Father 
Liber  and  Silemis  ?  Tablets  are  made 19  of  the  wood  of  the 
smilax,  and  it  is  a  peculiarity  of  this  wood  to  give  out  a  slight 
sound,20  if  held  close  to  the  ear.  It  is  said  that  ivy  is  remark- 
ably efficacious  for  testing  wine,  and  that  a  vessel  made  of  this 
wood  will  let  the  wine  pass  through  it,  while  the  water  will 
remain  behind,  if  there  has  been  any  mixed  with  it.21 

chai\  64.  (36.) — watek  plants:  the  rush  :  twenty-eight 
varieties  oe  the  reed. 

Among  those  plants  which  thrive  best  in  cold  localities,  it 
will  be  only  proper  to  mention  the  aquatic  shrubs.22  In  the 
irst  rank,  we  find  the  reed,  equally  indispensable  for  the 
smergencies  of  war  and  peace,  and  used  among  the  appliances23 
)f  luxury  even.  The  northern  nations  make  use  of  reeds 
or  roofing  their  houses,  and  the  stout  thatch  thus  formed  will 
last  for  centuries  even ;  in  other  countries,  too,  they  make 
light  vaulted  ceilings  with  them.  Reeds  are  employed,  too, 
for  writing  upon  paper,  those  of  Egypt  more  particularly,  which 
have  a  close  affinity  to  the  papyrus :  the  most  esteemed,  how- 
ever, are  the  reeds  of  Cnidos,  and  those  which  grow  in  Asia, 
on  the  margin  of  the  Anaitic  Lake 2i  there. 

The  reed  of  our  country  is  naturally  of  a  more  fungous 
nature,  being  formed  of  a  spongy  cartilage,  which  is  hollow 
within,  and  covered  by  a  thin,  dry,  woody  coat  without ;  it 
easily  breaks  into  splinters,  which  are  remarkably  sharp  at  the 
edge.  In  other  respects,  it  is  of  a  thin,  graceful  shape,  arti- 
culated with  joints,  and  tapering  gradually  towards  the  top, 
which  ends  in  a  thick,  hairy  tuft.  This  tuft  is  not  without 
its  uses,  as  it  is  employed  for  filling  the  beds  used  in  taverns, 
in  place  of  feathers ;  or  else,  when  it  has  assumed  a  more 
Ligneous  consistency,  it  is  pounded,  as  we  see  done  among  the 
Belgae,  and  inserted  between  the  joints  of  ships,  to  close  the 

19  Fee  is  inclined  to  question  this ;  but  the  breadth  of  the  tablets  may 
have  been  very  small  in  this  instance. 

20  Of  course  this  is  fabulous :  though  it  is  not  impossible   that  the 
riting  on  the  tablets  may  sometimes  have  caused  "  a  noise  in  the  world," 

and  that  hence  the  poets  may  have  given  rise  to  this  story. 

21  Pliny  borrows  this  fabulous  story  from  Cato,  De  Re  Rust.  c.  3. 

22  The  reeds  cannot  be  appropriately  ranked  among  the  shrubs. 

23  For  musical  purposes,  namely. 

24  B.  v.  c.  20. 

D    D    2 


404  putty's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

seams,  a  thing  that  it  does  most  effectually,  being  more  tena- 
cious than  glue,  and  adhering  more  firmly  than  pitch. 

CHIP.    65. REEDS   USED    FOE   ARROWS,  A.WD    EOR    THE  PURPOSE 

OE   WRITING. 

It  is  by  the  aid  of  the  reed25  that  the  nations  of  the  East 
decide  their  wars ;  fixing  in  it  a  barbed  point,  they  inflict  a 
wound  from  which  the  arrow  cannot  be  withdrawn.  By  the 
addition  of  feathers  they  accelerate  the  flight  of  this  instru- 
ment of  death,  and  the  weapon,  if  it  breaks  in  the  wound, 
furnishes  the  combatants  with  a  weapon  afresh.  With  these 
missiles  the  warriors  darken  the  very  rays  of  the  sun.26  It  is 
for  this  reason  more  particularly  that  they  desire  a  clear  and 
serene  sky,  and  hold  in  abhorrence  all  windy  and  rainy  weather, 
which  has  the  effect  of  compelling  them,  in  spite  of  them- 
selves, to  be  at  peace  with  one  another. 

If  a  person  were  carefully  to  enumerate  the  peoples  of 
Ethiopia,  Egypt,  Arabia,  India,  Scythia,  Bactria,  and  Sarmatia, 
together  with  all  the  numerous  peoples  of  the  East,  and  the 
vast  realms  of  the  Parthians,  he  would  find  that  fully  one-half 
of  mankind  throughout  the  whole  world  live  under  a  dominion 
imposed  by  the  agency  of  the  arrow.  It  was  their  surpassing 
excellence  in  this  arm  that  so  ennobled  the  warriors  of  Crete, 
though  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  all  others,  Italy  has 
gained  the  mastery  ;  there  being  no  reed  in  existence  better 
adapted  for  making  arrows  than  that  found  in  the  Rhenus,  a 
river  of  the  territory  of  Bononia  :  filled  with  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  pith  than  any  of  the  others,  it  is  light,  and  easily 
cleaves  the  air,  while  at  the  same  time  it  has  sufficient  weight 
to  resist  the  action  of  the  wind ;  an  advantage  that  is  not 
possessed  in  an  equal  degree  by  those  employed  among  the 
BelgaB.  These  advantages,  however,  are  possessed  by  the 
most  approved  kinds  that  are  found  in  Crete,  although  those 

25  «  Calamus."  The  so-called  reed  of  the  East,  used  for  making  darts  and 
arrows,  does  not  belong  to  the  genus  Arundo,  but  to  those  of  the  Bambos 
and  Nastus. 

26  Few  readers  of  history  will  fail  to  recollect  the  report  made  to  Kmg 
Henry  V.  by  Davy  Gam,  before  the  battle  of  Agincourt :— "  The  enemy 
are  so  numerous,"  said  the  messenger,  "that  their  arrows  will  darken  the 
sun."  "We  must  e'en  be  content  to  fight  in  the  dark  then,"  was  the 
warrior's  reply. 


Chap.  66.]  FLUTE    EEEDS.  405 

of  India  are  preferred ;  in  the  opinion  of  some  persons,  how- 
ever, these  last  are  of  a  totally  different  nature,  for  by  adding  a 
point  to  them,  the  natives  are  able  to  use  them  as  lances  even. 
Indeed,  we  find  that  in  India  the  reed  grows  to  the  thickness 
of  a  tree,  a  fact  which  is  proved  by  the  specimens  which  are 
everywhere  to  be  seen  in  our  temples.  The  Indians  assure 
us  that  in  this  plant,  too,  there  is  the  distinction  of  male  and 
female ;  the  body  of  the  male  being  more  compact,  and  that 
of  the  female  of  a  larger  size.  In  addition  to  this,  if  we  can 
credit  the  fact,  a  single  compartment  between  the  joints  is 
sufficiently  large  to  answer  the  purposes  of  a  boat.27  These 
reeds  are  found  more  particularly  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Acesines. 

In  every  variety  of  the  reed  a  single  root  gives  birth  to 
numerous  stems,  and  if  cut  down,  they  will  shoot  again  with 
increased  fecundity.  The  root,  which  is  naturally  tenacious 
of  life,  is  also  jointed  as  well  as  the  stem.  The  reeds  of  India 
are  the  only  ones  in  which  the  leaves  are  short ;  but  in  all  the 
varieties  these  leaves  take  their  rise  at  the  joints,  and  surround 
the  stem  with  a  fine  tissue  about  half  way  upwards  to  the 
next  joint,  and  then  leave  the  stem  and  droop  downwards. 
The  reed,  as  well  as  the  calamus,  although  rounded,  has  two 
sides,  which  throw  out  leaves  alternately  from  above  the  joints, 
in  such  a  way  that  when  one  springs  from  the  right  side,  the 
next  issues  from  the  joint  above  it  on  the  left,  and  so  in 
turns.  Branches,  too,  shoot  occasionally  from  the  stem,  being 
themselves  reeds  of  diminutive  growth. 

CHAP.    66. FLUTE     EEEDS  :      THE    HEED    OF    ORCH031ENES  ;     SEEDS 

ESED    FOR   FOWLING   AND    FISHING. 

The  varieties  of  the  reed  are  numerous.  Some  are  more 
compact  than  others,  thicker  at  the  joints,  and  "with  a  shorter 
interval. between  them  ;  while  others,  again,  are  less  compact, 
with  longer  intervals  between  the  joints,  and  not  so  straight. 
Another  kind  of  reed  is  quite  hollow ;  it  is  known  as  the 
syringia/'28  and  is  particularly  useful  for  making  flutes,  having 
neither  pith  in  it  nor  any  fleshy  substance.     The  reed  of  Or- 

27  See  B.  vii.  c.  2.     This  is  probably  an  exaggeration.     He  alludes  to 
the  Bamboa  arundinacea  of  Lamarck,  the  Arundo  arbor  of  C.  Bauhin. 

28  The  Arundo  donax  of  Linnasus. 


406  pltnt's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

chornenus  has  a  passage  in  it  open  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
and  is  known  as  the  auleticon  ;29  this  last  is  best  for  making 
pipes,30  the  former31  for  the  syrinx.  There  is  another  reed, 
the  wood  of  which  is  thicker,  and  the  passage  very  con- 
tracted, being  entirely  filled  with  a  spongy  kind  of  pith.  _  One 
kind,  again,  is  shorter,  and  another  longer,  the  one  thinner, 
the  other  more  thick.  That  known  as  the  donax,  throws  out 
the  most  shoots,  and  grows  only  in  watery  localities ;  in- 
deed, this  is  a  point  which  constitutes  a  very  considerable 
difference,  those  reeds  being  greatly  preferred  which  grow 
in  a  dry  soil.  The  archer's  reed  forms  a  peculiar  species,  as 
we  have  already  stated;32  but  that  of  Crete33  has  the  longest 
intervals  between  the  joints,  and  when  subjected  to  heat  is 
capable  of  being  rendered  perfectly  pliable34  at  pleasure.  The 
leaves,  too,  constitute  different  varieties,  not  onty  by  their 
number,  but  their  colour  also.  The  reed  of  Laconia  is  spot- 
ted,35 and  throws  out  a  greater  number  of  shoots  at  the  lower 
extremities;  being  very  similar  in  nature,  it  is  thought,  to 
the  reeds  that  we  find  growing  about  stagnant  waters,  and 
unlike  those  of  the  rivers,  in  being  covered  with  leaves  of 
considerable  length ;  which,  climbing  upwards,  embrace  the 
stem  to  a  considerable  distance  above  the  joints.  There  is 
also  an  obliquely-spreading  reed,  which  does  not  shoot  up- 
wards to  any  height,  but  spreads  out  like  a  shrub,  keeping 
close  to  the  earth  ;  this  reed  is  much  sought  by  animals  when 
young,  and  is  known  by  some  persons  as  the  elegia.36  There 
is  in  Italy,  too,  a  substance  found  in  the  marsh-reeds,  called 
by  the  name  of  adarca  :37  it  is  only  to  be  found  issuing  from  the 
cuter  skin,  below  the  flossy  head  of  the  plant,  and  is  particularly 

29  Or  the  pipe-reed. 

30  The  tibia,  or  pipe,  was  played  lengthwise,  like  the  flageolet  or 
clarionet. 

31  A  variety  of  the  Arundo  donax.  The  Orchomenian  reed  is  of  the 
same  class.  The  fistula  was  played  sideways ;  and  seems  to  have  been  a 
name  given  both  to  the  Syrinx  or  the  Pandsean  pipes,  and  the  flute, 
properly  so  called. 

3a  In  the  last  Chapter.  The  Arundo  donax,  probably,  so  far  as  Euro- 
pean warfare  was  concerned. 

33  A  variety  of  the  Arundo  donax  of  Linncous. 

34  This  is  not  the  fact.  35  The  Arundo  versicolor  of  Miller. 
36  Constantinus  and  Schneider,  upon  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv. 

c.  11,  suspect  the  correctness  of  this  word. 
»  See  B.  xx.  c.  88,  and  B.  xxxii.  c.  52. 


Chap.  66.] 


FLUTE    HEEDS.  407 


beneficial  to  the  teeth,  having,  in  fact,  an  equal  degree  of  pun- 
gency with  mustard. 

The  terms  of  admiration  in  which  they  are  spoken  of  by 
the  ancients  compels  me  to  enter  into  some  more  minute  de- 
tails relative  to  the  reed-beds  of  Lake  Orchomenus.  Characias38 
was  the  name  given  there  to  a  reed  of  stout  and  compact 
quality,  while  a  thinner  one  was  known  as  the  plotias;  this  last 
was  to  be  found  growing  on  the  floating  islands  there,  while 
the  former  grew  upon  the  banks  that  were  covered  by  the 
waters  of  the  lake.  A  third  kind  again,  which  had  the  name 
of  "  auleticon,"  was  the  same  that  is  now  known  as  the  mu- 
sical pipe39  reed.  This  reed  used  to  take  nine  years  to  grow, 
as  it  was  for  that  period  that  the  waters  of  the  lake  were 
continually  on  the  increase ;  it  used  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
prodigy  of  evil  omen,  if  at  the  end  of  its  rise  its  waters  re- 
mained overflowing  so  long  as  a  couple  of  years ;  a  thing  that 
was  observed  at  the  period  of  the  Athenian  disasters  at  Che- 
ronsea,  and  on  various  other  occasions.  This  lake  has  the  name 
of  Lebaida,  at  the  part  where  the  river  Cephisus  enters  it. 

When  this  inundation  has  lasted  so  long  as  a  year,  the 
reed  is  found  large  enough  to  be  available  for  the  purposes  of 
fowling  :  at  this  period  it  used  to  be  called  zeugites.4fl  On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  waters  subsided  at  an  earlier  period,  the 
reeds  were  known  as  bombycise,41  being  of  a  more  slender  form. 
In  this  variety,  too,  the  leaf  of  the  female  plant  was  broader 
and  whiter  than  that  of  the  others,  while  that  upon  which 
there  was  little  or  no  down  bore  the  name  of  the  eunuch  reed. 
The  stem  of  this  last  variety  was  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
concert42  flutes.  I  must  not  here  pass  by  in  silence  the  mar- 
vellous care  which  the  ancients  lavished  upon  these  instru- 
ments, a  thing  which  will,  in  some  measure,  plead  as  an  apo- 
logy for  the  manufacture  of  them  at  the  present  day  of  silver 
in  preference.  The  reed  used  to  be  cut,  as  it  was  then  looked 
upon  as  being  in  the  best  condition,  at  the  rising  of  Arcturus  ;43 

38  The  Arundo  phragmites  of  Linnaeus.  The  Plotias,  no  doubt,  was 
only  a  variety  of  it. 

39  "  Arundo  tibialis."  The  story  about  the  time  taken  by  it  to  grow,  and 
the  increase  of  the  waters,  is,  of  course,  fabulous. 

40  The  " yoke  reed,"  or  "reed  for  a  double  flute." 

41  Perhaps  so  called  from  the  silkiness  of  its  flossy  pinicules. 

42  This  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  "  ad  inclusos  cantus." 

43  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 


408  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

an  usage  which  prevailed  down  to  the  time  of  Antigenides,  the 
musician,  and  while  flute-playing  was  of  a  more  simple  style. 
Being  thus  prepared,  the  reeds  became  fit  for  use  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years.  At  that  period  even  the  reed  required  consi- 
derable seasoning  to  render  it  pliable,  and  to  be  instructed,  as 
it  were,  in  the  proper  modulation  of  its  sounds  ;  the  mouth- 
piece and  stops  44  being  naturally  contracted,  and  so  producing 
a  music  better  adapted  to  the  theatrical  taste  of  the  day. 
But  in  later  times,  when  the  music  became  more  varied,  and 
luxury  began  to  exercise  its  influence  upon  the  musical  taste, 
it  became  the  general  usage  to  cut  the  reeds  before  the  summer 
solstice,  and  to  make  them  fit  for  use  at  the  end  of  three 
months;  the  stops  and  mouth-piece  being  found,  when  the 
reeds  were  cut  at  that  period,  to  be  more  open  and  better 
adapted  for  the  modifications  of  sound  :  it  is  in  this  state  that 
the  reed  is  used  for  similar  purposes  at  the  present  day.  In 
those  times  it  was  a  very  general  persuasion  also,  that  every 
pipe  ought  to  have  the  tongue  of  its  own  mouth-piece  cut 
from  the  same  reed  as  itself,  and  that  a  section  from  the  part 
nearest  the  root  was  best  adapted  to  form  the  left-handed 
flute,45  and  from  the  part  adjoining  the  top  the  right-handed 
one  :  those  reeds,  too,  were  considered  immeasurably  superior, 
which  had  been  washed  by  the  waters  of  Cephisus  itself. 

At  the  present  day  the  sacrificial  pipes  used  by  the  Tuscans 
are  made  of  box-wood,  while  those  employed  at  the  games  are 
made  of  the  lotus,46  the  bones  of  the  ass,  or  else  silver.  The 
fowler's  reeds  of  the  best  quality  are  those  of  Panormus,47 
and  the  best  reeds  for  fishing-rods  come  from  A.barita  in 
Africa.48 

CHAP.   67. THE    VINE-DRESSERs'    REED. 

The  reed  is  employed  in  Italy  more  particularly,  as  a  sup- 

44  Liugulis. 

45  The  words  "dextrte"  and  "sinistra,"  denote  the  treble  and  the  bass 
flutes;  it  is  thought  by  some,  because  the  former  were  held  with  the  right 
hand,  and  the  latter  with  the  left.  Two  treble  or  bass  flutes  were  occasi- 
onally played  on  at  the  same  time. 

46  See  B.  xiii.  c.  32. 

47  These  were  of  the  variety  Zeugites,  previously  mentioned. 

***  Fee  suggests,  that  what  he  mentions  here  may  not  have  been  a  rce<2 
at  all,  but  one  of  the  cyperaceous  plants,  the  papyrus,  perhaps. 


Chap.  68.]  THE  willow.  409 

port  for  the  vine.  Cato19  recommends  that  it  should  be 
planted  in  a  damp  situation,  the  soil  being  first  turned  up  with 
a  double  mattock,  and  a  distance  of  three  feet  left  between  the 
young50  layers ;  he  says,  too,  that  the  wild  asparagus  51  from 
which  the  cultivated  species  is  produced,  may  be  planted  to- 
gether with  it,  as  they  agree  particularly  well  together. 

(37.)  He  says  also  that  the  willow  may  be  planted  in  its 
vicinity,  than  which  there  is  no  aquatic  plant  of  more  general 
utility,  although  the  poplar  may  be  preferred  for  the  training 
of  the  vine,  and  the  support  of  the  Csecuban  grape  ;  although, 
too,  the  alder  affords  a  more  efficient  protection  by  the  hedges 
it  forms,  and,  planted  in  the  very  water,  makes  a  rampart 
along  the  banks  in  defence  of  the  adjoining  country  against 
the  violence  of  the  rivers  when  they  overflow ;  when  cut  down, 
too,  this  last  tree  is  useful  for  the  innumerable  suckers  which 
it  throws  out. 

CHAP.    68. THE  WILLOW  :    EIGHT  VAEIETIES  OF  IT. 

Of  the  willow,  too,  there  are  several  varieties.  One52  of  them 
throws  out  its  branches  to  a  considerable  height ;  and  these, 
coupled  together,  serve  as  perches  for  the  vine,  while  the  bark 
around  the  tree  itself  is  used  for  withes.53  Others,54  again, 
of  a  more  pliable  nature,  supply  a  flexible  twig,  which  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  tying ;  while  others  throw  out  osiers  of 
remarkable  thinness,  adapted  by  their  suppleness  and  graceful 
slenderness  for  the  manufacture  of  wicker-work.55  Others, 
again,  of  a  stouter  make,  are  used  for  weaving  panniers, 
and  many  other  utensils  employed  in  agriculture  ;  while  from 
a  whiter  willow  the  bark  is  peeled  off,  and,  being  remarkably 
tractable,  admits  of  various  utensils  being  made  of  it,  which 
require  a  softer  and  more  pliable  material  than  leather  :  this 
last  is  also  found  particularly  useful  in  the  construction  of 
those  articles  of  luxury,  reclining  chairs.     The  willow,  when 

49  De  Re  Rust.  c.  6.  It  was  the  donax  that  was  thus  employed;  as  it 
is  in  France  at  the  present  day. 

50  Oeulis.     See  B.  xvii.  c.  33. 

51  See  B.  xix.  c.  42. 

5:2  The  white  willow,  Salix  Alba  of  Linnaeus. 

53  The  Salix  vitellina  more  particularly  is  used  in  France  for  this 
purpose. 

54  The  Salix  helix  of  Lirmseus. 

55  The  Salix  amygdaliua  of  Linnaeus. 


410  pliny's  natural  htstoet.  [Book  XVI. 

cut,  continues  to  thrive,  and,  indeed,  throws  out  more  thickly 
from  the  top,  which,  when  closely  clipped,  bears  a  stronger  re- 
semblance to  a  closed  fist  than  the  top  of  a  stump.  It  is  a  tree, 
which,  in  my  opinion,  deserves  to  be  placed  by  no  means  in 
the  lowest  rank  of  trees ;  for  there  is  none  that  will  yield  a  more 
certain  profit,  which  can  be  cultivated  at  less  expense,  or 
which  is  less  liable  to  be  influenced  by  changes  in  the  weather. 

CHAP.  69. TREES    IN    ADDITION    TO  THE  WILLOW,  WHICH  ARE    OF 

USE   IN    MAKING  WITHES. 

Cato56  considers  the  culture  of  the  willow  as  deserving  to 
hold  the  third  rank  in  estimation,  and  he  gives  it  precedence 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  tillage  for  corn,  or  laying  out 
land  for  pasture.  It  is  not,  however,  because  the  willow  is 
the  only  tree  that  produces  withes ;  for  they  may  be  procured 
also  from  the  broom,  the  poplar,  the  elm,  the  blood-red  cornel, 
the  birch,  and  the  reed  itself  when  split,  or  else  the  leaves  of  that 
plant,  as  we  know  to  be  the  case  in  Liguria.  The  vine,  also, 
will  furnish  them;  the  bramble,  too,  with  the  thorns  re- 
moved, as  well  as  the  twisted  hazel.  It  is  a  very  singular  thing, 
that  a  wood  after  it  has  been  beaten  and  pounded  should  be 
found  all  the  stronger  for  making  withes,  but  such  is  a  striking 
peculiarity  that  exists  in  the  willow.  The  Greek  red57  willow  is 
split  for  this  purpose :  while  the  willow58  of  Ameria  is  whiter 
but  more  brittle,  for  which  reason  it  is  used  in  an  uncut  state  for 
tying.  In  Asia  there  are  three  varieties  known  of  the  willow ; 
the  black 59  willow,  which  is  best  adapted  for  making  withes, 
the  white  willow,  employed  for  various  agricultural  purposes, 
and  a  third,  which  is  shorter  than  the  others,  and  known  as 
the  helix.60 

With  us,  also,  there  is  the  same  number  of  denominations 
given  to  as  many  varieties  of  the  willow  ;  one  being  known 

56  De  He  Rust.  c.  6.  Fee  remarks  that  the  notions  of  modern  agricul- 
turists are  very  different  on  this  point. 

67  The  Salix  purpurea  of  Linnaeus :  the  Salix  vulgaris  rubens  of  C. 
Bauhin. 

58  This  belongs,  probably,  to  the  Salix  helix  of  Linnaeus. 

59  Fee  queries  whether  this  may  not  be  the  Salix  incana  of  Schrank  and 
Hoffmann,  the  bark  of  which  is  a  brown  green. 

60  Belonging  to  the  Salix  helix  of  Linnaeus. 


Chap.  71.]  THE   ELDEE.  411 

as  the  viminal  or  purple  willow,61  another  as  the  nitelina,63 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  colour  of  the  nitela,  thinner  in 
the  trunk  than  the  preceding  one,  and  the  third  as  the 
Gallic63  kind,  being  the  thinnest  of  them  all. 

CHAP.  70. BUSHES  :    CANDLE-BUSHES  :    RUSHES  FOE  THATCHING. 

The  rush,64  so  frail  in  form,  and  growing  in  marshy  spots, 
cannot  be  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the  shrubs,  nor  jet  t;o  the 
brambles  or  the  stalk  plants  ;  nor,  indeed,  in  strict  justice,  to 
any  of  the  classes  of  plants  except  one  that  is  peculiarly  its 
own.  It  is  extensively  used  for  making  thatch  and  matting, 
and,  with  the  outer  coat  taken  off,  for  making  candles  and 
funeral  torches.  In  some  places,  however,  the  rush  is  more 
hard  and  firm :  thus,  for  instance,  it  is  employed  not  only  by 
the  sailors  on  the  Padus  for  making  the  sails  of  boats,  but  for 
the  purposes  of  sea-fishing  as  well,  by  the  fishermen  of  Africa, 
who,  in  a  most  preposterous  manner,  hang  the  sails  made  of  it 
behind  the  masts.65  The  people,  too,  of  Mauritania  thatch 
their  cottages66  with  rushes ;  indeed,  if  we  look  somewhat 
closely  into  the  matter,  it  will  appear  that  the  rush  is  held  in 
pretty  nearly  the  same  degree  of  estimation  there  as  the  pa- 
pyrus is  in  the  inner  regions  of  the  world.67 

CHAP.  71. — THE  ELDEE  !    THE  BBAHBA.E. 

Of  a  peculiar  nature,  too,  though  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
waters-plants,  is  the  bramble,  a  shrub-like  plant,  and  the 
elder,  which  is  of  a  spongy  nature,  though  not  resembling  giant 
fennel,  from  having  upon  it  a  greater  quantity  of  wood.  It  is 
a  belief  among  the  shepherds  that  if  they  cut  a  horn  or  trumpet 
from  the  wood  of  this  tree,  it  will  give  all  the  louder  sound 
if  cut  in  a  spot  where  the  shrub  has  been  out  of  hearing  of  the 
crowing  of  the  cock.     The  bramble  bears  mulberries,69  and 

61  Belonging  to  the  Salix  purpurea  of  Linnaeus. 

62  Field-mouse  or  squirrel  colour.  See  B.  viii.  c.  82.  The  same,  pro- 
bably, as  the  Salix  vitellina  of  Linnasus. 

63 '  A  variety,  Fee  thinks,  of  the  Salix  rubens. 

64  The  Scirpus  lacustris  of  Linnaeus. 

55  And  not  in  front  of  them.  66  Mapalia. 

67  Egypt,  namely. 

68  The  bramble  is  sometimes  found  on  the  banks  of  watery  spots  and  in 
marshy  localities,  but  more  frequently  in  mountainous  and  arid  spots. 

39  Known  to  us  as  blackberries.     'This  tree  is  the  Rubus  fruticosus  of 


412  plint's  natueal  history.  [Book  XVI. 

one  variety  of  it,  known  as  the  cynosbatos,70  bears  a  flower 
similar  to- the  rose.  There  is  a  third  variety,  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  the  Idaean71  bramble,  from  the  place  where  it  grows : 
it  is  slighter  than  the  others,  with  smaller  thorns,  and  not  so 
hooked.  Its  flower,  mixed  with  honey,  is  employed  as  an 
ointment  for  sore  eyes  and  erysipelas :  and  an  infusion  of  it 
in  water  is  used  for  diseases  of  the  stomach.72 

The  elder72'  bears  a  small  black  berry,  which  contains  a  vis- 
cous juice,  employed  more  particularly  for  staining73  the  hair. 
The  berries,  too,  are  boiled  in  water  and  eaten.74 

CHAP.   72.  (38.) THE  JUICES  OF  TREES. 

There  is  a  juice  in  the  bark  of  trees,  which  must  be  looked 
upon  as  their  blood,  though  it  is  not  of  a  similar  nature  in  all. 
In  the  fig  it  is  of  a  milky  consistency,  and  has  the  peculiar 
property  of  curdling  milk,  and  so  forming  cheese.75  In  the 
cherry-tree  this  juice  is  gummy,  in  the  elm  clammy,  in  the 
apple  viscous  and  fatty,  while  in  the  vine  and  the  pear  it  is 
watery.  The  more  viscous  this  humour  is,  the  more  long- 
lived  the  tree.  •  In  a  word,  we  find  in  the  bodies  of  trees — as 
with  all  other  beings  that  are  animated — skin,  blood,  flesh, 
sinews,  veins,  bones,  and  marrow ;  the  bark  serving  them  in 
place  of  skin.  It  is  a  singular  fact  connected  with  the  mul- 
berry-tree, that  when  the  medical  men  wish  to  extract  its  juice, 
if  the  incision  is  lightly  made,  by  a  blow  with  a  stone,  and  at 
the  second  hour  of  the  day  in  spring,  the  juice  will  flow  :  but 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  a  wound  is  inflicted  to  any  depth,  it  has 
all  the  appearance  of  being  dried  up. 

Immediately  beneath  the  bark  in  most  trees  there  is  a  fatty 
substance,  which,  from  its  colour,  has  obtained  the  name  of 
alburnum  :76  it  is  soft,  and  is  the  very  worst  part  of  the  wood, 

Linnaeus ;  the  same  as  the  Rubus  tomentosus,  and  the  Rubus  corylifolius 
of  other  modern  botanists. 

70  The  Rosa  canina  of  Linnaeus :  the  dog-rose  or  Eglantine. 

71  The  Rubus  Idaeus  of  botanists ;  the  ordinary  raspberry. 

72  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  75.  72*  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  3-5. 

73  They  are  still  used  for  dyeing,  but  not  for  staining  the  hair. 

74  Only  as  a  purgative,  probably. 

75  Though  the  acid  it   contains   would  curdle   milk,  still  its  natural 
acridity  would  disqualify  it  from  being  used  for  making  cheese. 

76  The  white  sap  or  inner  bark ;  the  aubier  of  the  French.     Fee  re- 
marks, that  its  supposed  analogy  with  fat  is  incorrect. 


Chap.  73.]  THE   VEINS    AND    FIBRES    OF    TREES.  413 

and  in  the  robur  even  will  very  easily  rot,  being  particularly 
liable  to  wood-worm,  for  which  reason  it  is  invariably  removed. 
Beneath  this  fat  lies  the  flesh77  of  the  tree,  and  then  under 
that,  its  bo.nes,  or,  in  other  words,  the  choicest  part  of  the  wood. 
Those  trees  which  have  a  dry  wood,  the  olive,  for  instance, 
bear  fruit  every  other  year  only :  this  is  more  the  case  with 
them  than  with  those  the  wood  of  which  is  of  a  fleshy  nature, 
such  as  the  cherry,  for  instance.  It  is  not  all  trees,  too,  that 
have  this  fat  and  flesh  in  any  abundance,  the  same  as  we  find 
to  be  the  case  among  the  more  active  animals.  The  box,  the 
cornel,  and  the  olive  have  none  at  all,  nor  yet  any  marrow,  and 
a  very  small  proportion,  too,  of  blood.  In  the  same  way,  too, 
the  service-tree  has  no  bones,  and  the  elder  no  flesh,  while 
both  of  them  have  marrow  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Reeds, 
too,  have  hardly  any  flesh. 


CHAP.   73. THE  VEINS  AND  FIBRES  OF  TREES. 

In  the  flesh  of  some  trees  we  find  both  fibres78  and  veins  : 
they  are  easily  distinguished.  The  veins79  are  larger,  while 
the  fibres  are  of  whiter  material,  and  are  to  be  found  in  those 
woods  more  particularly  which  are  easily  split.  Hence  it  is  that 
if  the  ear  is  applied  to  the  extremity  of  a  beam  of  wood,  how- 
ever long,  a  tap  with  a  graver80  even  upon  the  other  end  may 
be  distinctly  heard,  the  sound  penetrating  by  the  passages 
which  run  straight  through  it :  by  these  means  it  is  that  we 
ascertain  whether  timber  runs  awry,  or  is  interrupted  by  knots. 
The  tuberosities  which  we  find  on  trees  resemble  the  kernels8-1 
that  are  formed  in  flesh  :  they  contain  neither  veins  nor  fibres, 
but  only  a  kind  of  tough,  solid  flesh,  rolled  up  in  a  sort  of 
ball :  it  is  these  tuberosities  that  are  the  most  esteemed  parts82 
in  the  citrus  and  the  maple.     As  to  the  other  kinds  of  wood 

77  He  means  the  outer  ligneous  layers  of  the  wood.  They  differ  only 
in  their  relative  hardness. 

78  "  Pulpae."     The  ligneous  fibres  which  form  the  tissue  of  the  hark. 

-9  «  Venae."  By  this  term  he  probably  means  the  nutritive  vessels  and  the 
ligneous  fibres  united.  It  was  anciently  the  general  belief  that  the  fibres 
atted  their  part  in  the  nutriment  of  the  tree. 

80  "  Graphium."     Properly  a  stylus  or  iron  pen, 

81  "  Glandia."     This  analogy,  Fee  remarks,  does  not  hold  good. 
83  See  B.  xiii.  c.  29,  and  c.  27  of  this  Book. 


414  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTOEY.  [Book  XVI. 

which  are  employed  for  making  tables,  the  trees  are  split  into 
planks  lengthwise,  and  the  parts  are  then  selected  along  which 
the  fibres  run,  and  properly  rounded  ;  for  the  wood  would  be 
too  brittle  to  use  if  it  were  cut  in  segments  crosswise.83  In 
the  beech,  the  grain  of  the  fibrous  part  runs  crosswise  ;84  hence 
it  is  that  the  ancients  held  in  such  high  esteem  all  vessels  made 
with  the  wood  of  it.  Manius  Curius  made  oath,  on  one  occa- 
sion, that  he  had  not  touched  an  article  of  all  the  spoil  except 
a  single  oil  cruet85  of  beech,  to  Use  for  sacrificing.  Wood 
is  always  put  lengthwise  into  the  water  to  season,  as  that  part 
which  was  nearest  the  root  will  sink  to  a  greater86  depth  than 
the  other.  In  some  wood  there  is  fibre,  without  veins,  and  merely 
consisting  of  filaments  slightly  knit  together:  wood  of  this 
nature  is  remarkably  fissile.  Other  wood,  again,  is  more  easily 
broken  across  than  split,  such  as  the  wood  of  those  trees  that 
have  no  fibre,  the  olive  and  the  vine,  for  instance  :  on  the  other 
hand,  in  the  fig-tree,  the  whole  of  the  body  consists  of  flesh.87 
The  holm-oak,  the  .cornel,  the  robur,  the  cytisus,  the  mulberry, 
the  ebony,  the  lotus,  and  the  other  trees  which  we  have 
mentioned88  as  being  destitute  of  marrow,  consist  entirely  of 
bone.89  All  these  woods  are  of  a  blackish  colour,  with  the 
exception  of  the  cornel,  of  which  glossy  yellow  hunting-spears 
are  made,  marked  with  incisions  for  their  further  embellish- 
ment. In  the  cedar,  the  juniper,  and  the  larch,  the  wood 
is  red. 

(39.)  In  Greece  the  female  larch  furnishes  a  wood90  which 
is  known  as  aegis,  and  is  just  the  colour  of  honey.  This  wood 
has  been  found  to  be  proof  against  decay,  and  forms  the  pannels 
used  by  painters,  being  never  known  to  gape  or  split ;  the 
portion  thus  employed  is  that  which  lies  nearest  to  the  pith.  In 
the  fir-tree  this  part  is  called  "  leuson"  by  the  Greeks.  In  the 
cedar,  too,  the  hardest  part  is  the  wood  that  lies  nearest  to  the 

83  And  at  an  angle  with  the  grain  or  fibre  of  the  wood. 

84  And  at  right  angles.  In  the  Dicotyledons,  the  disposition  of  the  fibres 
is  longitudinal  and  transversal. 

85  Guttum.  . 

86  For  the  simple  reason,  because  the  part  near  the  root  is  of  greater 
diameter. 

87  Soft  ligneous  layers.  ^  In  c.  72  of  this  Book. 

89  Hard  wood — such  as  we  know  generally  as  "heart;"  "heart  of 
oak"  for  instance. 

90  Probably  that  of  Uie  ligneous  layers  near  the  pith  or  sap. 


Chap.  74.]  THE    TELLING   OE   TREES.  415 

sap  :  after  the  slimy91  pith  has  been  carefully  removed,  it  has 
a  similar  degree  of  hardness  to  the  bones  in  the  bodies  of 
animals.  It  is  said,  too,  that  in  Greece  the  inner  part  of  the 
elder  is  remarkably  firm  :  indeed,  those  whose  business  it  is  to 
make  hunting  spears,  prefer  this  material  to  all  others,  it  being 
a  wood  composed  wholly  of  skin  and  bone. 

CHAP.  74. THE  TELLING  OF  TEEES. 

The  proper  time  for  felling  trees  that  are  wanted  for 
barking,  the  round,  tapering  trees,  for  instance,  that  are  em- 
ployed in  temples  and  for  other  purposes,  is  at  the  period  of 
germination : 92  for  at  other  times  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
detach  the  bark  from  the  rotten  wood  that  adheres  to  it,  while 
the  wood  itself  assumes  a  blackish  hue.  Squared  logs,  and 
wood  from  which  the  bark  has  been  lopped,  are  generally  cut 
in  the  period  that  intervenes  between  the  winter  solstice  and 
the  prevalence  of  the  west  winds  ;  or  else,  if  it  is  necessary 
to  anticipate  that  period,  at  the  setting  of  Arcturus  and 
before  that  of  the  Lyre,  the  very  earliest  period  being  the 
summer  solstice  :  the  days  of  these  respective  constellations 
will  be  mentioned  in  the  appropriate  place.93 

In  general  it  is  looked  upon  as  quite  sufficient  to  use  all 
due  precaution  that  a  tree  is  not  rough-hewn  before  it  has 
borne  its  yearly  crop.  The  robur,  if  cut  in  spring,  is  subject 
to  the  attacks  of  wood-worm,  but  if  cut  in  winter,  will  neither 
rot  nor  warp  :  otherwise  it  is  very  liable  to  bend  and  become 
awry,  as  well  as  to  crack ;  the  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the 
cork-tree,  even  if  cut  down  at  the  proper  time.  The  state  of 
the  moon,94  too,  is  of  infinite  importance,  and  it  is  generally 
recommended  that  trees  should  be  cut  only  between  the  twen- 
tieth and  the  thirtieth  days  of  the  month.  It  is  generally 
agreed,  however,  by  all,  that  it  is  the  very  best  time  for 
felling  timber,  when  the  moon  is  in  conjunction  with  the 
sun,  a  day  which  is  called  by  some  persons  the  interlu- 
nium,  and  by  others  the  moon's  silence.     At  all  events,  it  was 

91  "  Limo :"  the  alburnum  previously  mentioned. 

92  This  practice  was  formerly  forbidden  by  the  forest  laws  of  France. 

93  In  B.  xviii. 

94  Pliny  borrows  this  superstition  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant. 
B.  vi.  c.  1. 


416  PLINY'S   NATURAL   IIISTOItY.  [Book  XVI. 

under  these  circumstances  that  Tiberius  Csesar  gave  orders 
for  the  larches  to  be  cut  in  Rhaetia,  that  were  required  for 
the  purpose  of  rebuilding  the  bridge  of  the  Naumachia 95  after 
it  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  Some  persons  say  that  the 
moon  ought  not  only  to  be  in  conjunction,  but  below  the  ho- 
rizon as  well,  a  thing  that  can  only  happen  in  the  night.  If  the 
conjunction  should  chance  to  fall  on  the  very  day  of  the  winter 
solstice,  the  timber,  they  say,  that  is  then  felled  will  be  of  ever- 
lasting duration ;  the  next  best  being  the  timber  that  is  cut 
when  the  conjunction  coincides  with  the  constellations  pre- 
viously mentioned.  There  are  some,  too,  who  add  the  rising 
of  the  Dog-star  as  a  favourable  time,  and  say  that  it  was  at 
this  period  that  the  timber  was  cut  which  was  employed  in 
building  the  Forum  of  Augustus. 

Wood  which  is  intended  for  timber  ought  to  be  cut  neither 
when  too  young  nor  too  old.  Some  persons,  too — and  the  prac- 
tice is  by  no  means  without  its  utility — cut  round96  the  tree  as 
far  as  the  pith,  and  then  leave  the  timber  standing,  so  that  all 
the  juices  may  be  enabled  to  escape.  Going  back  to  ancient 
times,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  in  the  first  Punic  War  the 
fleet  commanded  by  Duillius  was  on  the  water  within  sixty 
days  from  the  time  the  timber  was  cut :  and,  what  is  still 
more  so,  Piso  relates  that  King  Hiero  had  two  hundred  and 
twenty  ships  wholly  constructed  in  forty-five  days :  in  the 
second  Punic  War,  too,  the  fleet  of  Scipio  was  at  sea  the  fortieth 
day  after  the  axe  had  been  put  to  the  tree.  Such  is  the 
energy  and  dispatch  that  can  be  displayed  on  occasions  of 
emergency. 

CHAP.   75. THE  OriNION  OF  CATO  ON  THE  FELLING  OF  TIMBER. 

Cato,97  a  man  of  consummate  authority  in  all  practical  mat- 
ters, expresses  himself  in  relation  to  timber  to  the  following 
effect : — "  For  making  presses,  employ  the  wood  of  the  sappinus 
in  preference.     When  you  root  up  the  elm,  the  pine,  the  nut- 

95  This  was  the  name  of  mimic  sea-fights,  exhibited  at  Rome  in  the 
Circus  or  amphitheatres,  or  else  in  lakes  dug  expressly  for  the  purpose. 
Hardouin  says,  there  were  five  Naumacbiae  at  Rome,  in  the  14th  region  of 
the  City. 

96  This  practice  is  no  longer  followed. 

97  De  Re  Rust.  c.  31 ;  also  cc.  17  and  37. 


Chap.  7G.]  THE    SIZE    OF   TEEES.  417 

tree,  or,  indeed,  any  other  kind  of  tree,  mind  and  do  so  when 
the  moon  is  on  the  wane,  after  midday,  and  when  there  is  no 
south  wind  blowing.  The  proper  time  for  cutting  a  tree  is 
when  the  seed 98  is  ripe,  but  be  careful  not  to  draw  it  away  or 
plane  it  while  the  dew  is  falling."  He  then  proceeds  to  say" 
— "  Never  touch  the  timber,  except  when  the  moon  is  on  the 
change,  or  else  at  the  end  of  the  second  quarter :  at  those 
periods  you  may  either  root  up  the  tree,  or  fell  it  as  it  stands. 
The  next  seven  days  after  the  fufl  moon  are  the  best  of  ail  for 
grubbing  up  a  tree.  Be  particularly  careful,  too,  not  to  rough- 
hew  timber,  or,  indeed,  to  cut  or  touch  it,  unless  it  is  perfectly 
dry;  and  by  no  means  while  it  is  covered  with  frost  or  dew," 
The  Emperor  Tiberius  used  also  to  observe  the  changes  of 
the  moon  for  cutting  his  hair.1  M.  Yarro2  has  recommended 
that  the  hair  should  be  cut  at  full  moon  only,  if  we  would 
avoid  baldness. 

CHAP.   76. THE    SIZE    OF    TEEES  :    THE    NATIJKE    OF  WOOD  :    THE 

SAPPINUS. 

From  _  the  larch,  and  still  more  the  fir,  after  it  has  been 
cut,  a  liquid3  flows  for  a  considerable  period :  these  are  the 
loftiest  and  straightest  of  all  the  trees.  The  fir  is  pre- 
ferred for  making  the  masts  and  sailyards  of  ships,  on  account 
of  its  comparative  lightness.  It  is  a  common  feature  with 
these  trees,  in  common  with  the  pine,  to  have  four  rows  of 
veins  running  along  the  wood,  or  else  two,  or  sometimes  only 
one.  The  heart 4  of  these  trees  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  for 
joiners'  work,  and  the  best  wood  of  all  is  that  which  has  four 
layers  of  veins,  it  being  softer  than  the  rest :  men  of  expe- 
rience m  these  matters  can  instantly  form  a  judgment  of  the 
quality  from  the  bark.  That  part  in  the  fir  which  is  nearest 
to  the  ground  is  free  from  knots  :  when  soaked  in  river  water 
m  the.  way  we  have  already  mentioned,5  and  then  barked,  the 

98  This  practice  is  observed  in  modern  times. 

99  C.  37. 

J  Pliny  no  doubt,  observes  an  analogy  between  the  hair  of  the  human 
head  and  trees  as  terming  the  hair  of  the  earth.  The  superstition  here 
mentioned,  Fee  says,  was,' till  very  recently,  observed  in  France  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

I  u\^l  ?USt-  1'.37,  3  Terebinthine  or  turpentine. 

Ad  tabrorum  mtestina  opera  medulla  sectilis."    This  passage  is  pro- 
bably corrupt.  5  in  c   74  *        a        F 

vol.   in.  .     E   E 


418  flint's  NATURAL  HISTORT.  [Book  XVI. 

wood  of  this  part  is  known6  a3  sappinus ;  while  that  of  the 
upper  part,  which  is  harder  and  knotty,  goes  by  the  name  of 
"  fusterna."  In  trees,  the  side  which  looks  towards  the  north- 
east is  the  most  robust,  and  it  is  universally  the  case,  that 
those  which  grow  in  moist  and  damp  localities  are  of  inferior 
quality,  while  in  those  which  grow  in  warm  and  sunny  spots, 
the  wood  is  more  compact  and  durable ;  hence  it  is,  that  at 
Rome  the  fir  is  preferred  that  grows  on  the  shores  of  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea  to  that  of  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic. 

There  are  also  considerable  differences  in  the  qualities  of 
these  trees  according  to  the  country  of  their  growth  :  the  most 
esteemed  are  those  of  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines ;  in  Gaul, 
those  of  Jura7  and  Mount  Yogesus ;  those  also  of  Corsica, 
Bithynia,.  Pontus,  and  Macedonia ;  while  the  firs  of  ^Enea8  and 
Arcadia  are  of  inferior  quality.  Those,  however,  of  Parnassus 
and  Euboea  are  the  worst  of  all,  the  trees  being  branchy  and 
knotted,  and  the  wood  very  apt  to  rot.  As  for  the  cedar,  those 
of  Crete,  Africa,  and  Syria  are  the  most  esteemed.  Wood,  if 
well  rubbed  with  oil  of  cedar,  is  proof  against  wood- worm  and 
decay.  The  juniper,  too,  has  the  same9  virtues  as  the  cedar  ; 
in  Spain  it  grows  to  a  very  considerable  size,  in  the  territory 
of  the  Vaccgei 10  more  particularly  :  the  heart  of  this  tree,  too, 
is  universally  more  firm  and  solid  than  cedar  even.  A  general 
fault  in  all  wood  is  that  known  as  cross-grain,  which  is  formed 
by  contortions  of  the  knots  and  veins.11  In  the  wood  of  some 
trees  there  are  to  be  found  knurs,12  like  those  in  marble  ;  these 
knurs  are  remarkably  hard,  and  offer  a  resistance  like  that  of 
a  nail,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  saw  :  in  some  cases,  also,  they 
are  formed  accidentally,  from  either  a  stone,  or  the  branch  of 
another  tree  lodging  there,  and  being  absorbed  in  the  body  ot 

the  tree. 

In  the  Porum  at  Megara  there  long  stood  a  wild  olive  upon 
Avhich  warriors   who   had  distinguished  themselves  by  their 

«  With  reference  to  the  fir,  namely. 

7  B.  iii.  c.  5.  8  B.  iv.  c.  3.     .  .         . 

9  An  additional  proof,  perhaps,  that  the  cedar  of  the  ancients  is  only 
one  of  the  junipers,  and  that,  as  Fee  says,  they  were  not  acquainted  with 

the  real  cedar. 

to  jj  iij  c   4, 

u  "  Spii'as"  It  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion  of  the  ancients  that  the 
internal  knots  of  the  wood  are  formed  spirally.  Such  is  not  the  fact,  as 
they  consist  of  independent  layers.  12  Centra. 


Chap.  76.]  THE    SIZE   OE    TREES.  419 

martial  powers  had  been  in  the  habit  of  suspending  their  arms. 
In  the  lapse  of  time  the  bark  of  this  tree  had  closed,  and 
quite  concealed  these  arms  from  view.  Upon  it,  however,  de- 
pended the  fate  of  the  city  ;  for  it  had  been  announced  by  an 
oracle,  that  when  a  tree  there  should  bring  forth  arms,  the  fall 
of  the  city  would  be  close  at  hand  :  and  such,  in  fact,  was  th« 
result,  when  the  tree  was  cut  down  and  greaves  and  helmets 
were  found  within  the  wood.13  It  is  said  that  stones  found 
under  these  circumstances  have  the  property  of  preventing 
abortion. 

(40.)  It  is  generally  thought  that  the  largest14  tree  that  has 
ever  been  seen,  was  the  one  that  was  exhibited  at  Rome,  by 
Tiberius  Caesar,  as  an  object  of  curiosity,  upon  the  bridge  of 
the  Naumachia  previously  mentioned.15  It  had  been  brought 
thither  along  with  other  timber,  and  was  preserved  till  the  con- 
struction of  the  amphitheatre  of  the  Emperor  Nero  :16  it  was  a 
log  of  larch,  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  long,  and  of  an  uniform 
thickness  of  a  couple  of  feet.  From  this  fact  we  can  form  an 
estimate  of  the  original  height  of  the  tree ;  indeed,  measured 
from  top  to  bottom  it  must  have  been  originally  of  a  length 
that  is  almost  incredible.  In  our  own  time,  too,  in  the  porticos 
of  the  Septa,17  there  was  a  log  which  had  been  left  there  by  M. 
Agrippa,  as  being  equally  an  object  of  curiosity,  having  been 
found  too  large  to  be  used  in  the  building  of  the  vote  office ls 
there  :  it  was  twenty  feet  shorter  than  the  one  previously  men- 
tioned, and  a  foot-and-a-half  in  thickness.  There  was  a  fir, 
too,  that  was  particularly  admired,  when  it  formed  the  mast 
of  the  ship,  which  brought  from  Egypt,  by  order  of  the  Em- 
peror Caius,19  the  obelisk20  that  was  erected  in  the  Vaticanian 
Circus,  with  the  four  blocks  of  stone  intended  for  its  base.  It 
is  beyond  all  doubt  that  there  has  been  seen  nothing  on  the  sea 

13  He  takes  this  account  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.   B.  v.  c.  3. 

14  The  greatest  height,  Fee  says,  of  any  tree  known,  is  that  of  the 
palm,  known  as  ceroxylon  ;  it  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  250  feet. 
Adanson  speaks  of  the  baobab  as  being  90  feet  in  circumference. 

15  In  c,  74.  16  See  B.  six.  c.  6. 

17  A  spot  enclosed  in  the  Campus  Martius,  for  the  resort  of  the  people 
during  the  Comitia,  and  .when  giving  their  votes. 

is  "  Diribitorium."  This  was  the  place,  probably,  where  the  diribitores 
distributed  to  the  citizens  the  tabellne,  with  which  they  voted  in  the 
Comitia,  or  else,  as  "Wunder  thinks,  divided  the  votes,  acting  as  "  tellers,'' 
in  the  modern  phrase.  19  Caligula.  20  B.  xxxvi.  c.  14. 

E   E   2 


420  plant's  natueal  histqey.  [Book  XVI. 

more  wonderful  than  this  ship  :  one  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand modii  of  lentils  formed  its  ballast ;  and  the  length  of  it 
took  up  the  greater  part  of  the  left  side  of  the  harbour  at  Ostia. 
It  was  sunk  at  that  spot  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Claudius, 
three  moles,  each  as  high  as  a  tower,  being  built  upon  it ; 
they  were  constructed  with  cement21  which  the  same  vessel 
had  conveyed  from  Puteoli.  It  took  the  arms  of  four  men  to 
span  the  girth  of  this  tree,  and  we  not  unfrequently  hear  of 
the  price  of  masts  for  such  purposes,  as  being  eighty  thousand 
sesterces  or  more  :  rafts,  too,  of  this  wood  are  sometimes  put 
together,  the  value  of  which  is  forty  thousand.  In  Egypt  and 
Syria,  it  is  said,  the  kings,  for  want  of  fir,  used  to  employ 
cedar22  for  building  their  ships  :  the  largest  cedar  that  we  find 
mentioned  is  said  to  have  come  from  Cyprus,  where  it  was  cut 
to  form  the  mast  of  a  galley  of  eleven  tiers  of  oars  that  be- 
longed to  Demetrius :  it  was  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in 
length,  and  took  three  men  to  span  its  girth.  The  pirates  of 
Germany  navigate  their  seas  in  vessels  formed  of  a  single  tree 
hollowed33  out :  some  of  these  will  hold  as  many  as  thirty 
men. 

Of  all  woods,  the  most  compact,  and  consequently  the  hea- 
viest, are  the  ebony  and  the  box,  both  of  them  of  a  slender 
make.  Neither  of  these  woods  will  float  in  water,  nor,  indeed, 
will  that  of  the  cork  tree,  if  the  bark  is  removed ;  the  same  is 
the  case,  too,  with  the  wood  of  the  larch.  Of  the  other  woods, 
the  driest  is  that  of  the  tree  known  at  Rome  as  the  lotus,24 
and  next,  that  of  the  robur,  when  the  white  sap  has  been  re- 
moved. The  wood  of  the  robur  is  dark,  and  that  of  the  cy- 
tisus25  still  more  so,  approaching,  in  fact,  the  nearest  of  all  to 
the  colour  of  ebony;  though  there  are  not  wanting  writers  who 
assert  that  the  wood  of  the  Syrian  terebinth  is  darker.26  An 
artist  of  the  name  of  Thericles  is  highly  spoken  of  for  his  skill 
in  turning  goblets  from  the  wood  of  the  terebinth  :  and,  indeed, 
that  fact  is  a  proof  of  the  goodness  of  the  wood.  Terebinth  is 
the  only  wood  that  requires  to  be  rubbed  with  oil,  and  is  im- 

21  Seo  B.  xxxvi.  c.  14.  This  was  a  mortar  made  of  volcanic  ashes, 
w:iich  hardened  under  water.     It  is  now  known  as  Pozzuolane. 

22  The  Pinus  cedrus  of  Linnaeus. 

23  The  canoes  were  formed  probably  of  the  fir. 

24  The  Celtis  australis  of  Linnaeus. 

25  See  B.  xiii.  c.  27. 

-6  This,  Fee  says,  is  not  the  case,  if  the  Syrian  terebinth  is  the  same  as 
the  Ptstacia  terebinthus  of  Linnaeus. 


Chap.  77.]        METHODS  OF  OBTAINING  FIltE  FROM  WOOD.         421 

proved  thereby.  Its  colour  is  imitated  remarkably  well  with 
the  walnut  and  the  wild  pear,  which  have  its  peculiar  tint 
imparted  to  them  by  being  boiled  in  colouring  liquid.  The 
wood  of  all  the  trees  of  which  we  have  here  made  mention  is 
firm  and  compact.  Next  after  them  comes  the  cornel,  although 
it  can  hardly  be  looked  upon  as  timber,  in  consequence  of  its 
remarkable  slimness ;  the  wood  of  it,  in  fact,  is  used  for  hardly 
any  other  purpose  than  the  spokes  of  wheels,  or  else  for  mak- 
ing wedges  for  splitting  wood,  and  pins  or  bolts,  which  have 
all  the  hardness  of  those  of  iron.  Besides  these,  there  are 
the  holm-oak,  the  wild  and  the  cultivated  olive,  the  ehesnut, 
the  yoke- elm,  and  the  poplar.  This  last  is  mottled  simi- 
larly to  the  maple,  and  would  be  used  for  joiners'  work  if  wood 
could  be  good  for  anything  when  the  branches  are  so  often 
lopped  :  that  acting  upon  the  tree  as  a  sort  of  castration,  and 
depriving  it  of  its  strength.  In  addition  to  these  facts,  most  of 
these  trees,  but  the  robur  more  particularly,  are  so  extremely 
hard,  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  bore  the  wood  till  it  has 
been  soaked  in  water ;  and  even  then,  a  nail  once  driven  home 
cannot  be  drawn  out  again.  On  the  other  hand,  a  nail  has  no26 
hold  in  cedar.  The  wood  of  the  lime  is  the  softest  of  all,  and, 
as  it  would  appear,  the  hottest  by  nature  ;  a  proof  of  this,-  they 
say,  is  the  fact  that  it  will  turn  the  edge  of  the  adze  sooner 
than  any  other  wood.27  In  the  number,  also,  of  the  trees  that 
are  hot  by  nature,  are  the  mulberry,  the  laurel,  the  ivy,  and 
all  those  woods  from  which  fire  is  kindled  by  attrition. 

CHAP.   77. —  METHODS  OF  OBTAINING  F1KE  FE.OH  WOOD. 

This  is  a  method28  which  has  been  employed  by  the  outposts 
of  armies,  and  by  shepherds,  on  occasions  when  there  has  not 
been  a  stone  at  hand  to  strike  fire  with.  Two  pieces  of  wood 
are  rubbed  briskly  together,  and  the  friction  ^soon  sets  them  on 
fire;  -which  is  caught  on  dry  and  inflammable  substances,  fun- 
guses and  leaves  being  found  to  ignite  the  most  readily.  There 
is  nothing  superior  to  the  wood  of  the  i\j  for  rubbing  against, 

26  This  is  not  the  case ;  a  nail  has  a  firm  hold  in  all  resinous  woods. 

27  This  is  evidently  a  puerile  absurdity  :  but  it  is  borrowed  from  Theo- 
phrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  v.  c.  4. 

28  The  savages  of  North  America,  and,  indeed,  of  all  part's  of  the  globe, 
seem  to  have  been  acquainted  with  this  method  of  kindling  fire  from  the 
very  earliest  times. 


422  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 


01 


.  to  that  of  the  laurel  for  rubbing  with.  A  species  of  wild 
vine,29  too— not  the  same  as  the  labrusca— which  climbs  up 
other  trees  like  the  ivy,  is  highly  approved  of.  The  coldest30 
woods  of  all  are  those  of  the  aquatic  trees ;  but  they  are  the 
most  flexible  also,  and  for  that  reason  the  best  adapted  for  the 
construction  of  bucklers.  On  an  incision  being  made  in  them, 
they  will  contract  immediately,  and  so  close  up  their  wounds, 
at  the  same  time  rendering  it  more  difficult  for  the  iron  to  pe- 
netrate :  in  the  number  of  these  woods  are  the  fig,  the  willow, 
the  lime,  the  birch,  the  elder,  and  both  varieties  of  the  poplar. 
The  lightest  of  all  these  woods,  and  consequently  the  most 
useful,  are  the  fig  and  the  willow.  They  are  all  of  them  em- 
ployed, however,  in  the  manufacture  of  baskets  and  other 
utensils  of  wicker-work ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  pos- 
sess a  degree  of  whiteness  and  hardness  which  render  them 
very  well  adapted  for  carving.  The  plane  has  considerable 
flexibility,  but  it  is  moist  and  slimy  like  the  alder.  _  The  elm, 
too,  the  ash,  the  mulberry,  and  the  cherry,  are  flexible,  but  of 
a  drier  nature ;  the  wood,  however,  is  more  weighty.  The 
elm  is  the  best  of  all  for  retaining  its  natural  toughness,  and 
hence  it  is  more  particularly  employed  for  socket  beams  for 
hinges,  and  cases  for  the  pannelling  of  doors,  being  proof 
against  warping.  It  is  requisite,  however,  that  the  beam  to 
receive  the  hinge  should  be  inverted  when  set  up,  the  top  of 
the  tree  answering  to  the  lower  hinge,  the  root  to  the  upper. 
The  wood  of  the  palm  and  the  cork-tree  is  soft,  while  that  of 
the  apple  and  the  pear  is  compact.  Such,  however,  is  not  the 
case  with  the  maple,  its  wood  being  brittle,  as,  in  fact,  all 
veined  woods  are.  In  every  kind  of  tree,  the  varieties  in  the 
wood  are  still  more  augmented  by  the  wild  trees  and  the  males. 
The  wood,  too,  of  the  barren  tree  is  more  solid  than  that  of  the 
fruit-bearing  ones,  except  in  those  species  in  which  the  male 
trees31  bear  fruit,  the  cypress  and  the  cornel,  for  instance. 

CHAP.   78. TREES    WHICH    ARE    PROOF    AGAINST    DECAY:    TREES 

WHICH  NEVER  SPLIT. 

The  following  trees  are  proof  against  decay  and  the  other- 

29  See  B.  xxiv.  c.  49.     The  Viticella,  belonging  to  the  genus  clematis. 

30  This  unfounded  notion  is  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  B.  y.  c.  4. 

8'  In  the  modern  botanical  sense  of  the  word,  the  male  trees  do  not 
bear  at  all. 


Chap.  79.]  THE    DURABILITY   OF   WOOD.  423 

wise  injurious  effects  of  age-the  cypress,  the  cedai -the  ebon  y 
the  lotus,  the  box,  the  yew,  the  juniper,  and  both  the  wild  and 
cultivated  olive.  Among  the  others,  the  larch,  the  robur,  he 
cork-tree,  the  chesnut,  and  the  walnut  are  also  remarkably 
durable.  The  cedar,  cypress,  olive,  and  box  are  never  known 
to  split  or  crack  spontaneously. 

CHAP.   79.— HISTORICAL  FACTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE    DURABILITY 

OF  WOOD. 

Of  all  the  woods,  the  ebony,  the  cypress,  and  the  cedar  are 
considered  to  be  the  most  durable,  a  good  proof  of  which  is  to 
be  seen  in  the  timber  of  which  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus 
is  built :  it  being  now  four  hundred  years  since  it  was  erected, 
at  the  joint  expense  of  the  whole  of  Asia  f  and,  what  is  a  well- 
known  fact,  the  roof  is  wholly  constructed  of  planks  of  cedar. 
As  to  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  there  is  some  doubt  oi  what 
wood  it  is  made ;  all  the  writers  say  that  it  is  ebony,  with  the 
exception  of  Mucianus,  who  was  three  times  consul,  one  ot 
the  very  latest  among  the  writers  that  have  seen  it ;  he  de- 
clares that  it  is  made  of  the  wood  of  the  vine,  and  that  it  has 
never  been  changed  all  the  seven  times  that  the  temple  has 
been  rebuilt.     He  says,  too,  that  it  was  Endaaus  who  made 
choice  of  this  wood,  and  even  goes  so  far  as  to  mention  the 
artist's  name,  a  thing  that  really  surprises  me  very  much,  see- 
in-  that  he  attributes  to  it  an  antiquity  that  dates  before  the 
times  of  Father  Liber,  and  of  Minerva  even.     He  states,  also, 
that    by  the  aid  of  numerous  apertures,   it  is  soaked  with 
nard,  in  order  that  the  moist  nature  of  that  drug  may  preserve 
the  wood  and  keep  the  seams33  close  together:  Iain  rather 
surprised,  however,  that  there  should  be  any  seams  m  die 
statue,  considering  the  very  moderate  size  it  is.     He  informs 
us    also,   that  the  doors  are  made  of  cypress,  and  that  the 
wood  which  has  now  lasted  very  nearly  four  hundred  years, 
has  all  the  appearance  of  new.34     It  is  worthy  of  remark,  too 
that  the  wood  of  these  doors,  after  the  pieces  had  been  glued 
together,  was  left  to  season  four  years  before  they  were  put 

32  Asia  Minor,  namely.     See  B.  xxxv.  c.  21. 

S3  The  iunctures  where  the  pieces  of  wood  are  united  by  glue.  IMS  is 
to  be  observed  very  easily  in  the  greater  part  of  the  oaken  statuary  that  is 
so  plentiful  in  the  churches  of  Belgium. 

«  Cypress  is  perhaps  the  most  lasting  of  all  wooas. 


4-4  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY. 


[Book  XVI. 


up :  cypress  was  made  choice  of  from  the  circumstance  that  it 
is  the  only  kmd  of  wood  that  maintains  its  polish  to  all  future 
time. 

And  have  we  not  the  statue  of  Yejovis,35  also,  made  of  cypress, 
still  preserved  in  the  Capitol,  where  it  was  consecrated  m  the 
year  of  the  City  661  ?  The  Temple  of  Apollo,  too,  at  TJtica, 
is  equally  celebrated  :  there  we  may  see  beams  of  cedar  still 
m  existence,  and  in  just  the  same  condition  in  which  they 
were  when  erected  at  the  first  building  of  that  city,  eleven 
hundred  and  seventy-eight  years  ago.  At  Saguntum,  too,  in 
fcpam,  there  is  a  temple  of  Diana,  which  was  brought  thither 
by  the  original  founders  of  the  place,  from  the  island  of  Za- 
cynthus,  in  the  year  200  before  the  taking  of  Troy,  .Bocchus 
says— It  is  preserved  beneath  the  town,  they  say.  Hannibal 
being  induced  thereto  by  feelings  of  religious  veneration' 
spared  this  temple,  and  its  beams,  made  of  juniper,  are  still 
in  existence  at  this  very  day.  But  the  most  memorable  in- 
stance of  all  is  that  of  the  temple  which  was  dedicated  to  the 
same  goddess  at  Aulis,  several  ages  before  the  Trojan  War  :  of 
what  wood,  however,  it  was  originally  built  is  a  fact  that  has 
been  long  lost  in  oblivion.  Speaking  in  general  terms,  we 
may  say  that  those  woods  are  of  the  greatest  durability  which 
are  the  most  odoriferous.36 

Next  to  those  woods  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  that  of 
the  mulberry  is  held  in  the  highest  degree  of  esteem,  and  it 
will  even  turn  black  when  old.  There  are  some  trees,  again, 
that  are  more  durable  than  others,  when  employed  for  certain 
purposes.  The  wood  of  the  elm  lasts  the  best  in  the  open  air, 
that  of  the  robur  when  buried  in  the  ground,  and  that  of  the 
quercus  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  water  :  indeed,  the 
wood  of  this  last,  if  employed  in  works  above  ground,  is  apt 
to  split  and  warp.  The  wood  of  the  larch  thrives  best  in  the 
midst  of  moisture ;  the  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  that  of  the 
black  alder.  The  wood  of  the  robur  spoils  by  exposure  to  the 
action  ol  sea- water.  The  beech  and  the  walnut  are  far  from 
disapproved  of  for  constructions  under  water,  and,  in  fact 
these   are  the  principal  woods,  too,  that  are  used  for  works 


mans 


35  One  of  the  earliest  appellations,  probably,  of  Jupiter  anions  the  Ro- 
ms.     See  Ovid's  Fasti,  B.  iii.  1.  445,  ct  seq. 

36  This  is  correct.     Their  resin  defends  them  from  the  action  of  the  air 
from  aainp,  and  the  attacks  of  noxious  insects. 


Chap.  80.]  VARIETIES    OF    THE    TEREDO.  425 

under  ground  :  the  same  is  the  case,  also,  with  the  juniper ; 
which  is  equally  serviceable  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
The  woods  of  the  beech  and  the  cerrus37  very  quickly  dete- 
riorate, and  that  of  the  sesculus  will  not  withstand  the  action 
of  water.  On  the  other  hand,  the  alder,  when  driven  into  the 
ground  in  marshy  localities,  is  of  everlasting  duration,  and 
able  to  support  the  very  heaviest  weights.  The  wood  of  the 
cherry  is  strong,  while- those  of  the  elm  and  the  ash  are  pli- 
able, though  apt  to  warp :  these  last  will  still  retain  their 
flexibility,  and  be  less  liable  to  warp,  if  the  wood  is  left  to 
stand  and  dry  upon  the  trunk  after  the  pith  lias  been  cut 
around.38  It  is  said  that  the  larch,  when  used  for  sea-going 
ships,  is  liable  to  the  attacks39  of  the  teredo,  as,  in  fact,  all  the 
woods  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  wild  and  cultivated  olive. 
It  is  a  fact,  too,  that  there  are  some  woods  that  are  more  liable 
to  spoil  in  the  sea,  and  others  in  the  ground. 

CHAP.   80.   (41.) VARIETIES  OF  THE  TEREDO. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  insects  that  attack  wood.  The 
teredo  has  a  head  remarkably  large  in  proportion  to  the  other 
part  of  the  body,  and  gnaws  away  the  wood  with  its  teetli  : 
its  attacks,  however,  are  confined  solely  to  the  sea,  and  it  is 
generally  thought  that  this  is  the  only  insect  that  is  properly 
so  called.  The  wood- worm  that  prevails  on  the  land  is  known 
as  the  "  tinea,"  while  those  which  resemble  a  gnat  in  appear- 
ance are  called  "thripes."  The  fourth  kind  of  wood-worm 
belongs  to  the  maggot  class  ;  some  of  them  being  engendered 
by  the  corruption  of  the  juices  of  the  wood  itself,  and  others 
being  produced,  just  as  in  the  trees,  by  the  worm  known  as 
the  cerastes.40  "When  this  worm  has  eaten  away  enough  of 
the  wood  to  enable  it  to  turn  round,  it  gives  birth  to  another. 
The  generation  of  these  insects  is  prevented,  however,  by  the 
bitterness  that  exists  in  some  woods,  the  cypress,  and  the 
hardness  of  others,  the  box,  for  instance. 

It  is  said,  too,  that  the  fir,  if  barked  about  the  time  of  bud- 
ding, and  at  the  period  of  the  moon  already  mentioned,41  will 
never  spoil  in  water.  The  followers  of  Alexander  the  Great 
have  left  a  statement  that,  at  Tylos,  an  island  in  the  Red  Sea, 

37  A  variety  of  the  oak.     See  c.  6  of  this  Book. 

38  As  mentioned  at  the  end  of  c.  74.  39  See  B.  xi.  c.  2. 
40  See  B.  xvii.  c.  37.  41  In  c.  74. 


426  pliny's  natueal  history.  [Book  XVI. 

there  are  trees,  of  which  ships  are  built,  the  wood  of  which 
has  been  found  uninjured  at  the  end  of  two  hundred  years,43 
even  if  it  has  been  under  water  all  that  time.  They  say,  also, 
that  in  the  same  island  there  is  a  certain  shrub,43  about  the 
thickness  of  a  walking-stick  only,  and  spotted  like  a  tiger's 
skin  :  it  is  very  heavy,  and  will  break  like  glass  if  it  happens 
to  fail  upon  a  hard  substance. 

CHAP.   81.  (42.) — THE  WOODS  USED  IN  BUILDING. 

"We  have  in  Italy  some  woods  that  are  apt  to  split  of 
themselves :  to  prevent  this,  architects  recommend  that  they 
should  be  first  seasoned  in  manure44  and  then  dried,  in  order 
to  render  them  proof  against  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  woods  of  the  fir  and  larch  are  well  adapted,  even  when 
used  transversely,  for  the  support  of  heavy  burdens  ;  while  the 
robur  and  the  olive  are  apt  to  bend  and  give  way  under  a 
weight.  The  wood  of  the  poplar  and  the  palm  are  also  strong, 
but  this  last  will  bend,  though  in  a  manner  different  from 
the  others ;  for,  while  in  all  other  instances  the  wood  bends 
downwards,  in  the  palm  it  bends  in  the  contrary  direction,43 
and  forms  an  arch.  The  woods  of  the  pine  and  the  cypress 
are  proof  against  decay  and  all  attacks  of  wood- worm.  The 
walnut  is  easily  warped,  but  we  sometimes  see  beams  even 
made  of  it.  It  gives  warning,  however,  before  it  breaks,  by  a 
loud  cracking  noise  ;  such  was  the  case  at  Antandros,  at  the 
public  baths  there — the  bathers  took  the  alarm  upon  hearing 
the  beams  crack,  and  made  their  escape.  The  pine,  the  pitch- 
tree,  and  the  alder  are  employed  for  making  hollow  pipes  for 
the  conveyance  of  water,  and  when  buried  in  the  earth  will 
last  for  many  years.  If,  however,  they  are  not  well  covered 
over,  they  will  very  soon  rot ;  and  the  resistance  they  offer  to 
decay  will  increase  in  a  most  surprising  degree  if  the  outer 
surface  as  well  is  left  in  contact  with  the  water. 

42  There  is  nothing  very  surprising  in  this,  as  most  woods  are  preserved 
better  when  completely  immersed  in  water,  than  when  exposed  to  the  va- 
riations of  the  atmosphere. 

«  He  borrows  this  fable  from  Theophrastus,  B.  v.  c.  5. 

*4  This  process,  Fee  says,  would  be  attended  with  no  success. 

<5  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  he  intends  this  observation  to  apply  to  the 
poplar  and  the  palm,  or  to  the  last  only.  It  is  true,  however,  in  neither 
case,  and  is  contrary,  as  Fee  observes,  to  all  physical  laws. 


Chap.  83]                   WOODS    UNITED   WITH    GLUE.  427 

CHAP.  82. CARPENTERS'    WOODS. 

The  wood  of  the  fir  is  strongest  in  a  vertical46  position  :  it 
is  remarkably  well  adapted  for  the  pannels  of  doors,  and  all 
kinds  of  in-door  joiners'  work,  whether  in  the  Grecian,  the 
Campanian,  or  the  Sicilian  style.  The  shavings  of  this  wood 
when  briskly  planed,  always  curl  up  in  circles  like  the  tendrils 
of  the  vine.  This  wood,  too,  unites  particularly  well  with 
glue  :  it  is  used  in  this  state  for  making  vehicles,  and  is  found 
to  split  sooner  in  the  solid  parts  than  in  a  place  where  the 
pieces  have  been  glued  together. 

CHAP.    83.    (43.) WOODS   UNITED   WITH    GLUE. 

Glue,  too,  plays  one  of  the  principal  parts  in  all  veneering 
and  works  of  marqueterie.  For  this  purpose,  the  workmen 
usually  employ  wood  with  a  threaded  vein,  to  which  they  give 
the  name  of  "  ferulea,"  from  its  resemblance  to  the  grain  of 
the  giant  fennel,47  this  part  of  the  wood  being  preferred  from 
its  being  dotted  and  wavy.  In  every  variety  there  are  some 
woods  to  be  found  that  will  not  take  the  glue,  and  which  re- 
fuse to  unite  either  with  wood  of  the  same  kind  or  of  any 
other;  the  wood  of  the  robur  for  example.  Indeed,  it  is 
mostly  the  case  that  substances  will  not  unite  unless  they  are 
of  a  similar  nature ;  a  stone,  for  instance,  cannot  be  made  to 
adhere  to  wood.  The  wood  of  the  service-tree,  the  yoke-elm, 
the  box,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  the  lime,  have  a  particular 
aversion  to  uniting  with  the  cornel.  All  the  yielding  woods 
which  we  have  already  spoken48  of  as  flexible  readily  adapt 
themselves  to  every  kind  of  work ;  and  in  addition  to  them, 
the  mulberry  and  the  wild  fig.  Those  which  are  moderately 
moist  are  easily  sawn  and  cut,  but  dry  woods  are  apt  to  give 
way  beyond  the  part  that  is  touched  by  the  saw ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  green  woods,  with  the  exception  of  the 
robur  and  the  box,  offer  a  more  obstinate  resistance,  filling  the 
intervals  between  the  teeth  of  the  saw  with  sawdust,  and 
rendering  its  edge  uniform  and  inert ;  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  the  teeth  are  often  made  to  project  right  and  left  in  turns, 

46  The  resistance  that  Woods  offer  when  placed  vertically  is  in  the  same 
ratio  as  that  presented  by  them  when  employed  horizontally.  This  para- 
graph is  borrowed  from  Theophrastus,  B.  hi.  c.  4,  and  B.  v.  cc.  6,  7,  8. 

«  Ferula.  48  In  c.  77. 


428  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

a  method  by  which  the  saw-dust  is  discharged.  The  ash  is 
found  the  most  pliable  wood  of  all  for  working ;  and,  indeed, 
for  making49  spears  it  is  better  even  than  the  hazel,  being- 
lighter  than  the  cornel,  and  more  pliable  than  the  wood  of 
the  service-tree.  The  Gallic  variety  is  so  supple,  that  it  is 
employed  in  the  construction  of  vehicles  even.  The  elm 
would  rival  the  trunk  of  the  vine50  for  some  purposes,  were 
it  not  that  its  weight  is  so  much  against  it. 

CHAP.    84. VENEERING. 

The  wood,  too,  of  the  beech  is  easily  worked,  although  it  is 
brittle  and  soft.  Cut  into  thin  layers  of  veneer,  it  is  very 
flexible,  but  is  only  used  for  the  construction  of  boxes  and 
desks.  The  wood,  too,  of  the  holm-oak  is  cut  into  veneers 
of  remarkable  thinness,  the  colour  of  which  is  far  from  un- 
sightly ;  but  it  is  more  particularly  where  it  is  exposed  to 
friction  that  this  wood  is  valued,  as  being  one  to  be  depended 
upon ;  in  the  axle-trees  of  wheels,  for  instance ;  for  which  the 
ash  is  also  employed,  on  account  of  its  pliancy,  the  holm-oak 
for  its  hardness,  and  the  elm,  for  the  union  in  it  of  both 
those  qualities.  There  are  also  various  workman's  tools  made 
of  wood,  which,  though  but  small,  are  still  remarkably  useful ; 
in  this  respect,  it  is  said  that  the  best  materials  for  making 
auger  handles  are  the  wild  olive,  the  box,  the  holm-oak,  the 
elm,  and  the  ash.  Of  the  same  woods  also  mallets  are  made  ; 
the  larger  ones,  however,  are  made  of  the  pine  and  the  holm- 
oak.  These  woods,  too,  have  a  greater  degree  of  strength  and 
hardness  if  cut  in  season  than  when  hewn  prematurely  ;  indeed, 
it  has  been  known  for  hinge-jambs,  made  of  olive,  a  wood  of 
remarkable  hardness,  after  having  remained  a  considerable 
time  on  the  spot,  to  put  out  buds51  like  a  growing  plant.  Cato52 
recommends  levers  to  be  made  of  holly,  laurel,  or  elm ;  and 
Hyginus  speaks  highly  of  the  yoke-elm,  the  holm-oak,  and 
the  cerrus,  for  the  handles  of  agricultural  implements. 

The  best  woods  for  cutting  into  layers,  and  employing  as  a 

«  See  c.  24. 

50  Fee  thinks,  from  the  context,  that  the  meaning  is,  that  the  vine  wns 
employed  in  the  construction  of  chariots ;  it  depends  entirely  on  the  punc- 
tuation adopted. 

51  This  could  only  have  happened  in  the  first  year  that  they  were  so 
employed.  52  De  Re  Rust.  c.  31. 


Chap.  So.]  THE    AGE    OP   TREES.  429 

veneer  for  covering  others,  are  the  citrus,  the  terebinth,  the 
different  varieties  of  the  maple,  the  box,  the  palm,55  the  holly, 
the  holm-oak,  the  root  of  the  elder,  and  the  poplar.  The  alder 
furnishes  also,  as  already  stated,54  a  kind  of  tuberosity,  which 
is  cut  into  layers  like  those  of  the  citrus  and  the  maple.  In 
all  the  other  trees  the  tuberosities  are  of  no  value  whatever. 
It  is  the  central  part  of  trees  that  is  most  variegated,  and'  the 
nearer  we  approach  to  the  root  the  smaller  are  the  spots  and 
the  more  wavy.  It  was  in  this  appearance  that  originated 
that  requirement  of  luxury  which  displays  itself  in  covering 
one  tree  with  another,  and  bestowing  upon  the  more  common 
woods  a  bark  of  higher  price.  In  order  to  make  a  single 
tree  sell  many  times  over,  laminae  of  veneer  have  been  de- 
vised ;  but  that  was  not  thought  sufficient — the  horns  of  ani- 
mals^must  next  be  stained  of  different  colours,  and  their  teeth 
cut  into  sections,  in  order  to  decorate  wood  with  ivoiy,  and, 
at  a  later  period,  to  veneer  it  all  over.  Then,  after  all  this,  man 
must  go  and  seek  his  materials  in  the  sea  as  well !  Tor  this 
purpose  lie  has  learned  to  cut  tortoise-shell  into  sections ;  and 
of  late,  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  there  was  a  monstrous  invention 
devised  of  destroying  its  natural  appearance  by  paint,  and 
making  it  sell  at  a  still  higher  price  by  a  successful  imitation 
of  wood. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  the  value  of  our  couches  is  so  greatly 
enhanced ;  it  is  in  this  way,  too,  that  they  bid  the  rich  lustre  of 
the  terebinth  to  be  outdone,  a  mock  citrus  to  be  made  that 
shall  be  more  valuable  than  the  real  one,  and  the  grain  of  the 
maple  to  be  feigned.  At  one  time  luxury  was  not  content 
with  wood  ;  at  the  present  day  it  sets  us  on  buying  tortoise- 
shell  in  the  guise  of  wood. 

CHAP.  85.  (44.) — THE  AGE  OF  TREES.  A  ^TREE  THAT  WAS 
PLANTED  BY  THE  EIEST  SCIPIO  AFRICANTJS.  A  TREE  AT 
ROME    EIVE    HUNDRED    TEARS    OLD. 

The  life  of  some  trees  might  really  be  looked  upon  as  of 
infinite50  duration,   if  we  only  think  of  the  dense  wilds  and 

53  It  is  singular  Eee  says,  to  find  the  wood  of  the  palm,  and  that  of  the 
poplar,  which  are  destitute  of  veins,  enumerated  amon<?  those  employed  for 
veneering.  54  jn  c.  27 

55  According  to  Adanson,  the  baobab  will  live"  for  more  than  six  thou- 
sand years. 


430  flint's  natural  HISTORY.  [Book  XVI. 

inaccessible  forests  in  some  parts  of  the  world.  In  relation, 
however,  to  those,  the  date  of  which  is  still  within  the  me- 
mory  of  man,  there  are  some  olive-trees  still  in  existence  at 
Liternum,  which  were  planted  by  the  hand  of  the  first 
Scipio  Africanus,  as  also  a  myrtle  there  of  extraordinary  size  ; 
beneath  them  there  is  a  grotto,  in  which,  it  is  said,  a  dragon 
keeps  watch  over  that  hero's  shade.  There  is  a  lotus56  tree 
in  the  open  space  before  the  Temple  of  Lucina  at  Eome,  which 
was  built  in  the  year  of  the  City  379,  a  year  in  which  the 
republic  had  no57  magistrates.  How  much  older  the  tree  is 
than  the  temple,  is  a  matter  of  doubt ;  but  that  it  is  older  is 
quite  certain,  for  it  was  from  that  same  grove  that  the  goddess 
Lucina58  derived  her  name  ;  the  tree  in  question  is  now  about 
four  hundred  and  fifty  years  old.  The  lotus  tree,  which  is 
known  as  the  Capillata,  is  still  older  than  this,  though  it  is 
uncertain  what  is  its  age;  it  received  that  name  from  the 
circumstance  of  the  Vestal  Virgins  suspending  locks  of  their 
hair59  from  it. 

CHAP.   86. TREES  AS  OLD  AS  THE  CITY. 

There  is  another  lotus  in  the  Yulcanal,60  which  Romulus 
erected  with  the  tenth  part  of  the  spoil  taken  from  the  enemy  : 
according  to  Massurius,  it  is  generally  considered  to  be  as  old 
as  the  City.  The  roots  of  this  tree  penetrate  as  far  as  the 
Forum  of  Caesar,  right  across  the  meeting-places  of  the  muni- 
cipalities.61 There  was  a  cypress  of  equal  age  growing  with  it 
till  towards  the  latter  part  of  Nero's  reign,  when  it  fell  to  the 
ground,  and  no  attempts  were  made  to  raise  it  again. 

CHAP.   87. TREES  IN    THE    SUBURBAN   DISTRICTS  OLDER  THAN  THE 

CITY. 

Still  older  than  the  City  is  the  holm-oak  that  stands  on  the 
Vaticanian  Hill :  there  is  an  inscription  in  bronze  upon  it, 
written  in  Etruscan  characters,  which  states  that  even  in  those 

56  The  Celtis  australis  of  Linnaeus. 

57  In  consequence  of  the  disputes  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians. 

58  Thus  deriving  Lucina  from  "  lucus,"  a  grove. 

59  Capillos.  60  An  area  before  the  temple  of  V  ulcan. 

6i  «  Stationes  municipiorum."  A  sort  of  exchange,  near  the  Forum, 
where  the  citizens  met  to  discuss  the  topics  of  the  day. 


Chap.  89.]         TEEES  PLANTED  BY  HERCULES.        43  J 

days  it  was  an  object  of  religious  veneration.  The  foundation 
of  the  town  of  Tibur,  too,  dates  many  years  before  that  of  the 
City  of  Rome  :  there  are  three  holm-oaks  there,  said  to  be 
more  ancient  than  Tiburnus  even,  who  was  the  founder  of 
that  place ;  the  tradition  is  that  in  their  vicinity  he  was  inau- 
gurated. Tradition  states  also  that  he  was  a  son  of  Amphi- 
araus,  who  died  before  Thebes,  one  generation  before  the  period 
of  the  Trojan  war. 

CHAP.  88. TEEES  PLANTED  BY  AGAMEMNON  THE  ETEST  YEAE  OF  THE 

TEOJAN  WAE  :    OTHER  TEEES  WHICH  DATE  FROM  THE  TIME  THAT 
THE  PLACE  WAS  CALLED  ILIUM,  ANTERIOR  TO  THE  TEOJAN  WAR. 

There  are  some  authors,  too,  who  state  that  a  plane-tree  at 
Delphi  was  planted  by  the  hand  of  Agamemnon,  as  also  another 
at  Caphyae,  a  sacred  grove  in  Arcadia.  At  the  present  day, 
lacing  the  city  of  Ilium,  and  close  to  the  Hellespont,  there  are 
trees  growing  over  the  tomb63  of  Protesilaiis  there,  which,  in 
all  ages  since  that  period,  as  soon  as  they  have  grown  of  suffi- 
cient height  to  behold  Ilium,  have  withered  away,  and  then 
begun  to  nourish  again.  Near  the  citj^,  at  the  tomb  of  Ilus, 
there  are  some  oaks63  which  are  said  to  have  been  planted 
there  when  the  place  was  first  known  by  the  name  of  Ilium. 

CHAP.    89. TREES    PLANTED    AT     ARGOS    BY    HERCULES  I      OTHERS 

PLANTED    BY     APOLLO.       A    TREE    MORE  ANCIENT    THAN    ATHENS 
ITSELF. 

At  Argos64  an  olive-tree  is  said  to  be  still  in  existence,  to 
which  Argus  fastened  Io,  after  she  had  been  changed  into  a 
cow.  In  the  vicinity  of  Heraclea  in  Pontus,  there  are  certain 
altars  called  after  Jupiter  surnamed  Stratios  ;  two  oaks  there 
were  planted  by  Hercules.  In  the  same  country,  too,  is  the 
port  of  Amycus,65  rendered  famous  by  the  circumstance  that 
King  Bebryx  was  slain  there.  Since  the  day  of  his  death  his 
tomb  has  been  covered  by  a  laurel,  which  has  obtained  the 
name  of  the  "  frantic  laurel,"  from  the  fact  that  if  a  portion 
of  it  is  plucked  and  taken  on  board  ship,  discord  and  quarrel- 

62  See  B.  iv.  c,  18.     Of  course,  this  story  must  be  regarded  as  fabulous. 

63  Quercus. 

64  These  are  fables  founded  upon  the  known  longevity  of  trees,  which, 
as  Fee  remarks,  Pliny  relates  with  a  truly  "infantine  simplicity." 

e^  See  B.  v.  c.  43. 


432  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI, 

ling  are  the  inevitable  result,  until  it  has  been  tnrown  over- 
board. "We  have  already  made  mention06  of  Aulocrene,  a  dis- 
trict through  which  you  pass  in  going  from  Apainia  into 
Phrygia  :  at  this  place  they  show  a  plane  upon  which  Marsy  as 
was  hanged,  after  he  had  been  conquered  by  Apollo,  it  having 
been  chosen  even  in  those  days  for  its  remarkable  height. 
At  Delos,  also,  there  is  a  palm67"  to  be  seen  which  dates  from 
the  birth  of  that  divinity,  and  at  Olympia  there  is  a  wild 
olive,  from  which  Hercules  received  his  first  wreath :  at  the 
present  day  it  is  preserved  with  the  most  scrupulous  venera- 
tion. At  Athens,  too,  the  olive  produced  by  Minerva,  is  said 
still  to  exist. 

CHAP.  90. TEEES    WHICH    ARE    THE    MOST    SHORT-LIVED. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  pomegranate,68  the  fig,  and  the  apple 
are  remarkably  short-lived  ;  the  precocious  trees  being  still 
more  so  than  the  later  ripeners,  and  those  with  sweet  fruit  than 
those  with  sour :  among  the  pomegranates,  too,  that  variety 
which  bears  the  sweetest  fruit  lives  the  shortest  time.  The 
same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the  vine,69  and  more  particularly 
the  more  fruitful  varieties.  Grseeinus  informs  us  that  vines 
have  lasted  so  long  as  sixty  years.  It  appears,  also,  that  the 
aquatic  trees  die  the  soonest.  The  laurel,70  the  apple,  and 
the  pomegranate  age  rapidly,  it  is  true,  but  then  they  throw 
out  fresh  shoots  at  the  root.  The  olive  must  be  looked  upon, 
then,  as  being  one  of  the  most  long-lived,  for  it  is  generally 
agreed  among  authors  that  it  will  last  two  hundred  years. 

CHAP.   91. TREES    THAT   HAVE    BEEX    RENDERED    FAMOUS  BY 

REMARKABLE    EVENTS. 

In  the  territory  about  the  suburbs  of  Tusculum,  upon  a  hill 
known  by  the  name  of  Corne,  there  is  a  grove  which  has  been 
consecrated  to  Diana  by  the  people  of  Latium  from  time  im- 
memorial ;  it  is  formed  of  beeches,  the  foliage  of  which  has  all 

<»  See  B.  v.  c.  29. 

67  The  palm  is  by  no  means  a  long-lived  tree. 

68  The  pomegranate,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  known  to  live  many  cen- 
turies. 

69  He  has  elsewhere  said  that  the  vine  is  extremely  long-lived. 

70  In  the  last  Chapter  he  has  spoken  of  a  laurel  having  existed  for  many 
centuries. 


Chap.  92.]  PLANTS   THAT    GROW   UPON   TREES.  433 

the  appearance  of  being  trimmed  by  art.  Passienus  Crispus, 
the  orator,  who  in  our  time  was  twice  consul,  and  afterwards 
became  still  more  famous  as  having  Nero  for  his  step-son,  on 
marrying  his  mother  Agrippina,  was  passionately  attached  to 
a  fine  tree  that  grew  in  this  grove,  and  would  often  kiss  and 
embrace  it :  not  only  would  he  lie  down,  too,  beneath  it,  but 
he  would  also  moisten  its  roots  with  wine.71  In  the  vicinity 
of  this  grove  there  is  a  holm-oak,  likewise  of  very  considerable 
celebrity,  the  trunk  of  which  is  no  less72  than  thirty-four  feet 
in  circumference ;  giving  birth  to  ten  other  trees  of  remarkable 
size,  it  forms  of  itself  a  whole  forest. 

CHAP.   92. PLANTS    THAT     HAVE    NO     PECULIAR    SPOT     FOR   THEIR 

GROWTH  :  OTHERS  THAT  GROW  UPON  TREES,  AND  WILL  NOT 
GROW  IN  THE  GROUND.  NINE  VARIETIES  OE  THEM  :  CADYTAS, 
POLTPODION,    PHAULIAS,    HIPPOPHiESTON. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  trees  are  killed  by  ivy.73  The 
mistletoe  also  has  a  similar  influence,  although  it  is  generally 
thought  that  its  injurious  effects  are  not  so  soon  perceptible  : 
and,  indeed,  this  plant,  apart  from  the  fruit  that  it  bears,  is 
looked  upon  as  by  no  means  the  least  remarkable.  There  are 
certain  vegetable  productions  which  cannot  be  propagated  in 
the  ground,  and  which  grow  nowhere  but  on  trees  ;  having  no 
domicile  of  their  own,  they  live  upon  others ;  such,  for  instance, 
is  the  case  with  the  mistletoe,  and  a  herb  that  grows  in  Syria, 
and  is  known  as  the  "  cadytas."74  This  last  entwines  around 
not  only  trees,  but  brambles  even ;  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tempe,  too,  in  Thessaly,  there  is  found  a  plant  which  is  called 
"  polypodion  ;75  the  dolichos76  is  found  also,  and  wild  thyme.77 
After  the  wild  olive  has  been  pruned  there  springs  up  a  plant 
that  is  known  as  "  phaulias  ;78  while  one  thai  grows  upon  the 

71  To  its  great  detriment,  probably. 

73  Fee  says  that  no  holm-oak  is  ever  known  to  attain  this  size. 

73  See  c.  62. 

74  Sprengel  says  that  this  is  the  parasitic  plant,  which  he  calls  Cassyta 
filiformis.  Fee  says  that  this  opinion,  though  perhaps  not  to  be  absolutely 
rejected,  must  be  accepted  with  reserve. 

75  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  identified. 

76  See  B.  xviii.  c.  35.  77  Serpyllum.     See  B.  xx.  c.  90. 

78  A  mistletoe,  apparently,  growing  upon  the  wild  olive.  Fee  says  that 
no  such  viscus  appears  to  be  known. 

VOL.    III.  F    F 


434  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVI. 

fuller's  thistle  is  called  the  "hippophseston;"79  it  has  a  thin, 
hollow  stem,  a  small  leaf,  and  a  white  root,  the  juice  of  which 
is  considered  extremely  beneficial  as  a  purgative  in  epilepsy. 

CHAP.  93. THREE    VARIETIES    OF    MISTLETOE.       THE    NATURE    OF 

MISTLETOE    AND    SIMILAR    PLANTS. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  the  mistletoe.80  That  which 
grows  upon  the  fir  and  the  larch  has  the  name  of81  stelis  in 
Euboea;  and  there  is  the  hyphear82  of  Arcadia.  It  grows 
also  upon  the  quercus,83  the  robur,  the  holm-oak,  the  wild 
plum,  and  the  terebinth,  but  upon  no  other  tree.84  It  is  most 
plentiful  of  all  upon  t\\e  quercus,  and  is  then  known  as 
"  adasphear."  In  all  the  trees,  with  the  exception  of  the  holm- 
oak  and  the  quercus,  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  its 
smell  and  pungency,  and  the  leaf  of  one  kind  has  a  disagree- 
able odour;  both  varieties,  however,  are  sticky  and  bitter. 
The  hyphear  is  the  best  for  fattening85  cattle  with  ;  it  begins, 
however,  by  purging  off  all  defects,  after  which  it  fattens  all 
such  animals  as  have  been  able  to  withstand  the  purging.  It 
is  generally  said,  however,  that  those  animals  which  have  any 
radical  malady  in  the  intestines  cannot  withstand  its  drastic 
effects.  This  method  of  treatment  is  generally  adopted  in  the 
summer  for  a  period  of  forty  days. 

Besides  the  above,  there  is  yet  another  difference86  in  the 
mistletoe ;  that  which  grows  upon  the  trees  which  lose  their 
leaves,  loses  its  leaves  as  well ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
which  grows  upon  evergreens  always  retains  its  leaves.  In 
whatever  way  the  seed  may  have  been  sown,  it  will  never 
come  to  anything,   unless  it  has  been  first  swallowed87  and 

79  See  B.  xxvii.  c.  68.  The  Calcitrapa  stellata  of  Lamarck.  Fee  re- 
marks tbat  Pliny  has  committed  a  great  error,  in  making  it  a  parasite  of 
the  Spina  fullonia.  Dioscorides  only  says  that  the  two  plants  grow  in  the 
same  spots. 

80  The  Viscum  Europseum  of  modern  naturalists. 

81  The  Viscum  album  of  Linnaeus ;  hut  Sprengel  takes  it  to  be  the 
Loranthus  Europaeus. 

82  Fee  questions  whether  this  may  not  be  the  Loranthus  Europaeus. 

83  The  Viscum  album  of  Linnams ;  the  oak  mistletoe  or  real  mistletoe. 
ki  This  is  not  the  fact :  it  grows  upon  a  vast  multitude  of  other  trees. 

85  It  is  no  longer  used  for  this  purpose. 

86  The  mistletoe  never  in  any  case  loses  its  leaves,  upon  whatever  tree 
it  may  grow. 

*>?  This  is,  of  course,  untrue ;  but  the  seeds,  after  being  voided  by  birds, 


Chap.  95.]  THE   MISTLETOE.  435 

then  voided  by  birds,  the  wood-pigeon  more  particularly,  and 
the  thrush :  such  being  the  nature  of  the  plant,  that  it  will 
not  come  to  anything  unless  the  seed  is  first  ripened  in  the 
crop  of  the  bird.  It  never  exceeds  a  single  cubit  in  height, 
and  is  always  green  and  branchy.  The  male88  plant  is  fruit- 
ful, the  female  barren ;  sometimes,  indeed,  the  male  even 
bears  no  berry. 

CHAP.    94. THE    METHOD    OF   MAKING   BIRDLIME. 

Birdlime  is  made  of  the  berries  of  the  mistletoe,  which  are 
gathered  at  harvest,  and  while  in  an  unripe  state ;  for  if  the 
rainy  season  comes  on,  though  they  increase  in  size,  the  viscous 
juice  is  apt  to  lose  its  virtues.  They  are  then  dried,89  and 
when  brought  to  a  state  of  perfect  aridity,  are  first  pounded, 
and  then  put  in  water,  in  which  they  are  left  to  rot  for  twelve 
days ;  this  being,  in  fact,  the  only  thing  that  finds  improve- 
ment in  decay.  After  this,  they  are  again  beaten  in  running 
water  with  a  mallet,  and  after  losing  the  outer  coat  there  is 
only  the  viscous  inner  pulp  remaining.  This  substance  is 
birdlime ;  and  after  it  has  been  thinned  by  the  addition  of 
walnut  oil,  it  is  found  particularly  useful  for  catching  birds, 
it  being  quite  sufficient  if  they  only  touch  it  with  the  wings. 

CHAP.    95. — HISTORICAL  PACTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE    MISTLETOE. 

Upon  this  occasion  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  ad- 
miration that  is  lavished  upon  this  plant  by  the  Gauls.  The 
Druids — for  that  is  the  name  they  give  to  their  magicians90 — 
held  nothing  more  sacred  than  the  mistletoe  and  the  tree 
that  bears  it,  supposing  always  that  tree  to  be  the  robur.91 
Of  itself  the  robur  is  selected  by  them  to  form  whole  groves, 
and  they  perform  none  of  their  religious  rites  without  em- 
ploying branches  of  it ;  so  much  so,  that  it  is  very  probable 
that  the  priests  themselves   may  have  received  their  name 

are  more  likely  to  adhere  to  the  bark  of  trees,  and  so  find  a  nidus  for  ger- 
mination. 

b8  The  exact  opposite  is  the  case,  the  female  being  the  fruitful  plant. 

89  The  method  used  in 'Italy  for  making  bird-lime  is  very  similar  at  the 
present  day.  so  Magos. 

91  Decandolle  was  of  opinion,  that  the  mistletoe  of  the  Druids  was  not 
a  viscum,  but  the  Loranthus  Europseus,  which  is  much  more  commonly 
found  on  oaks. 

F  F   2 


436  PLINY* S    NATTJBAL    HISTORY.  [Book  X"VL 

from  the  Greek  name92  for  that  tree.  In  fact,  it  is  the  notion 
with  them  that  everything  that  grows  on  it  has  been  sent 
immediately  from  heaven,  and  that  the  mistletoe  upon  it  is  a 
proof  that  the  tree  has  been  selected  by  God  himself  as  an 
object  of  his  especial  favour. 

The  mistletoe,  however,  is  but  rarely  found  upon  the  robur; 
and  when  found,  is  gathered  with  rites  replete  with  religious 
awe.  This  is  done  more  particularly  on  the  fifth  day  of  the 
moon,  the  day  which  is  the  beginning  of  their  months  and 
years,  as  also  of  their  ages,  which,  with  them,  are  but  thirty 
years.  This  day  they  select  because  the  moon,  though  not 
yet  in  the  middle  of  her  course,  has  already  considerable 
power  and  influence  ;  and  they  call  her  by  a  name  which  sig- 
nifies, in  their  language,  the  all-healing.93  Having  made  aU 
due  preparation  for  the  sacrifice  and  a  banquet  beneath  the 
trees,  they  bring  thither  two  white  bulls,  the  horns  of  which 
are  bound  then  for,  the  first  time.  Clad  in  a  white  robe  the 
priest  ascends  the  tree,  and  cuts  the  mistletoe  with^a  golden 
sickle,  which  is  received  by  others  in  a  white  cloak.84  They 
then  immolate  the  victims,  offering  up  their  prayers  that  God 
will  render  this  gift  of  his  propitious  to  those  to  whom  he  has 
so  granted  it.  It  is  the  belief  with  them  that  the  mistletoe, 
taken  in  drink,  will  impart  fecundity  to  all  animals  that  are 
barren,  and  that  it  is  an  antidote  for  all  poisons.95  Such  are 
the  religious  feelings  which  we  find  entertained  towards  trifling 
objects  among  nearly  all  nations. 

Summary. — Remarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
one  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty-five. 

Roman  authors  quoted.—  M.  Yarro,96  Fetialis,97  Nigidius,98 
Cornelius   Nepos,"  Hyginus,1  Massurius,2  Cato,3   Mucianus,4 

»  Apiic,  an  "  oak."     It  is  much  more  probable  that  it  was  of  Celtic 
Griffin.     "'  93  Omnia  sanantem. 

w  "  Sagurn."     Properly,  a  "  military  cloak.". 

95  It  was,  in  comparatively  recent  times,  supposed  to  be  efficacious  for 
.,         r  96   ggg  gj}(J  of  g.  ij. 

epi97G  Author  of  a  History  or  Annals  of  Eome.     Nothing  further  is  known 

othim.  ,    „  _   .. 

s*  See  end  of  B.  vi.  99  See  end  of  B.  u. 

i  See  end  of  B.  iii.  2  See  end  of  B  vn. 

3  See  end  of  B.  iii.  4  See  end  of  B.  u. 


SUMMARY.  437 

L.    Piso,5   Trogus,6    Calpurnius  Bassus,7    Cremutius,8  Sextius 
Niger,9  Cornelius  Bocchus,10  Yitruvius,11  Grseciuus.1- 

Foreign  authors  quoted. — Alexander  Polyhistor,13  Hesiod,14 
Theophrastus,15  Democritus,16  Homer,  Timseus17  the  mathema- 
tician. 

5  See  end  of  B.  ii.  s  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

7  He  is  wholly  unknown  :  but  is  conjectured  to  have  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Caligula  or  Tiberius. 

8  See  end  of  B.  vii.  9  See  end  of  B.  xii. 

10  He  is  unknown ;  but  Solinus  speaks  of  him  as  a  valuable  writer. 

11  M.  Yitruvius  Pollio,  an  eminent  architect,  employed  by  Augustus. 
His  valuable  work  on  architecture  is  still  extant. 

12  See  end  of  B.  xiv.  13  See  end  of  B.  iii. 
u  See  end  of  B.  vii.  15  See  end  of  B.  iii. 
16  See  end  of  B.  ii.  17  See  end  of  B.  ii. 


HdZ 


BOOK  XVII. 

THE  NATUKAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  CULTIVATED  TEEES. 

CHAP.   1.    (1.) TKEES  WHICH  HATE  BEEN  SOLD  AT  ENORMOUS 

PKICES. 

We  have  described  the  trees  which  grow  spontaneously  on 
land  and  in  the  sea,1  and  it  now  remains  for  us  to  speak  of 
those  which  owe  their  formation,  properly  speaking,  rather  than 
birth,  to  art  and  the  inventive  genius  of  man.2  Here,  how- 
ever, I  cannot  but  express  my  surprise,  that  after  the  state  of 
penury  in  which  man  lived,  as  already  described,3  in  primitive 
times,  holding  the  trees  of  the  forest  in  common  with  the  wild 
beasts,  and  disputing  with  them  the  possession  of  the  fruits 
that  fell,  and  with  the  fowls  of  the  air  that  of  the  fruits  as  they 
hung  on  the  tree,  luxury  has  now  attached  to  them  prices  so 
enormous. 

The  most  famous  instance,  in  my  opinion,  of  this  excess,  was 
that  displayed  by  L.  Crassus  and  Cneius  Domitius  Aheno- 
barbus.  Crassus  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Eoman 
orators ;  his  house  was  remarkable  for  its  magnificence,  though 
in  some  measure  surpassed  even  by  that  of  Q.  Catulus,4 
also  upon  the  Palatine  Hill ;  the  same  Catulus,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  C.  Marius,  defeated  the  Cimbri.  But  by  far 
the  finest  house  of  all  that  period,  it  was  universally  acknow- 
ledged, was  that  of  C.  Aquilius,  a  Eoman  of  Equestrian  rank, 
situate  upon  the  Yiminal  Hill ;  a  house,  indeed,  that  conferred 
a  greater  degree  of  celebrity  upon  him  than  even  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  civil  law.  This,  however,  did  not  prevent 
Crassus  being  reproached  with  the  magnificence  of  his.  Cras- 
sus and  Domitius,  members,  both  of  them,  of  the  most  illus- 

1  He  alludes  to  the  various  shrubs  and  trees,  mentioned  as  growing  in 
the  sea,  B.  xiii.  c.  48 ;  but  which  there  is  little  doubt,  in  reality  belong  to 

tVlP  diss  01  iUClt 

2  "Fiunt  verius  quam  nascuntur;"  a  distinction  perpetuated  in  the 
adage,  "  Poeta  nascitur,  non  fit." 

3  He  probably  alludes  to  his  remark  in  B.  xvi.  c.  1. 

*  Q  Luctatius  Catulus,  the  colleague  of  Marius.  Being  afterwards  con- 
demned to  die  by  Marius,  he  suffocated  himself  with  the  fumes  of  charcoal, 


Chap.  1.]  TEEES    SOLD   AT   ENOEMOUS   PRICES.  439 

trious  families,  after  holding  the  consulship,5  were  appointed 
jointly  to  the  censorship,  in  the  year  from  the  building  of  the 
City  662,  a  period  of  office  that  was  fruitful  in  strife,  the 
natural  result  of  their  dissimilarity  of  character.  On  one  oc- 
casion, Cneius  Domitius,  naturally  a  man  of  hasty  temper,  and 
inflamed  besides  by  a  hatred  that  rivalry  only  tends  to  stimu- 
late, gravely  rebuked  Crassus  for  living,  and  he  a  Censor  too, 
in  a  stjde  of  such  magnificence,  and  in  a  house  for  which,  as 
he  said,  he  himself  would  be  ready  to  pay  down  ten  millions 
of  sesterces.  Crassus,  a  man  who  united  to  singular  presence 
of  mind  great  readiness  of  wit,  made  answer  that,  deducting 
six  trees  only,  he  would  accept  the  offer ;  upon  which  Domi- 
tius replied,  that  upon  those  terms  he  would  not  give  so  much 
as  a  single  denarius  for  the  purchase.  "  Well  then,  Domi- 
tius," was  the  rejoinder  of  Crassus,  "  which  of  the  two  is  it 
that  sets  a  bad  example,  and  deserves  the  reproof  of  the  cen- 
sorship ;  I,  who  live  like  a  plain  man  in  a  house  that  has 
come  to  me  by  inheritance,  or  you,  who  estimate  six  trees 
at  a  value  of  ten  millions  of  sesterces  r" 6  These  trees  were 
of  the  lotus7  kind,  and  by  the  exuberance  of  their  branches 
afforded  a  most  delightful  shade.  Csecina  Largus,  one  of  the 
grandees  of  Rome,  and  the  owner  of  the  house,  used  often  to 
point  them  out  to  me  in  my  younger  days  ;  and,  as  I  have  al- 
ready made  mention8  of  the  remarkable  longevity  of  trees,  I 
would  here  add,  that  they  were  in  existence  down  to  the  pe- 
riod when  the  Emperor  Nero  set  fire  to  the  City,  one  hundred 
and  eighty  years  after  the  time  of  Crassus :  being  still  green 
and  with  all  the  freshness  of  youth  upon  them,  had  not  that 
prince  thought  fit  to  hasten  the  death  of  the  very  trees  even. 

Let  no  one,  however,  imagine  that  the  house  of  Crassus  was 
of  no  value  in  other  respects,  or  that,  from  the  rebuke  of  Domi- 
tius, there  was  nothing  about  it  worthy  of  remark  with  the 
exception  of  these  trees.  There  were  to  be  seen  erected  in  the 
atrium  four  columns  of  marble  from  Mount  Hymettus,8  -which 
in  his  sedileship  he  had  ordered  to  be  brought  over  for  the  de- 
coration of  the  stage  ;9  and  this  at  a  time,  too,  when  no  public 

5  A.u.c.  659. 

6  Valerius  Maximus,  B.  ix.  c.  1,  relates  this  story  somewhat  differently. 

7  The  Celtis  Australis  of  Linnaeus. 

8  See  B.  xxxvi.  cc.  3  and  24. 

9  When,  in  his  capacity  of  aedile,  he  gave  theatrical  representations  for 
the  henefit  of  the  public. 


440  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

buildings  even  as  yet  possessed  any  pillars  made  of  that  mate- 
rial. Of  such  recent  date  is  the  luxury  and  opulence  which 
Ave  now  enjoy,  and  so  much  greater  was  the  value  which  in 
those  days  trees  were  supposed  to  confer  upon  a  property ! 
A  pretty  good  proof  of  which,  was  the  fact  that  Domitius  even, 
with  all  his  enmity,  would  not  keep  to  the  offer  he  had  made, 
if  the  trees  were  not  to  be  included  in  the  bargain. 

The  trees  have  furnished  surnames  also  to  the  ancients,10  such, 
for  instance,  as  that  of  Fronditius  to  the  warrior  who  swam 
across  the  Yolturnus  with  a  wreath  of  leaves  on  his  head,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  famous  exploits  in  the  war  against 
Hannibal ;  and  that  of  Stolo11  to  the  Licinian  family,  such  being 
the  name  given  by  us  to  the  useless  suckers  that  shoot  from 
trees ;  the  best  method  of  clearing  away  these  shoots  was 
discovered  by  the  first  Stolo,  and  hence  his  name.  The  ancient 
laws  also  took  the  trees  under  their  protection ;  and  by  the 
Twelve  Tables  it  was  enacted,  that  he  who  should  wrongfully 
cut  down  trees  belonging  to  another  person,  should  pay  twenty- 
five  asses  for  each.  Is  it  possible  then  to  imagine  that  they, 
who  estimated  the  fruit-trees  at  so  low  a  rate  as  this,  could  ever 
have  supposed  that- so  exorbitant  a  value  would  be  put  upon  the 
lotus  as  that  which  I  have  just  mentioned  ?  And  no  less  mar- 
vellous, too,  are  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  value 
of  fruit ;  for  at  the  present  day  we  find  the  fruit  alone  of  many 
of  the  trees  in  the  suburbs  valued  at  no  less  a  sum  than  two 
thousand  sesterces ;  the  profits  derived  from  a  single  tree  thus 
being  more  than  those  of  a  whole  estate  in  former  times.  It 
was  from  motives  of  gain  that  the  grafting  of  trees  and  the 
propagation  thereby  of  a  spurious  offspring  was  first  devised, 
so  that  the  growth  of  the  fruits  even  might  be  a  thing  inter- 
dicted to  the  poor.  We  shall,  therefore,  now  proceed  to 
state  in  what  way  it  is  that  such  vast  revenues  are  derived 
from  these  trees,  and  with  that  object  shall  set  forth  the  true 
and  most  approved  methods  of  cultivation ;  not  taking  any 
notice  of  the  more  common  methods,  or  those  which  we  find 
generally  adopted,  but  considering  only  those  points  of  doubt 
and  uncertainty,  in  relation  to  which  practical  men  are  most 
apt  to  find  themselves  at  a  loss :  while,  at  the  same  time,  to 

10  As  Fee  remarks,  this  usage  has  hecn  reversed  in  modern  times,  and 
plants  often  receive  their  botanical  names  from  men. 

11  See  B.  xviii.  c.  4. 


Chap.  2.]  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  WEATHER  ON  TREES.  441 

affect  any  scrupulous  exactness  in  cases  where  there  is  no 
necessity  for  it,  will  be  no  part  of  our  purpose.  In  the  first 
place,  however,  we  will  consider  in  a  general  point  of  view, 
those  influences  of  soil  as  well  as  weather  which  are  exercised 
upon  all  the  trees  in  common. 

CHAP.  2.   (2.) THE    INFLUENCE    OF    WEATHER    UPON    THE    TREES  I 

WHAT  IS  THE  PROPER  SITUATION  FOR  THE  VINE. 

Trees  are  fond  of  a  site  more  particularly  that  faces  the 
north-east  ;12  the  breezes  rendering  their  foliage  more  thick  and 
exuberant,  and  imparting  additional  solidity  to  the  wood.  This 
is  a  point,  however,  upon  which  most  people  are  very  greatly 
deceived  ;  thus  in  vineyards,  for  instance,  the  props  ought  not 
to  be  placed  in  such  a  position  as  to  shelter  the  stems  from  the 
wind  in  that  quarter,  it  being  only  against  the  northern  blasts 
that  this  precaution  should  be  taken.  Nay,  even  more  than  this 
— if  the  cold  weather  only  comes  on  in  due  season,  it  contributes 
very  materially  to  the  strengthening  of  the  trees,  and  promotes 
the  process  of  germination  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  at  that 
period  the  southern13  breezes  should  caress  them,  they  will  grow 
weak  and  languid,  and  more  particularly  so,  if  the  blossom  is 
just  coming  on.  If  rainy  weather,  too,  should  happen  to 
follow  close  upon  blossoming,  the  total  destruction  of  the  fruit 
is  the  necessary  result :  indeed,  if  the  weather  should  be  only 
cloudy,  or  south  winds  happen  to  prevail,  it  is  quite  sufficient 
to  ensure  the  loss  of  the  fruit  in  the  almond  and  the  pear.14 
Rains,  if  prevalent  about  the  rising  of  the  Vergilise,15  are  most 
injurious  to  the  vine  and  the  olive,16  as  it  is  at  that  season  that 
germination17  is  commencing  with  them  ;  indeed,  this  is  a  most 

12  Or  north  north-east,  as  Fee  says.  He  adds  that  this  aspect  in  re- 
ality is  not  favourable  to  vegetation.  Pliny  commits  the  error  of  copying 
exactly  from  Theophrastus,  and  thereby  giving  advice  to  Roman  agricul- 
turists, which  was  properly  suited  to  the  climate  of  Greece  only. 

13  This  is  borrowed  from  Theophrastus  ;  but,  as  Fee  remarks,  if  suitable 
to  the  climate  of  Greece,  it  is  not  so  to  that  of  Italy  or  France,  where 
vegetation  is  much  more  promoted  by  a  south  wind. 

14  This  assertion,  Fee  says,  is  erroneous.      See  B.  xvi.  c.  46. 

15  B.  xviii.  c.  66. 

16  See  c.  30  of  this  Book.  These  notions  as  to  critical  periods  to  plants 
connected  with  the  constellations,  Fee  says,  are  now  almost  dispelled  j 
though  they  still  prevail  in  France,  to  some  extent. 

17  °"  Coitus."     See  B.  xvi.  cc.  39  and  42. 


442  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

critical  four  days  for  the  olive,  being  the  period  at  which  the 
south  wind,  as  we  have  already18  stated,  brings  on  its  dark  and 
lowering  clouds.  The  cereals,  too,  ripen  more  unfavourably 
when  south  winds  prevail,  though  at  the  same  time  it  pro- 
ceeds with  greater  rapidity.  All  cold,  too,  is  injurious  to  ve- 
getation, which  comes  with  the  northern  winds,  or  out  of  the 
proper  season.  It  is  most  advantageous  to  all  plants  for 
north-east  winds19  to  prevail  throughout  the  winter. 

In  this  season,  too,  showers  are  very  necessary,  and  the  rea- 
son is  self-evident — the  trees,  being  exhausted  by  the  fruit 
they  have  borne,  and  weakened  by  the  loss  of  their  leaves,  are, 
of  course,  famished  and  hungry ;  and  it  is  the  showers  that 
constitute  their  aliment.  Experience  has  led  us  to  believe 
that  there  is  nothing  more  detrimental  than  a  warm  winter ; 
for  it  allows  the  trees,  the  moment  chey  have  parted  with 
their  fruits,  to  conceive  again,  or,  in  other  words,  to  germinate, 
and  then  exhaust  themselves  by  blossoming  afresh.  And 
what  is  even  worse  than  this,  should  there  be  several  years  of 
such  weather  in  succession,  even  the  trees  themselves  will  die  ; 
for  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  effort  must  of  necessity 
be  injurious,  when  they  put  forth  their  strength,  and  are  at 
the  same  time  deprived  of  their  natural  sustenance.  The  poet20 
then,  who  has  said  that  serene  winters  are  to  be  desired,  cer- 
tainly did  not  express  those  wishes  in  favour  of  the  trees. 
And  no  more  does  rain,  if  prevalent  at  the  summer-solstice, 
conduce  to  the  benefit21  of  the  vine :  while,  at  the  same  time, 
to  say  that  a  dusty  winter  produces  a  luxuriant  harvest,  is  cer- 
tainly the  mistake  of  a  too  fertile  imagination.  It  is  a  thing 
greatly  to  be  wished,  too,  both  in  behalf  of  the  trees  as  well  as 
the  cereals,  that  the  snows  should  lie  for  a  considerable  time 
upon  the  ground  ;  the  reason  being  that  they  check  the  escape 
of  the  spirit  of  the  earth  by  evaporation,  and  tend  to  throw  it 

18  See  B.  xvi.  c.  46. 

19  From  Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  B.  ii.  C.  1. 

20  He  alludes  to  the  words  of  Virgil,  Gecrg.  i.  100  : — 

"Humida  solstitia,  atque  hiemes  orate  serenas, 
Agricol®;  hiberno  laetissima  pulvere  farra." 
Fee  remarks,  that  the  cultivators  of  the  modern  times  are  more  of  the 
opinion  of  the  poet  than  the  naturalist. 

21  Because  rains  would  cause  the  young  fruit  to  fall  off.  He  here 
attacks  the  first  portion  of  the  precepts  of  Virgil ;  but  only,  it  appears,  in 
reference  to  the  vine 


Chap.  2.]  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  WEATHER  ON  TREES.  443 

back  again  upon  the  roots  of  the  plants,  adding  greatly  to 
their  strength  thereby ;  and  not  only  this,  but  they  afford  a 
gradual  supply  of  moisture  as  well,  that  is  both  pure  and  of 
remarkable  lightness,  from  the  fact  that  snow  is  only  the 
foam  of  the  waters  of  heaven.  Hence  it  is  that  the  moisture 
of  snow  does  not  drench  and  engulph  everything  all  at  once, 
but  gradually  trickles  downwards,  in  proportion  to  the  thirst  of 
the  plant,  nurturing  it  as  though  from  the  breast,  instead  of 
producing  an  inundation.  The  earth,  too,  ferments  under  this 
influence,  and  becomes  filled  with  her  own  emanations :  not 
exhausted  by  the  seeds  in  her  bosom,  swollen  as  they  are  with 
milk,22  she  smiles  in  the  warm  and  balmy  hours,  when  the  time 
comes  for  opening  it.  It  is  in  this  way,  more  particularly, 
that  corn  fattens  apace,  except,  indeed,  in  those  climates  in 
which  the  atmosphere  is  always  warm,  Egypt  for  example ;  for 
there  the  continuance  of  the  same  temperature  and  the  force  of 
habit  are  productive  of  the  same  effects  as  the  modifications  of 
temperature  in  other  countries. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  equally  necessary  in  every  climate 
that  there  should  be  no  noxious  influence  in  existence.  Thus, 
for  instance,  in  the  greater  part  of  the  world,  that  precocious 
germination  which  has  been  encouraged  by  the  indulgent  tempe- 
rature of  the  weather,  is  sure  to  be  nipped  by  the  intense  colds 
that  ensue.  Hence  it  is  that  late  winters  are  so  injurious, 
and  such  they  prove  to  the  trees  of  the  forest  even  ;  indeed, 
these  last  are  more  particularly  exposed  to  the  ill  effects  of  a 
late  winter,  oppressed  as  they  are  by  the  density  of  their 
foliage,  and  human  agency  being  unable  to  succour  them ;  for 
it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  cover23  the  more  tender  forest 
trees  with  wisps  of  straw.  Rains,  then,  are  favourable  to 
vegetation — first  of  all,  during  the  winter  season,  and  next, 
just  previously  to  germination  ;  the  third  period  for  them  being 
that  of  the  formation  of  the  fruit,  though  not  immediately, 
and  only,  in  fact,  when  the  produce  of  the  tree  shows  itself 
strong  and  healthy. 

23  "  Lactescentibus."  Fee  remarks  on  the  appropriateness  of  this  expres- 
sion, as  the  act  of  germination,  he  says,  in  the  cereals  and  all  the  seeds  in 
which  the  perisperm  is  feculent,  changes  the  fecula  into  an  emulsive 
liquid,  in  which  state '  the  seed  may  be  said,  with  Pliny,  to  be 
"lactescent." 

23  Which  appears  to  have  been  extensively  done  with  the  young  garden 
trees. 


444  flint's  natueal  histoev.  [Book  XYif. 

Those  trees  which  are  the  slowest  in  bringing  their  fruits  to 
maturity,  and  require  a  more  prolonged  supply  of  nutriment, 
receive  benefit  also  from  late  rains,  such  as  the  vine,  the  olive, 
and  the  pomegranate,  for  instance.  These  rains,  however,  are 
required  at  different  seasons  by  the  different  trees,  some  of 
them  coming  to  maturity  at  one  period  and  some  at  another ; 
hence  it  is  that  we  see  the  very  same  rain  productive  of  injury 
to  some  trees  and  beneficial  to  others,  even  when  they  are  of  the 
very  same  species,  as  in  the  pear  for  instance  :  for  the  winter 
pear  stands  in  need  of  rain  at  one  period,  and  the  early  pear  at 
another,  though  at  the  same  time  they,  all  of  them,  require  it 
in  an  equal  degree.  Winter  precedes  the  period  of  germina- 
tion, and  it  is  this  fact  that  makes  the  north-east  wind  more 
beneficial  than  the  south,  and  renders  the  parts  that  lie  in  the 
interior  preferable  to  those  near  the  coast, — the  former  being 
generally  the  coldest, — mountainous  districts  better  than  level 
ones,  and  rain  at  night  better  than  showers  in  the  day.  Vege- 
tation, too,  receives  a  greater  degree  of  benefit  from  the  water 
when  the  sun  does  not  immediately  soak  it  up. 

Connected,  too,  -with  this  subject  is  the  question  of  the  best 
situation  for  planting  vines,  and  the  trees  which  support  them. 
Virgil24  condemns  a  western  aspect,  while  there  are  some  persons, 
again,  who  prefer  it  to  an  easterly  one :  I  find,  however,  that 
most  authors  approve  of  the  south,  though  I  do  not  think  that 
any  abstract  precepts25  can  be  given  in  relation  to  the  point. 
The  most  careful  attention  on  the  part  of  the  cultivator  ought 
to  be  paid  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  character  of  the  loca- 
lity, and  the  respective  influences  of  climate.  The  method  ot 
giving  to  the  vine  a  southern  aspect,  as  practised  in  Africa  and 
*  *  *  *  is  injurious  to  the  tree,  as  well  as  unhealthy  for 
the  cultivator,  from  the  very  circumstance  that  the  country 
itself  lies  under  a  southern  meridian  :  hence  it  is,  that  he  who 
selects  for  his  plants  there  a  western  or  a  northerly  aspect,  will 
combine  on  the  most  advantageous  terms  the  benefits  of  soil 
with  those  of  climate.  When  Virgil  condemns  a  western  aspect, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  includes  in  his  censure  a  northern 
aspect  as  well :  and  yet,  in  Cisalpine  Italy,  where  most  of  the 
vineyards  have  an  aspect  to  the  north,  it  has  been  found  by 
experience  that  there  are  none  that  are  more  prolific. 

2*  Georg.  ii.  398. 

25  Taken  altogether,  a  southern  aspect  is  preferable  to  all  otheis. 


Chap.  2.]  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  WEATHER  ON  TREES.  445 

The  winds  are  also  a  very  important  consideration.  In  the 
provinces  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  in  Liguria  and  part  of 
Etruria,  it  is  considered  a  proof  of  great  want  of  skill  to  plant 
the  vine  on  a  site  that  lies  in  the  teeth  of  the  wind  Circius,20 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  mark  of  prudence  to  catch 
its  breezes  in  an  oblique  direction ;  it  is  this  wind,  in  fact, 
that  modifies  the  heat  in  those  countries,  though  at  the  same 
time  it  is  usually  so  violent,  as  to  sweep  away  the  roofs  of 
the  houses. 

(3.)  There  are  some  persons  who  employ  a  method  of  making 
the  question  of  weather  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil ; 
thus  in  the  case  of  a  vineyard,  for  instance,  in*  a  dry  locality, 
they  give  it  an  eastern  or  a  northern  aspect ;  but  where  it  is 
planted  on  a  humid  site,  it  is  made  to  face  the  south.  Prom 
the  varieties  of  the  vine  also,  they  borrow  various  modifica- 
tions in  reference  to  site  ;  taking  care  to  plant  the  early  vine 
in  a  cold  locality,  in  order  that  the  fruit  may  ripen  before  the 
frosts  come  on  ;  while  such  fruit  trees  and  vines  as  have  an  anti- 
pathy to  dews  are  exposed  to  the  east,  that  the  sun  may  carry 
off  their  humidity  at  the  earliest  moment.  On  the  other  hand, 
such  as  manifest  a  partiality  to  dews  are  planted  with  a  western 
or  even  a  northern  aspect,  to  give  them  an  opportunity  of  en- 
joying them  all  the  longer.  Others,  again,  borrowing  their 
notions  pretty  nearly  from  Nature,  have  recommended  that 
vines  and  trees  should  be  planted  facing  the  north-east ;  indeed 
Democritus  is  of  opinion,  that  by  so  doing  the  fruit  will 
be  all  the  more  odoriferous. 

(4.)  We  have  already  spoken,  in  the  Second  Book,27  of  the 
points  of  the  north-east  and  other  winds,  and  shall  have  occa- 
sion in  the  succeeding  one  to  make  mention  of  several  more  of 
the  heavenly  phenomena.  In  the  mean  time,  however,  we 
may  observe  that  it  would  appear  to  be  a  manifest  proof  of  the 
salubrity  of  a  north-east  site,  that  the  leaves  are  always  the 
first  to  fall  in  the  trees  that  have  an  aspect  towards  the  south.28 
A  similar  reason  exists,  too,  in  the  maritime  districts ;  in 
certain  localities  the  sea  breezes  are  detrimental,  though  in 
most  they  are  nutritious.  For  some  plants,  again,  it  is  pleasant 
to  behold  the  sea  at  a  distance,  while  at  the  same  time  they 

26  See  B.  ii.  c.  46.  27  Cc.  46  and  47. 

28  He  seems  to  lose  sight  cf  the  fact  that  they  bud  before  those  that  look 
to  the  north. 


446  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVIT. 

will  gain  nothing  by  approaching  closer  to  its  saline  exhala- 
tions. The  same,  too,  is  the  influence  exercised  by  rivers  and 
lakes  ;  they  will  either  scorch  the  vegetation  by  the  fogs  they 
emit,  or  else  modify  by  their  coolness  the  excess  of  heat.  We 
have  already  mentioned29  the  plants  that  thrive  in  the  shade, 
and  in  the  cold  even  ;  but  in  all  these  matters  experience  will 
be  found  the  best  of  guides. 

CHAP.  3. WHAT  SOILS  AEE  TO  BE  CONSIDERED  THE  BEST. 

Next  after  the  influences  of  the  heavens,  we  have  to  treat  of 
those  of  the  earth,  a  task  that  is  in  no  way  more  easy  than  the 
previous  one.  It  is  but  rarely  that  the  same  soil  is  found 
suited  to  trees  as  well  as  corn  :  indeed,  the  black30  earth  which 
prevails  in  Campania  is  not  everywhere  found  suited  to  the  vine, 
nor  yet  that  which  emits  light  exhalations,  or  the  red31  soil 
that  has  been  so  highly  praised  by  many.  The  cretaceous  earth 
that  is  found  in  the  territory  of  Alba  Pompeia,  and  an  argil- 
laceous soil,  are  preferred  to  all  others  for  the  vine,  although, 
too,  they  are  remarkably  rich,  a  quality  that  is  generally  looked 
upon  as  not  suited  to  that  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  again, 
the  white  sand  of  the  district  of  Ticinum,  the  black  sand  of 
many  other  places,  and  the  red  sand  as  well,  even  though  mixed 
with  a  rich  earth,  will  prove  unproductive. 

The  very  signs,  also,  from  which  we  form  our  judgment  are 
often  very  deceptive ;  a  soil  that  is  adorned  with  tall  and 
graceful  trees  is  not  always  a  favourable  one,  except,  of  course, 
for  those  trees.  What  tree,  in  fact,  is  there  that  is  taller  than 
the  fir  ?  and  yet  what  other  plant  could  possibly  exist  in  the 
same  spot  ?  Nor  ought  we  always  to  look  upon  verdant  pas- 
tures as  so  many  proofs  of  richness  of  soil ;  for  what  is  there 
that  enjoys  a  greater  renown  than  the  pastures  of  Germany  ? 
and  yet  they  consist  of  nothing  but  a  very  thin  layer  of  turf, 
with  sand  immediately  beneath.  Nor  yet  is  the  soil  which 
produces  herbage 32  of  large  growth  always  to  be  looked  upon  as 
humid ;  no,  by  Hercules  !  no  more  than  a  soil  is  to  be  looked 
upon  as  unctuous  and  rich,  which  adheres  to  the  fingers — a 

29  B.  xvi.  cc.  30,  31. 

30  A  rick  black  mould,  probably. 

31  A  ferruginous  argilla. 

32  It  must  of  necessity  denote  a  soil  rich,  in  humus,  though  not,  of 
course,  adapted  for  all  kinds  of  cultivation. 


Chap.  3.]  WHAT   SOILS  AEE   BEST.  447 

thing  that  is  proved  in  the  case  of  the  argillaceous  earths.33 
The  earth  when  thrown  back  into  the  hole  from  which  it  has 
just  been  dug  will  never34  fill  it,  so  that  it  is  quite  impossible 
by  that  method  to  form  any  opinion  as  to  its  density  or  thin- 
ness. It  is  the  fact,  too,  that  every35  soil,  without  exception, 
will  cover  iron  with  rust.  Nor  yet  can  we  determine 36  the 
heaviness  or  lightness  of  soils  in  relation  to  any  fixed  and  as- 
certained weight:  for  what  are  we  to  understand  as  the 
standard  weight  of  earth  ?  A  soil,  too,  that  is  formed  from 
the  alluvion 37  of  rivers  is  not  always  to  be  recommended,  for 
there  are  some  crops  that  decay  all  the  sooner  in  a  watery  soil  ; 
indeed,  those  soils  even  of  this  description  which  are  highly 
esteemed,  are  never  found  to  be  long  good  for  any  kind  of 
vegetation  but  the  willow. 

Among  other  proofs  of  the  goodness  of  soil,  is  the  comparative 
thickness  of  the  stem  in  corn.  In  Laborium,  a  famous  cham- 
paign country  of  Campania,  the  stalk  is  of  such  remarkable 
thickness,  that  it  may  be  used  even  to  supply  the  place  of 
wood  :38  and  yet  this  very  soil,  from  the  difficulty  that  is  every- 
where experienced  in  cultivating  it,  and  the  labour  required 
in  working  it,  may  be  almost  said  to  give  the  husbandman 
more  trouble  by  its  good  qualities  than  it  could  possibly  have 
done  by  reason  of  any  defects.  The  soil,  too,  that  is  generally 
known  as  charcoal  earth,  appears  susceptible  of  being  im- 
proved by  being  planted  with  a  poor  meagre  vine  :  and  tufa,:;9 

33  He  alludes  to  the  difficulty  with  which  argilla,  from  its  tenacity,  is 
employed  in  cultivation. 

34  Columella  says  the  contrary,  and  so  does  Yirgil,  Georg.  ii.  226, 
speaking  of  this  fact  as  a  method  of  ascertaining  the  respective  qualities  of 
the  earth. 

35  "Virgil,  Georg.  ii.  220,  says  the  contrary. 

36  In  allusion  to  what  Virgil  says,  Georg.  ii.  254  : — 

"Quae  gravis  est,  ipso  tacitam  se  pondere  prodit, 

Quaeque  levis " 

Fee  remarks,  however,  that  it  is  easy  enough  to  analyse  the  earth,  and 
ascertain  the  proportions  of  humus,  and  of  the  siliceous,  cretaceous,  or 
argillaceous  earths  ;  the  relative  proportions  of  which-  render  it  strong  or 
light,  as  the  case  may  be. 

37  As  Fee  says,  these  earths  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soils 
that  are  brought  down  by  .the  streams ;  in  general,  however,  they  are  ex- 
tremely prolific. 

38  Fee  says  that  Pliny  is  here  guilty  of  some  degree  of  exaggeration. 
See  B.  iii.  c.  9,  p.  195  of  Vol.  1  :  also  B.  xviii.  c.  29. 

3<J  "  Tophus  ;"  formed  of  volcanic  scoriae.    Fee  remarks,  that  it  is  some- 


443  PLINY'S   KA.TCEAL   HISTORY  [Book  XVII. 

which  is  naturally  rough  and  friable,  we  find  recommended 
by  some  authors.  Virgil,40  too,  does  not  condemn  for  the  viue 
a  soil  which  produces  fern  :41  while  a  salted  earth 42  is  thought 
to  be  much  better  entrusted  with  the  growth  of  vegetation  than 
any  other,  from  the  fact  of  its  being  comparatively  safe  from 
noxious  insects  breeding  there.  Declivities,  too,  are  far  from 
unproductive,  if  a  person  only  knows  how  to  dig  them  pro- 
perly ;  and  it  is  not  all 43  champaign  spots  that  are  less  acces- 
sible to  the  sun  and  wind  than  is  necessary  for  their  benefit. 
We  have  already44  alluded  to  the  fact,  that  there  are  certain 
vines  which  find  nutriment  in  hoar  frosts  and  fogs. 

In  every  subject  there  are  certain  deep  and  recondite 
secrets,  which,  it  is  left  to  the  intelligence  of  each  to  penetrate. 
Do  we  not,  for  instance,  find  it  the  fact,  that  soils  which  have 
long  offered  opportunities  for  a  sound  judgment  being  formed  on 
their  qualities  have  become  totally  altered  ?  In  the  vicinity 
of  Larissa,  in  Thessaly,  a  lake  was  drained  ;45  and  the  conse- 
quence was,  that  the  district  became  much  colder,  and  the 
olive-trees  which  had  formerly  borne  fruit  now  ceased  to  bear. 
When  a  channel  was  cut  for  the  Hebrus,  near  the  town  of 
^nos,  the  place  was  sensible  of  its  nearer  approach,  in  finding 
its  vines  frost-bitten,  a  thing  that  had  never  happened  before ; 
in  the  vicinity,  too,  of  Philippi,  the  country  having  been 
drained  for  cultivation,  the  nature  of  the  climate  became  en- 
tirely altered.  In  the  territory  of  Syracuse,  a  husbandman, 
who  was  a  stranger  to  the  place,  cleared  the  soil  of  all  the 
stones,  and  the  consequence  was,  that  he  lost  his  crops  from 
the  accumulation  of  mud ;  so  that  at  last  he  was  obliged  to 
carry  the  stones  back  again.     In   Syria  again,  the  plough- 

what  similar  in  nature  to  marl,  and  that  though  unproductive  by  itself,  it 
is  beneficial  when  mixed  with  vegetable  earth.  Tufa  and  marl  appear  to 
have  been  often  confounded  by  the  ancient  writers. 

40  Georg.  ii.  189. 

41  The  Pteris  aquilina  of  the  modern  botanists. 

42  Marine  salt,  or  sub-hydrochlorate  of  soda,  Fee  thinks,  is  here  alluded 
to.     It  is  still  used  with  varied  success   in  some  parts  of  the  west  of 

France. 

43  Hardouin  says,  that  he  here  alludes  to  the  proverbial  saymg  among 
the  ancients,  "Perflare  altissima  ventos"— "  The  winds  blow  only  on  the 
most  elevated  ground."  **  In  B.  xiv.  cc.  4  and  12. 

«  «  Emisso."  Fee  would  appear  to  think  that  the  lake  suddenly  made  its 
appearance,  after  an  earthquake,  and  from  the  context  he  would  appear  to 
be  right.     These  accounts  are  all  of  them  borrowed  from  Theophrastus. 


Chap.  3.]  WHAT    SOILS   AEE    BEST.  44 3 

share  "which  they  use  is  narrow,  and  the  furrows  are  but  very- 
superficial,  there  being  a  rock  beneath  the  soil  that  in  summer 
scorches  up  the  seeds. 

Then,  too,  the  effects  of  excessive  cold  and  heat  in  various 
places  are  similar;  thus,  for  instance,  Thrace  is  fruitful  in 
corn,  by  reason  of  the  cold,  while  Africa  and  Egypt  are  so  in 
consequence  of  the  heat  that  prevails  there.  At  Chalcia,46  an 
island  belonging  to  the  Rhodians,  there  is  a  certain  place  which 
is  so  remarkably  fertile,  that  after  reaping  the  barley  that  has 
been  sown  at  the  ordinary  time,  and  gathering  it  in,  they  im- 
mediately sow  a  fresh  crop,  and  reap  it  at  the  same  time  as  the 
other  corn.  A  gravelly  soil  is  found  best  suited  for  the  olive 
in  the  district  of  Venafrum,47  while  one  of  extreme  richness  is 
required  for  it  in  Bastica.  The  wines  of  Pucinum48  are  ri- 
pened upon  a  rock,  and  the  vines  of  Csecubum49  are  moistened 
by  the  waters  of  the  Pomptine50  marshes ;  so  great  are  the  dif- 
ferences that  have  been  detected  by  human  experience  in  the 
various  soils.  Caesar  Yopiscus,  when  pleading  a  cause  before 
the  Censors,  said  that  the  fields  of  Eosia51  are  the  very  marrow52 
of  Italy,  and  that  a  stake,  left  in  the  ground  there  one  day, 
would  be  found  covered  by  the  grass  the  next : 53  the  soil,  how- 
ever, is  only  esteemed  there  for  the  purposes  of  pasturage.  Still, 
however,  Nature  has  willed  that  wre  should  not  remain  unin- 
structed,  and  has  made  full  admission  as  to  existing  defects  in 
soil,  even  in  cases  where  she  has  failed  to  give  us  equal  in- 
formation as  to  its  good  qualities :  we  shall  begin,  therefore, 
by  speaking  of  the  defects  that  are  found  in  various  soils. 

(5.)  If  it  is  the  wish  of  a  person  to  test  whether  a  soil  is 
bitter,  or  wmether  it  is  thin  and  meagre,  the  fact  may  be  easily 
ascertained  from  the  presence  of  black  and  undergrown  herbs. 
If,  again,  the  herbage  shoots  up  dry  and  stunted,  it  shows  that 
the  soil  is  cold,  and  if  sad  and  languid,  that  it  is  moist  and 
slimy.  The  eye,  too,  is  able  to  judge  whether  it  is  a  red  earth 
or  whether  it  is  argillaceous,  both  of  them  extremely  difficult 
to  work,  and  apt  to  load  the  harrow  or  ploughshare  with 

46  See  B.  v.  c.  36.  47  See  B.  xv.  c.  2. 

48  See  B.  xiv.  c.  8.  49  See  B.  xiv.  c.  8. 

50  See  B.  iii.  c.  9.  51  See  B.  ill.  c.  17. 

5°<  Sumen.  Properly,  "  udder."  A  cow's  udder  was  considered  one  of 
the  choicest  of  delicacies  hy  the  Romans. 

53  This  is,  of  course,  an  exaggeration.  The  stake  must  have  been 
driven  in  very  deep  to  disappear  so  speedily. 

vol.  in.  &  & 


450  plint's  NATUBAL  HISTOBY.  [Book  XVII. 

enormous  clods ;  though  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  soil  which  entails  the  greatest  amount ,  of 
labour  is  not  always  productive  of  the  smallest  amount  of 
profit.  So,  too,  on  the  other  hand,  the  eye  can  distinguish  a 
soil  that  is  mixed  with  ashes  or  with  white  sand,  while  earth 
that  is  sterile  and  dense  may  be  easily  detected  by  its  peculiar 
hardness,  at  even  a  single  stroke  of  the  mattock. 

Cato,54  briefly  and  in  his  peculiar  manner,  characterizes  the 
defects  that  exist  in  the  various  soils.  "  Take  care,"  he  says, 
"  where  the  earth  is  rotten  not  to  shake  it  either  with  carts  or 
by  driving  cattle  over  it."  Now  what  are  we  to  suppose  that 
this  term  "rotten"  means,  as  applied  to  a  soil,  about  which 
he  is  so  vastly  apprehensive  as  to  almost  forbid  our  setting 
foot  upon  it  ?  Let  us  only  form  a  comparison  by  thinking 
what  it  is  that  constitutes  rottenness  in  wood,  and  we  shall 
find  that  the  faults  which  are  held  by  him  in  such  aversion  are 
the  being  arid,  full  of  holes,  rough,  white,  mouldy,  worm- 
eaten,  in  fact,  just  like  pumice-stone  ;  and  thus  has  Cato  said 
more  in  a  single  word  than  we  could  have  possibly  found 
means  to  express  in  a  description,  however  long.  Indeed,  if 
we  could  find  means  of  expressing  the  various  defects  that 
exist  in  soils,  we  should  find  that  there  are  some  of  them  that 
are  old,  not  with  age  (for  age  cannot55  be  concerned  in  relation 
to  the  earth),  but  of  their  own  nature,  and  are  hence  unfruit- 
ful and  powerless  for  every  purpose  from  the  first.  The  same 
writer,56  too,  considers  that  as  the  very  best  of  soils,  which, 
situate  at  the  foot  of  a  declivity,  runs  out  into  a  champaign 
country,  taking  a  southward  direction;  such,  in  fact,  being 
the  aspect  of  the  whole  of  Italy  :57  he  says58  also,  that  the  earth 
generally  known  as  black59  earth  is  of  a  tender  nature,  and 
is  consequently  the  most  easily  worked  and  the  best  for  cereals. 
If  we  only  appreciate  with  due  care  the  signification  of  this 
word  "  tender," 60  we  shall  find  that  it  expresses  its  intended 
meaning  remarkably  well,  and  that  in  this  word  is  comprised 
every  quality  that  is  desirable  for  the  purposes  of  cultivation. 

54  De  Re  Rust.  5. 

55  This  he  says  in  reference  to  his  belief,  with  Epicurus,  in  the  eternity 
of  matter. 

56  De  Re  Rust.  1.  57  See  B.  iii.  c.  6. 

58  De  Re  Rust.  151. 

59  "Pulla."     The  "  vegetable"  earth  of  modern  botanists. 

60  "Teneram." 


Chap.  3.]  WHAT   SOILS   ARE   BEST.  43 1 

In  a  tender  soil  we  shall  find  fertility  combined  with  modera- 
tion, a  softness  and  a  pliancy  easily  adapted  to  cultivation, 
and  an  equal  absence  of  humidity  and  of  dryness.  Earth 
of  this  nature  will  shine  again  after  the  plough-share  has 
passed  through  it,  just  as  Homer,61  that  great  fountain-head  of 
all  genius,  has  described  it  sculptured  by  the  Divinity62  upon 
the  arms  [of  Achilles],  adding,  too,  a  thing  that  is  truly  marvel- 
lous, that  it  was  of  a  blackish  hue,  though  gold  was  the  mate- 
rial in  which  it  was  wrought.  This,  too,  is  that  kind  of  earth, 
which,  when  newly  turned  up,  attracts  the  ravenous  birds  that 
follow  the  plough-share,  the  ravens  even  going  so  far  as  to  peck 
at  the  heels  of  the  ploughman. 

We  may  in  this  place  appropriately  make  mention  of  an 
opinion  that  has  been  pronounced  by  an  Italian  writer  also 
with  reference  to  a  matter  of  luxury.  Cicero,  63  that  other 
luminary  of  literature,  has  made  the  following  remark :  "  Those 
unguents  which  have  a  taste  of  earth64  are  better,"  says  he, 
"than  those  which  smack  of  saffron;"  it  seeming  to  him 
more  to  the  purpose  to  express  himself  by  the  word  "  taste"65 
than  "smell."  And  such  is  the  fact,  no  doubt;  that  soil 
is  the  best  which  has  the  flavour  of  a  perfume.66  If  the 
question  should  be  put  to  us,  what  is  this  odour  of  the  earth 
that  is  held  in  such  estimation,  our  answer  is,  that  it  is  the 
same  that  is  often  to  be  recognized  at  the  moment  of  sunset, 
without  the  necessity  even  of  turning  up  the  ground,  at  the 
spots  where  the  extremities  of  the  rainbow67  have  been  ob- 
served to  meet  the  earth  ;  as  also  when,  after  long- continued 
drought,  the  rain  has  soaked  the  ground.  Then  it  is  that  the 
earth  exhales  this  divine  odour,  that  is  so  peculiarly  its  own, 
and  to  which,  imparted  to  it  by  the  sun,  there  is  no  perfume, 
however  sweet,  that  can  possibly  be  compared.  It  is  this 
odour  that  the  earth,  when  turned  up,  ought  to  emit,  and 
which,  when  once  found,  can  never  deceive  a  person ;  and 
this  will  be  found  the  best  criterion  for  judging  of  the  quality 
of  the  soil.     Such,  too,  is  the  odour  that  is  usually  perceived 

61  Iliad,  xviii.  541  and  548. 

G2  Vulcan.  63  De  Oratore,  sec.  39. 

64  See  B.  xiii.  c.  4. 

65  "  Sapiunt,"  rather  than  "  redolent." 

66  This  supposed  flavour  of  the  earth  is,  in  reality,  attributable  to  the 
extraneous  vegetable  matter  which  it  contains. 

67  See  B.  xii.  c.  52,  as  to  this  notion. 

G  G    2 


452  pliny's  natural  histoby.  [Book  XVII. 

on  land  newly  cleared,68  when  an  ancient  forest  has  been  just 
cut  down ;  its  excellence  is  a  thing  that  is  universally  admitted. 
For  the  culture  of  the  cereals,  too,  the  same  land  is  gene- 
rally looked  upon  as  the  more  improved  the  oftener  it  has 
been  allowed  to  rest69  from  cultivation,  a  thing  that  is  not  the 
case  with  vineyards  ;  for  which  reason  all  the  greater  care  is 
required  in  the  selection  of  their  site,  if  we  would  not^  have 
the  opinions  of  those  to  appear  well  founded  who  entertain  the 
notion  that  the  soil  of  Italy  is  already  worn  out.70  In  other 
kinds  of  soil  the  work  of  cultivation  depends  entirely  upon  the 
weather ;  as,  for  instance,  in  those  which  cannot  be  ploughed 
just  after  rain,  because  the  natural  exuberance  of  the  earth 
renders  it  viscous  and  cloggy.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Byza- 
cium,  a  district  of  Africa,  and  a  champaign  country  of  sucli 
singular  fertility  as  to  render  grain  one  hundred  and  fifty  fold,71 
the  soil  is  such,  that  in  time  of  drought,  not  even  bulls  are 
able  to  plough  it;  while,  on  another  occasion,  just  after  a  shower 
of  rain,  one  poor  ass,  with  an  old  woman  to  guide  it,  is  quite 
sufficient,72  as  ourselves  we  have  witnessed,  to  do  the  plough- 
ing. But  as  to  amending  one  soil  by  the  agency  of  another, 
as  some  persons  recommend,  by  throwing  rich  earth  over  one 
that  is  poor  and  thin,  or  by  laying  a  soaking  light  soil  over 
one  that  is  humid  and  unctuous,  it  is  a  labour  of  perfect 
madness.73  What  can  a  man  possibly  hope  for  who  cultivates 
such  a  soil  as  this  ? 

CHAP     4.   (6.) THE  EIGHT  KINDS    OF  EAETH    BOASTED    OE    BY    THE 

GAULS  AND  GREEKS. 

There  is  another  method,  which  has  been  invented  both  in 

68  The  reason  being,  that  in  such  cases  the  soil  is  saturated  with  thyme, 
origanum,  mint,  and  other  odoriferous  herbs. 

69  This  opinion  is  contrary  to  that  expressed  by  Columella,  B.  ii.  c.  1 ; 
but  the  justice  of  it  is  universally  recognized.  Upon  this  theory,  too,  is 
based  the  modern  practice  of  alternating  the  crops  in  successive  years,  the 
necessity  of  providing  for  heavy  rents,  not  allowing  the  land  to  enjoy  ab- 
solute rest. 

70  This  has  not  come  to  pass  even  yet,  nearly  two  thousand  years  since 
the  days  of  Pliny.  71  See  B.  v.  c.  3,  and  B.  xviii.  c.  21. 

72  Fee  taxes  our  author  here  with  exaggeration.  For  Byzacium,  see  B. 
v.  c.  3,  and  B.  xviii.  c.  21. 

73  Nevertheless,  as  Fee  remarks,  the  method  is  often  practised  with 
great  success.  Pliny  is  at  issue  here  with  Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  B.  iii. 
c.  25. 


Chap.  4.]  EIGHT   KINDS    OF   EAETH.  453 

Gaul  and  Britain,  of  enriching  earth  by  the  agency  of  itself, 
being  #  *  .#  *  and  that  kind  known  as  marl.74  This 
soil  is  looked  upon  as  containing  a  greater  amount  of  fecun- 
dating principles,  and  acts  as  a  fat  in  relation  to  the  earth,  just 
as  we  find  glands  existing  in  the  body,  which  are  formed  by  a 
condensation  of  the  fatty  particles  into  so  many  kernels. 
(7.)  This  mode  of  proceeding,  too,  has  not  been  overlooked  by 
the  Greeks ;  indeed,  what  subject  is  there  that  they  have  not 
touched  upon?  They  call  by  the  name  of  leucargillon75  a 
white  argillaceous  earth  which  is  used  in  the  territory  of 
Megara,  but  only  where  the  soil  is  of  a  moist,  cold  nature. 

It  is  only  right  that  I  should  employ  some  degree  of  care 
and  exactness  in  treating  of  this  marl,  which  tends  so  greatly 
to  enrich  the  soil  of  the  Gallic  provinces  and  the  British  islands. 
There  were  formerly  but  two  varieties  known,  but  more  re- 
cently, with  the  progress  of  agricultural  knowledge,  several76 
others  have  begun  to  be  employed ;  there  being,  in  fact,  the 
white,  the  red,  the  columbine,  the  argillaceous,  the  tufaceous, 
and  the  sandy  marls.  It  has  also  one  of  these  two  peculiar- 
ities, it  is  either  rough  or  greasy  to  the  touch ;  the  proper 
mode  of  testing  it  being  by  the  hand.  Its  uses,  too,  are  of  a 
twofold  nature — it  is  employed  for  the  production  of  •  the 
cereals  only,  or  else  for  the  enrichment  of  pasture  land  as 
well.  The  tufaceous77  kind  is  nutrimental  to  grain,  and  so 
is  the  white  ;  if  found  in  the  vicinity  of  springs,  it  is  fertile 
to  an  immeasurable  extent ;  but  if  it  is  rough  to  the  touch, 
when  laid  upon  the  land  in  too  large  a  quantity,  it  is  apt  to 
burn  up  the  soil.  The  next  kind  is  the  red  marl,  known  as 
acaunumarga,78  consisting  of  stones  mingled  with  a  thin  sandy 

74  A  natural  mixture  of  argilla  and  calcareous  stones,  or  subcarbonate  of 
cbalk.  Fee  remarks,  that  the  ancients  were  not  acquainted  with  the 
proper  method  of  applying  it.  Marl  only  exercises  its  fertilizing  influence 
after  being  reduced  to  dust  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  by  absorbing 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  giving  to  vegetation  the  carbonic  acid  that  is 
necessary  for  their  nourishment. 

75  '' White  argilla."  This,  Fee  thinks,  is  the  calcareous  marl,  three 
varieties  of  which  are  known,  the  compact,  the  schistoid,  and  the  friable. 

76  At  the  present  day  there  are  only  two  varieties  of  marl  recognized,  the 
argillaceous  and  the  calcareous ;  it  is  to  the  latter,  Fee  thinks,  that  the 
varieties  here  mentioned  as  anciently  recognized,  belonged. 

77  The  Marga  terrea  of  Linnaeus.  It  abounds  in  various  parts  of 
Europe. 

7&  From  the  Greek,  meaning  "not  bitter  marl." 


454  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

earth.  These  stones  are  broken  npon  the  land  itself,  and  It  is 
with  considerable  difficulty  during  the  earlier  years  that  the 
stalk  of  the  corn  is  cut,  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  these 
stones ;  however,  as  it  is  remarkably  light,  it  only  costs  for 
carriage  one-half  of  the  outlay  required  in  using  the  other 
varieties.  It  is  laid  but  very  thinly  on  the  surface,  and  it  is 
generally  thought  that  it  is  mixed  with  salt.  Both  of  these 
varieties,  when  once  laid  on  the  land,  will  fertilize  it  for 
fifty79  years,  whether  for  grain  or  for  hay. 

(8.)  Of  the  marls  that  are  found  to  be  of  an  unctuous  na- 
ture, the  best  is  the  white.  There  are  several  varieties  of  it : 
the  most  pungent  and  biting  being  the  one  already  mentioned. 
Another  kind,  is  the  white  chalk  that  is  used  for  cleaning 80 
silver ;  it  is  taken  from  a  considerable  depth  in  the  ground, 
the  pits  being  sunk,  in  most  instances,  as  much  as  one  hundred 
feet.  These  pits  are  narrow  at  the  mouth,  but  the  shafts  en- 
large very  considerably  in  the  interior,  as  is  the  case  in  mines; 
it  is  in  Britain  more  particularly  that  this  chalk  is  employed. 
The  good  effects  of  it  are  found  to  last  full  eighty  years ;  and 
there  is  no  instance  known  of  an  agriculturist  laying  it  twice 
on  the  same  land  during  his  life.81  A  third  variety  of  white 
marl  is  known  as  glisomarga  ;83  it  consists  of  fullers'  chalk 83 
mixed  with  an  unctuous  earth,  and  is  better  for  promoting  the 
growth  of  hay  than  grain ;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  between 
harvest  and  the  ensuing  seed-time  there  is  cut  a  most  abundant 
crop  of  grass.  While  the  corn  is  growing,  however,  it  will 
allow  no  other  plant  to  grow  there.  Its  effects  will  last  so 
long  as  thirty  years ;  but  if  laid  too  thickly  on  the  ground,  it 
is  apt  to  choke  up  the  soil,  just  as  if  it  had  been  covered  with 
Signine84  cement.     The  Gauls  give  to  the  columbine  marl  in 

79  Marl  does  not  begin  to  fertilize  till  several  years  after  it  has  been  laid 
down ;  hence,  it  is  generally  recommended  to  marl  the  land  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  often.  If  the  ground  is  fully  marled,  it  requires  to  be  marled 
afresh  in  about  eight  or  ten  years,  and  not  fifty,  as  Pliny  says. 

so  « Argentaria."  Used,  probably,  iu  the  same  way  as  whitening  in 
modern  times.     See  B.  xxxv.  c.  58. 

81  An  exaggeration,  no  doubt. 

92  Probably  meaning  "  smooth  marl ; "  a  variety,  Fee  thinks,  of  argil- 
laceous marl,  and,  perhaps,  the  potter's  argillaceous  marl,  or  potter's  argil. 
He  suggests,  also  that  it  may  have  possibly  been  the  Marga  fullonum 
saponacea  lamellosa  of  Valerius ;  in  other  words,  fullers'  earth. 

83  Creta  follonia. 

84  See  B.  xxxv.  c.  46. 


Chap.  5.]  EMPLOYMENT   OF   ASHES.  455 

their  language  the  name  of  eglecopala  ;65  it  is  taken  up  in 
solid  blocks  like  stone,  after  which  it  is  so  loosened  by  the 
action  of  the  sun  and  frost,  as  to  split  into  laminae  of  extreme 
thinness ;  this  kind  is  equally  beneficial  for  grass  and  grain. 
The  sandy80  marl  is  employed  if  there  is  no  other  at  hand,  and 
on  moist  slimy  soils,  even  when  other  kinds  can  be  procured. 

The  Ubii  are  the  only  people  that  we  know  of,  who,  having 
an  extremely  fertile  soil  to  cultivate,  employ  methods  of  en- 
riching it ;  wherever  the  land  may  happen  to  be,  they  dig  to 
a  depth  of  three  feet,  and,  taking  up  the  earth,  cover  the  soil 
with  it  in  other  places  a  foot  in  thickness ;  this  method,  how- 
ever, to  be  beneficial,  requires  to  be  renewed  at  the  end  of 
every  ten  years.  The  iEdui  and  the  Pictones  have  rendered 
their  lands  remarkably  fertile  by  the  aid  of  limestone,  which 
is  also  found  to  be  particularly  beneficial  to  the  olive  and  the 
vine.87  Every  marl,  however,  requires  to  be  laid  on  the  land 
immediately  after  ploughing,  in  order  that  the  soil  may  at 
once  imbibe  its  properties  ;  while  at  the  same  time,  it  requires 
a  little  manure  as  well,  as  it  is  apt,  at  first,  to  be  of  too  acrid 
a  nature,  at  least  where  it  is  not  pasture  land  that  it  is  laid 
upon ;  in  addition  to  which,  by  its  very  freshness  it  may  pos- 
sibly injure  the  soil,  whatever  the  nature  of  it  may  be;  so 
much  so,  indeed,  that  the  land  is  never  fertile  the  first  year 
after  it  has  been  employed.  It  is  a  matter  of  consideration 
also  for  what  kind  of  soil  the  marl  is  required  ;  if  the  soil  is 
moist,  a  dry  marl  is  best  suited  for  it ;  and  if  dry,  a  rich 
unctuous  marl.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  land  is  of  a  medium 
quality,  chalk  or  columbine s8  marl  is  the  best  suited  for  it. 

CHAP.    5.    (9.) THE    EMPLOYMENT    OF    ASHES.  • 

The  agriculturists  of  the  parts  of  Italy  beyond  the  river 

85  This  would  rather  seem  to  be  a  name  borrowed  from  the  Greek, 
aiyXrjtig,  "shining,"  and  ireXtdg,  "white."  Notwithstanding  the  resem- 
blance,' however,  it  is  just  possible  that  it  may  have  been  derived  from 
the  Gallic.  Fee  queries  whether  this  is  the  schistoid  calcareous  marl,  or 
the  schistoid  argillaceous  marl,  the  laminae  of  which  divide  with  great  fa- 
cility, and  the  varieties  of  which  display  many  colours. 

86  A  variety  of  the  terreous  marl. 

87  It  has  the  effect  of  augmenting  their  fruitfulness,  and  ameliorating 
the  quality  of  the  fruit.  Lime  is  still  considered  an  excellent  improver  for 
strong,  humid  soils. 

B8  From  this  passage,  Fee  thinks  that  the  Columbine  marl  must  have 
been  of  the  white,  slightly  sparkling  kind. 


456  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

Padus,  are  such  admirers  of  ashes89  for  this  purpose,  that  they 
even  prefer  it  as  a  manure  to  the  dung  of  beasts  of  burden; 
indeed,  they  are  in  the  habit  of  burning  dung  for  this  pur- 
pose, on  account  of  its  superior  lightness.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, use  them  indiscriminately  upon  the  same  soil,  nor  do 
they  employ  ashes  for  promoting  the  growth  of  shrubs,  nor,  in 
fact,  of  some  of  the  cereals,  as  we  shall  have  occasion90  to 
mention  hereafter.  There  are  some  persons  who  are  of  opinion 
also  that  dust91  imparts  nutriment  to  grapes,  and  cover  them 
with  it  while  they  are  growing,  taking  care  to  throw  it  also 
upon  the  roots  of  the  vines  and  other  trees.  It  is  well 
known  that  this  is  done  in  the  province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
and  it  is  a  fact  even  better  ascertained  that  the  grape  ripens 
all  the  sooner  for  it ;  indeed,  the  dust  there  contributes  more 
to  its  ripeness  than  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

CHAP.    6. JLLNTJRE. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  manure,  the  use  of  which  is  of 
very  ancient  date.  In  the  times  of  Homer92  even,  the  aged 
king  is  represented  as  thus  enriching  the  land  by  the  labour  of 
his  own  hands.  Tradition  reports  that  King  Augeas  was  the 
first  in  Greece  to  make  use  of  it,  and  that  Hercules  introduced 
the  practice  into  Italy ;  which  country  has,  however,  immor- 
talized the  name  of  its  king,  Stercutus,93  the  son  of  Faunus, 
as  claiming  the  honour  of  this  invention.  M.  Varro94  assigns 
the  first  rank  for  excellence  to  the  dung  of  thrushes  kept  in 
aviaries,  and  lauds  it  as  being  not  only  good  for  land,  but 
excellent  food  for  oxen  and  swine  as  well ;  indeed,  he  goes  so 
far  as  to  assert  that  there  is  no  food  that  they  will  grow  fat  upon 
more  speedily.  We  really  have  some  reason  to  augur  well  of 
the  manners  of  the  present  day,  if  it  is  true  that  in  the  days 
of  our  ancestors  there  were  aviaries  of  such  vast  extent  as  to 
be  able  to  furnish  manure  for  the  fields. 

89  Though  ashes  fertilize  the  ground,  more  particularly  when  of  an  ar- 
gillaceous nature,  they  are  not  so  extensively  used  now  as  in  ancient  times. 
Pliny  alludes  here  more  particularly  to  wood  and  dunghill  ashes. 

90  This,  however,  he  omits  to  do. 

91  He  alludes,  probably,  to  Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  B.  iii.  c.  22. 

92  Odyssey  xxiv.  225. 

93  From  "stercus,"  "dung."     A  fabulous  personage,  most  probably. 

94  De  Re  Rust.  i.  38. 


Chap.  6.]  manure.  457 

Columella95  gives  the  second  rank  to  pigeon  manure,96  and 
the  next  to  that  of  the  poultry-yard  ;  but  he  condemns  that 
of  the  aquatic  birds.  Some  authors,  again,  are  agreed  in  re- 
garding the  residue  of  the  human  food97  as  the  very  best  of 
all  manures ;  while  others  would  only  employ  the  superfluous 
portion  of  our  drink,98  mixing  with  it  the  hair  that  is  to  be 
found  in  the  curriers'  workshops.  Some,  however,  are  for 
employing  this  liquid  by  itself,  though  they  would  mix  water 
with  it  once  more,  and  in  larger  quantities  even  than  when 
originally  mixed  with  the  wine  at  our  repasts  ;  there  being  a 
double  share  of  noxious  qualities  to  correct,  not  only  those 
originally  belonging  to  the  wine,99  but  those  imparted  to  it 
by  the  human  body  as  well.  Such  are  the  various  methods 
by  which  we  vie  with  each  other  in  imparting  nutriment  to 
the  earth  even. 

Next  to  the  manures  above  mentioned,  the  dung  of  swine  is 
highly  esteemed,  Columella  being  the  only  writer  that  con- 
demns it.  Some,  again,  speak  highly  of  the  dung  of  all 
quadrupeds  that  have  been  fed  on  cytisus,  while  there  are 
others  who  prefer  that  of  pigeons.  Next  to  these  is  the 
dung  of  goats,  and  then  of  sheep  ;  after  which  comes  that  of 
oxen,  and,  last  of  all,  of  the  beasts  of  burden.  Such  were 
the  distinctions  that  were  established  between  the  various  ma- 
nures among  the  ancients,  such  the  precepts  that  they  have  left 
us,  and  these  I  have  here  set  forth  as  being  not  the  mere  subtle 
inventions  of  genius,  but  because  their  utility  has  been  proved 
in  the  course  of  a  long  series  of  years.  In  some  of  the  pro- 
vinces, too,  which  abound  more  particularly  in  cattle,  by  rea- 

95  De  Re  Rust.  ii.  15. 

9fi  Mixed  with  other  manures,  it  is  employed  at  the  present  day  in  Nor- 
mandy. 

97  This  manure  is  still  extensively  employed  in  Flanders,  Switzerland, 
and  the  vicinity  of  Paris.  In  the  north  of  England  it  is  mixed  with  ashes, 
and  laid  on  the  fields.  There  was  an  old  prejudice,  that  vegetation  grown 
with  it  has  a  fetid  odour,  but  it  has  for  some  time  been  looked  upon  as 
exploded. 

98  Or  urine.  In  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  a  manure  is  employed  ealled 
urate,  of  which  urine  forms  the  basis. 

99  Fee  seems  to  think  that  this  passage  means  that  the  bad  smell  of  urine 
is  imparted  to  it  by  the  wine  that  is  drunk.  It  is  difficult  to  say  what 
could  have  been  the  noxious  qualities  imparted  by  wine  to  urine  as  a  ma- 
nure, and  Pliny  probably  would  have  been  somewhat  at  a  loss  to  explain 
his  meaning. 


458  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

son  of  their  prolific  soil,  we  have  seen  the  manure  passed 
through  a  sieve  like  so  much  flour,  and  perfectly  devoid, 
through  lapse  of  time,1  of  all  bad  smell  or  repulsive  look, 
being  changed  in  its  appearance  to  something  rather  agreeable 
than  otherwise.  In  more  recent  times  it  has  been  found  that 
the  olive  thrives  more  particularly  in  soil  that  has  been  ma- 
nured with  the  ashes2  of  the  lime-kiln.  To  the  ancient  rules 
Yarro3  has  added,  that  corn  land  should  be  manured  with  horse- 
dung,  that  being  the  lightest  manure  of  all,  while  meadow 
,  land,  he  says,  thrives  better  with  a  manure  of  a  more  heavy 
nature,  and  supplied  by  beasts  that  have  been  fed  upon  barley ; 
this  last  tending  more  particularly  to  the  better  growth  of 
grass.4  Some  persons,  indeed,  prefer  the  dung  of  the  beasts 
of  burden  to  that  of  oxen  even,  the  manure  of  the  sheep  to 
that  of  the  goat,  and  the  manure  of  the  ass  to  all  others,  the 
reason  being  that  that  animal  masticates  the  most  slowly  of 
them  all.  Experience,  however,  has  pronounced  against  these 
dicta  of  Yarro  and  Columella  ;  but  it  is  universally  agreed  by 
all  writers  that  there  is  nothing  more  beneficial  than  to  turn5 
up  a  crop  of  lupines,  before  they  have  podded,  with  either  the 
plough  or  the  fork,  or  else  to  cut  them  and  bury  them  in 
heaps  at  the  roots  of  trees  and  vines.  It  is  thought,  also, 
that  in  places  where  no  cattle  are  kept,  it  is  advantageous  to 
manure  the  earth  with  stubble  or  even  fern.  "  You  can  make 
manure,"  Cato6  says,  "of  litter,  or  else  of  lupines,  straw, 
beanstalks,  or  the  leaves  of  the  holm-oak  and  quercus.  Pull 
up  the  wallwort  from  among  the  crops  of  corn,  as  also  the 
hemlock  that  grows  there,  together  with  the  thick  grass  and 
sedge  that  you  find  growing  about  the  willow-plots ;  of  all  this, 
mixed  with  rotten  leaves,7  you  may  make  a  litter  for  sheep  and 

1  In  lapse  of  time,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  it  is  reduced  to  the  state  of 
humus  or  mould. 

2  Consisting  of  lime  mixed  with  vegetable  ashes. 

3  De  Re  Rust.  i.  38. 

4  "  Herbas."  This  would  appear  to  mean  grass  only  here ;  though 
Fee  seems,  to  think  that  it  means  various  kinds  of  herbs. 

5  This  method  is  sometimes  adopted  in  England  with  buckwheat,  trefoil, 
peas,  and  other  leguminous  plants ;  and  in  the  south  of  France  lupines  are 
still  extensively  used  in  the  same  manner,  after  the  usage  of  the  ancient 
Romans  here  described.  The  French  also  employ,  but  more  rarely,  for 
the  same  purpose,  the  large  turnip,  vetches,  peas,  trefoil,  Windsor  beans, 
sanfoin,  lucerne,  &c. ;  but  it  is  found  a  very  expensive  practice, 

6  De  Re  Rust.  37. 

7  "  Frondam   putidam."     Fee  thinks  that  this  expression  is  used  in 


Chap.  8.]  THE  PEOPEE  MODE  OF  USING  MANUEE.  4.59 

oxen.  If  a  vine  should  happen  to  be  but  poor  and  meagre, 
prune8  the  shoots  of  it,  and  plough  them  in  round  about  it." 
The  same  author  says,  also,9  "  When  you  are  going  to  sow  corn 
in  a  field,  fold  your  sheep10  there  first." 

CHAP.  7. CEOPS   WHICH    TEND    TO   IMPEOVE    THE    LAND  :    CEOPS 

WHICH  EXHAUST   IT. 

Cato11  says,  also,  that  there  are  some  crops  which  tend  to 
nourish  the  earth :  thus,  for  instance,  corn  land  is  manured  by 
the  lupine,  the  bean,  and  the  vetch  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  chick-pea  exercises  a  contrary  influence,  both  because  it  is 
pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  is  of  a  salt  nature  ;  the  same  is  the 
case,  too,  with  barley,  fenugreek,  and  fitches,  all  of  which  have 
a  tendency  to  burn  up13  corn  land,  as,  in  fact,  do  all  those 
plants  which  are  pulled  up  by  the  roots.  Take  care,  too,  not  to 
plant  stone-fruits  on  corn  land.  Virgil13  is  of  opinion,  also,  that 
corn  land  is  scorched  by  flax,  oats,  and  poppies. 

CHAP.  8. THE  PEOPEE  MODE  OF  USING  MANUEE. 

It  is  recommended,14  also,  that  the  dung-heap  should  be 
kept  in  the  open  air,  in  a  spot  deep  sunk  and  well  adapted 
to  receive  the  moisture :  it  should  be  covered,  too,  with  straw, 
that  it  may  not  dry  up  with  the  sun,  care  being  taken  to  drive 
a  stake  of  robur  into  the  ground,  to  prevent  serpents  from 
breeding15  there.     It  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  that  the 

reference  to  the  "  ebulum,"  dane-wort,  wall- wort,  or  dwarf-elder,  previously 
mentioned. 

8  "Concidito."  Sillig  adopts  the  reading  "  comburito,"  "burn  the 
shoots,  and  dig  in,  &c."     But  in  the  original  the  word  is  "  concidito." 

9  De  Re  Rust.  30. 

10  This  is  still  extensively  practised  in  England  and'  France,  and  other 
countries.  The  azote,  even,  that  exhales  from  the  bodies  of  the  animals, 
is  supposed  to  have  a  fertilizing  influence,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dung, 
grease  of  the  body,  and  urine.  "  De  Re  Rust.  37. 

_    12  "Exsugunt,"  «  suck  up,"  or  " drain,"  is  one  reading  in  Cato ;  and  it 
is  not  improbable  that  it  is  the  correct  one. 

13  Georg.  i.  77,  78 : 

"  Urit  enim  lini  campum  seges,  urit  avenae, 
Urunt  Lethseo  perfusa  papavera  somno." 

14  Fee  is  of  opinion,  that,  with  reference  to  this  branch  of  agriculture, 
the  ancients  displayed  more  skill  and  intelligence  than  the  moderns. 

15  This  absurdity  is  copied  from  Varro  and  Columella. 


460  plint's  natural  history.         [Book  XVII. 

manure  should  be.  laid  upon  the  land  while16  the  west  winds 
prevail,  and  during  a  dry  moon.  Most  persons,  however,  mis- 
understand this  precept,  and  think  this  should  be  done  when 
the  west  winds  are  just  beginning  to  blow,  and  in  the  month 
of  February  only ;  it  being  really  the  fact  that  most  crops 
require  manuring  in  other  months  as  well.  At  whatever 
period,  however,  it  may  be  thought  proper  to  manure  the 
land,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  that  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing due  west  at  the  time,  and  that  the  moon  is  on  the  wane, 
and  quite  dry.  Such  precautions  as  these  will  increase  in  a 
most  surprising  degree  the  fertilizing  effects  of  manure. 

CHAP.   9,.   (10.) — THE  MODES  I1ST  WHICH  TREES  BEAR. 

Having  now  treated  at  sufficient  length  of  the  requisite  con- 
ditions of  the  weather  and  the  soil,  we  shall  proceed  to  speak 
of  those  trees  which  are  the  result  of  the  care  and  inventive 
skill  of  man.  Indeed,  the  varieties  of  them  are  hardly  less 
numerous  than  of  those  which  are  produced  by  Nature,17  so 
abundantly  have  we  testified  our  gratitude  in  return  for  her 
numerous  bounties.  For  these  trees,  we  find,  are  reared  either 
from  seed,  or  else  by  transplanting,  by  layers,  by  slips  torn  from 
the  stock,  by  cuttings,  by  grafting,  or  by  cutting  into  the  trunk 
of  the  tree.  But  as  to  the  story  that  the  leaves  of  the  palm 
are  planted  by  the  Babylonians,  and  so  give  birth18  to  a  tree, 
I  am  really  surprised  that  Trogus  should  have  ever  believed 
it.  Some  of  the  trees  are  reproduced  by  several  of  the  me- 
thods above  enumerated,  others,  again,  by  all  of  them. 

CHAP.  10. PLANTS  WHICH  ARE  PROPAGATED  BY  SEED. 

It  is  Nature  herself  that  has  taught  us  most  of  these  me- 
thods, and  more  particularly  that  of  sowing  seed,  as  it  was 
very  soon  evident  how  the  seed  on  falling  to  the  ground  revived 

16  I.  e.  in  the  early  part  of  spring.  In  modern  times,  the  period  for 
manuring  varies,  according  to  the  usage  of  different  localities,  heing  prac- 
tised in  all  the  four  seasons  of  the  year,  according  to  the  crops,  weather, 
and  climate.  17  See  B.  xvi.  c.  58. 

18  The  palm  is  grown  in  Africa  from  shoots  thrown  out  from  the  axillae 
of  the  leaves ;  and  it  is  in  this  circumstance,  Fee  thinks,  that  the  story  told 
by  Trogus  must  have  originated.  Some  of  the  ferns  throw  out  adventitious 
buds  from  the  summit  of  the  leaf,  and  the  orange  tree  and  some  others 
occasionally  have  them  at  the  base  of  the  leaf. 


Chap.  11.]  TEEES   WHICH   NEVEE   DEGENEEATE.  461 

again  in  germination.  Indeed,  there  are  some  trees  that  are 
capable  of  being  propagated  in  no  other  way,  the  chesnut19 
and  the  walnut,  for  instance ;  with  the  sole  exception,  of  course, 
of  such  as  are  employed  for  coppice  wood.  By  this  method, 
too,  as  well  as  the  others,  some  trees  are  propagated,  though 
from  a  seed  of  a  different  nature,  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
vine,  the  apple,  and  the  pear  ;20  the  seed  being  in  all  these 
cases  in  the  shape  of  a  pip,  and  not  the  fruit  itself,  as  in  that  of 
the  chesnut  and  the  walnut.  The  medlar,  too,  can  also  be 
propagated  by  the  agency  of  seed.  All  trees,  however,  that  are 
grown  by  this  method  are  very  slow  in  coming  to  maturity,21 
degenerate22  very  rapidly,  and  must  often  be  renewed  by  graft- 
ing :  indeed,  the  chesnut  even  sometimes  requires  to  be  grafted. 

CHAP.  1 1 . TEEES  WHICH  KEVEE  DEGENEEATE. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  trees  which  have  the  pro- 
perty of  never  degenerating,  in  whatever  manner  they  are  re- 
produced, the  cypress,  palm,  and  laurel,23  for  instance  :  for  we 
find  that  the  laurel  is  capable  of  being  propagated  in  several 
ways.  We  have  already  made  mention24  of  the  various  kinds 
of  laurel ;  those  known  as  the  Augustan,  the  baccalis,  and  the 
tinus25  are  all  reproduced  in  a  similar  manner.  The  berries 
are  gathered  in  the  month  of  January,  after  they  have  been 
dried  by  the  north-east  winds  which  then  prevail ;  they  are 
then  kept28  separate  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  being 
liable  to  ferment  if  left  in  a  heap.     After  this,  they  are  first 

19  Virgil  says,  Georgics  ii.  14  : 

"  Pars  autem  posito  surgunt  de  semine ;  ut  altae 
Castanese,  nemorumque  Jovi  quae  maxirae  frondet." 

20  This  method  of  reproduction  is  seldom  or  never  employed  ;  plants  or 
cuttings  only  being  used  for  the  purpose. 

21  Besides  which,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  will  reproduce  the  variety,  the 
seed  of  which  was  originally  sown. 

22  In  some  cases,  they  are  more  particularly  liable  to  disease — the  apple, 
for  instance. 

23  Because  the  mode  of  cultivation  adopted  has  little  or  no  influence  upon 
them.  The  palm,  however,  to  bear  good  fruit,  requires  the  careful  atten- 
tion of  man.     It  is  not  capable  of  being  grafted. 

24  In  B.  xv.  c.  39.  The  laurel  may  be  grown  from  cuttings  or  shoots, 
and  from  seed. 

25  Known  as  the  Laurus  tinus,  or  Viburnum  tinus  of  Linnaeus. 

26  This  is  not  done  at  the  present  day,  as  it  is  found  that  the  oil  which 
they  contain  turns  rancid,  and  prevents  germination. 


462  pliny's  natural  histoey.  [Book  XVII. 

seasoned  with  smoke,  and  then  steeped  in  urine,  preparatory 
to  sowing.27  Some  persons  put  them  in  baskets  of  osier,  and 
tread  them  down  with  the  feet  in  running  water,  until  the 
outer  skin  is  removed,  as  it  is  found  that  the  moisture28  which 
they  contain  is  detrimental  to  them,  and  prevents  them  from 
germinating.  A  trench  is  then  dug,  about  a  palm  in  depth, 
and  somewhere  about  twenty  of  the  berries  are  then  put  into 
it,  being  laid  in  a  heap  :  this  is  usually  done  in  the  month  of 
March.  These  kinds  of  laurel  admit  of  being  propagated 
from  layers  also ;  but  the  triumphal29  laurel  can  be  reproduced 
from  cuttings  only. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  myrtle30  are  produced  in  Campania 
from  the  berry  only,  but  at  Rome  from  layers.  Democritus, 
however,  says  that  the  Tarentine  myrtle  may  be  re-produced 
another  way.31  They  take  the  largest  berries  and  pound  them 
lightly  so  as  not  to  crush  the  pips :  with  the  paste  that  is  thus 
made  a  rope  is  covered,  and  put  lengthwise  in  the  ground ; 
the  result  of  which  is  that  a  hedge  is  formed  as  thick  as  a  wall, 
with  plenty  of  slips  for  transplanting.  In  the  same  way,  too, 
they  plant  brambles  to  make  a  hedge,  by  first  covering  a  rope 
of  rushes  with  a  paste  made  of  bramble-berries.  In  case  of 
necessity,  it  is  possible  at  the  end  of  three  years  to  transplant 
the  suckers  of  the  laurel  and  the  myrtle  that  have  been  thus 
re-produced. 

With  reference  to  the  plants  that  are  propagated  from  seed, 
Mago  treats  at  considerable  length  of  the  nut-trees — he  says 
that  the  almond32  should  be  sown  in  a  soft  argillaceous  earth, 
upon  a  spot  that  looks  towards  the  south — that  it  thrives  also 
in  a  hard,  warm  soil,  but  that  in  a  soil  which  is  either  unctuous 
or  moist,  it  is  sure  to  die,  or  else  to  bear  no  fruit.  He  recom- 
mends also  for  sowing  those  more  particularly  which  are  of  a 
curved  shape  like  a  sickle,  and  the  produce  of  a  young  tree, 

27  These  methods  of  preparation  are  no  longer  employed. 

28  It  is  for  this  reason,  as  already  stated,  that  they  should  be  sown  at 
once. 

29  See  B.  xv.  c.  39.     He  there  calls  it  "  sterilis,"  "  barren." 

30  See  B.  xv.  c.  37.  The  myrtle  reproduces  itself  in  its  native  countries 
with  great  facility,  but  in  such  case  tbe  flowers  are  only  single.  "Where  a 
double  flower  is  required,  it  is  grown  from  layers. 

31  No  better,  Fee  says,  than  the  ordinary  method  of  making  a  myrtle 
hedge. 

32  The  almond  requires  a  dry,  light  earth,  and  a  southern  aspect. 


Chap.  12.]  PROPAGATION  BY   SUCKERS.  463 

and  he  says  that  they  should  be  steeped  for  three  days  in 
diluted  manure,  or  else  the  day  before  they  are  sown  in  honey 
and  water.33  He  says,  also,  that  they  should  be  put  in  the 
ground  with  the  point  downwards,  and  the  sharp  edge  towards 
the  north-east ;  and  that  they  should  be  sown  in  threes  and 
placed  triangularly,  at  the  distance  of  a  palm  from  each  other, 
care  being  taken  to  water  them  for  ten  days,  until  such  time 
as  they  have  germinated. 

Walnuts  when  sown  are  placed  lengthwise,34  lying  upon 
the  sides  where  the  shells  are  joined;  and  pine  nuts  are 
mostly  put,  in  sevens,  into  perforated  pots,  or  else  sown  in  the 
same  way  as  the  berries  are  in  the  laurels  which  are  re-produced 
by  seed.  The  citron35  is  propagated  from  pips  as  well  as  layers, 
and  the  sorb  from  seed,  by  sucker,  or  by  slip  :  the  citron,  how- 
ever, requires  a  warm  site,  the  sorb  a  cold  and  moist  one. 

CHAP.  12. PROPAGATION  BY  SUCKERS. 

Mature,  too,36  has  taught  us  the  art  of  forming  nurseries ; 
when  from  the  roots  of  many  of  the  trees  we  see  shooting  up  a 
dense  forest  of  suckers,  an  offspring  that  is  destined  to  be 
killed  by  the  mother  that  has  borne  them.  For  by  the  shade 
of  the  tree  these  suckers  are  indiscriminately  stifled,  as  we 
often  see  the  case  in  the  laurel,  the  pomegranate,  the  plane, 
the  cherry,  and  the  plum.  There  are  some  few  trees,  the  elm 
and  the  palm  for  instance,  in  which  the  branches  spare  the 
suckers ;  however,  they  never  make  their  appearance  in  any 
of  the  trees  except  those  in  which  the  roots,  from  their  fond- 
ness for  the  sun  and  rain,  keep  close,  as  they  range,  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  usual  not  to  place  all  these  suc- 
kers at  once  in  the  ground  upon  the  spot  which  they  are  finally 
to  occupy,  but  first  to  entrust  them  to  the  nursery,  and  to 
allow  them  to  grow  in  seed-plots,  after  which  they  are  finally 
transplanted.  This  transplanting  softens  down,  in  a  most  re- 
markable manner,  those  trees  even  which  grow  wild  ;  whether 
it  is  that  trees,  like  men,  are  naturally  fond  of  novelty  and 

33  These  precautions  are  no  longer  observed  at  the  present  day. 

34  This  precaution,  too,  is  no  longer  observed. 

35  The  citron  is  produced,-  at  the  present  day,  from  either  the  pips,  plants, 
or  cuttings. 

36  This  passage  is  borrowed  almost  verbatim  from  Virgil,  Georgics  ii. 
50,  et  seq. 


464  pliny's  nattjeal  histoey.  [Book  XVII. 

change  of  scene,  or  that,  on  leaving  the  spots  of  their  original 
growth,  or  to  which  they  have  been  transplanted,  they  lay 
aside  their  bad  qualities  and  become  tame,  like  the  wild  ani- 
mals, the  moment  they  are  separated  from  the  parent  stock. 

CHAP.    13. PROPAGATION  BY  SLIPS  AND  CUTTINGS. 

Nature  has  also  discovered  another  method,  which  is  very 
similar  to  the  last— for  slips  torn  away  from  the  tree  will  live. 
In  adopting  this  plan,  care  should  be  taken  to  pull  out  the 
haunch37  of  the  slip  where  it  adheres  to  the  stock,  and  so  re- 
move with  it  a  portion  of  the  fibrous  body  of  the  parent  tree. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  pomegranate,  the  hazel,  the  apple, 
the  sorb,  the  medlar,  the  ash,  the  fig,  and  more  particularly 
the  vine,  are  propagated.  The  quince,  however,  if  planted  in 
this  way  will  degenerate,38  and  it  has  been  consequently  found 
a  better  plan  to  cut  slips  and  plant  them :  a  method  which 
was  at  first  adopted  for  making  hedges,  with  the  elder,  the 
quince,  and  the  bramble,  but  came  afterwards  to  be  applied  to 
cultivated  trees,  such  as  the  poplar,  the  alder,  and  the  willow, 
which  last  will  grow  if  even  the  slip  is  planted  upside  down.39 
In  the  case  of  cuttings,  they  are  planted  at  once  in  the  spot 
which  it  is  intended  they  should  occupy.:  but  before  we  pass 
on  to  the  other  methods  of  propagation,  it  seems  as  well  to 
mention  the  care  that  should  be  expended  upon  making  seed- 
plots.40 

CHAP.    14. SEED-PLOTS. 

In  laying  out  a  seed-plot  it  is  necessary  that  a  soil  of  the 
very  highest  quality  should  be  selected ;  for  it  is  very  often 
requisite  that  a  nurse  should  be  provided  for  the  young  plants, 
who  is  more  ready  to  humour  them  than  their  parent  soil.  The 
ground   should  therefore   be  both   dry   and   nutritious,    well 

37  "  Perna."  This  method  of  reproduction  is  still  adopted,  but  it  is  not 
to  be  recommended,  as  the  young  tree,  before  it  throws  out  a  root,  is  liable 
to  be  overthrown  by  high  winds.     Virgil  mentions  it,  Georg.  h.  23. 

38  Palladi-us  only  says  that  the  growth  of  the  quince  in  such  case  is  very 

39  This  experiment  has  been  tried  for  curiosity's  sake,  and  has  succeeded ; 
the  roots  become  dry,  lose  their  fibres,  and  then  develop  buds,  from  which 
branches  issue ;  while  the  buds  of  the  summit  become  changed  into  roots. 

*o  "  Seminarii :"   "  nurseries,"  as  they  are  more  commonly  called. 


Chap.  14.]  SEED   PLOTS.  465 

turned  up  with  the  mattock,  replete  with  hospitality  to  the 
stranger  plants,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  resembling  the  soil  to 
which  it  is  intended  they  should  be  transplanted.  .But,  a 
thing  that  is  of  primary  importance,  the  stones  must  be  care- 
fully gathered  from  off  the  ground,  and  it  should  be  walled  in, 
to  ensure  its  protection  from  the  depredations  of  poultry  ;  the 
soil,  too,  should  have  as  few  chinks  and  crannies  as  possible, 
so  that  the  sun  may  not  be  enabled  to  penetrate  and  burn  up 
the  roots.  The  young  trees  should  be  planted  at  distances41  of 
a  foot  and  a-half,  for  if  they  happen  to  touch  one  another,  in 
addition  to  other  inconveniences,  they  are  apt  to  breed  worms  ; 
for  which  reason  it  is  that  they  should  be  hoed  as  often  as 
possible,  and  all  weeds  pulled  up,  the  young  plants  themselves 
being  carefully  primed,  and  so  accustomed  to  the  knife. 

Cato42  recommends,  too,  that  hurdles  should  be  set  up  upon 
forks,  the  height  of  a  man,  for  the  purpose  of  intercepting  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  that  they  should  be  covered  with  straw 
to  keep  off  the  cold.43  He  says  that  it  is  in  this  way  that  the 
seeds  of  the  apple  and  the  pear  are  reared,  the  pine-nut  also, 
and  the  cypress,44  which  is  propagated  from  seed  as  well.  In 
this  last,  the  seed  is  remarkably45  small,  so  much  so,  in  fact,  as 
to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  It  is  a  marvellous  fact,  and  one  which 
ought  not  to  be  overlooked,  that  a  tree  should  be  produced 
from  sources  so  minute,  while  the  grains  of  wheat  and  of 
barley  are  so  very  much  larger,  not  to  mention  the  bean. 
What  proportion,  too,  is  there  between  the  apple  and  the 
pear  tree,  and  the  seeds  from  which  they  take  their  rise  ?  It 
is  from  such  beginnings,  too,  as  these  that  springs  the  timber 
that  is  proof  against  the  blows  of  the  hatchet,  presses46  that 
weights  of  enormous  size  even  are  unable  to  bend,  masts  that 
support  the  sails  of  ships,  and  battering-rams  that  are  able  to 

41  The  distance,  in  reality,  ought  to  vary  according  to  the  nature  and 
species  of  the  trees,  and  the  height  they  are  to  he  allowed  to  attain. 

42  De  Re  Rust.  48. 

43  These  precautions  are  not  looked  upon  as  necessary  for  the  indigenous 
trees  at  the  present  day.  For  the  first  year,  however,  Fee  says,  the  hurdles 
might  be  found  very  useful. 

44  As  the  young  cypress  is  very  delicate,  in  the  northern  climates,  Fee 
says,  this  mode  of  protecting  it  in  the  nursery  might  prove  advantageous. 

43  There  is  some  exaggeration  in  this  account  of  the  extreme  smalluess 
of  the  seed  of  the  cypress. 
46  "Wine  and  oil-presses,  for  instance. 
VOL.    Ill,  H   H 


466  plint's  satueal  histoey.  [Book  XVII. 

shake  even  towers  and  walls  !  Such  is  the  might,  such  is  the 
power  that  is  displayed  by  Nature.  But,  a  marvel  that  tran- 
scends all  the  rest,  is  the  fact  of  a  vegetable  receiving  its  birth 
from  a  tear-like  drop,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  mention47  in 
the  appropriate  place. 

To  resume,  however :  the  tiny  balls  which  contain  the  seed 
are  collected  from  the  female  cypress — for  the  male,  as  I  have 
already48  stated,  is  barren.  This  is  done  in  the  months  which 
J  have  previously49  mentioned,  and  they  are  then  dried  in  the 
sun,  upon  which  they  soon  burst,  and  the  seed  drops  out, 
a  substance  of  which  the  ants  are  remarkably  fond  ;  this  fact, 
too,  only  serves  to  enhance  the  marvel,  when  we  reflect  that 
an  insect  so  minute  is  able  to  destroy  the  first  germ  of  a  tree 
of  such  gigantic  dimensions.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  month 
of  April,  the  ground  being  first  levelled  with  rollers,  or  else 
by  means  of  rammers  ;50  after  which  the  seed  is  thickly  sown, 
and  earth  is  spread  upon  it  with  a  sieve,  about  a  thumb  deep. 
If  laid  beneath  a  considerable  weight,  the  seed  is  unable  to 
spring  up,  and  is  consequently  thrown  back  again  into  the 
earth;  for  which  reason  it  is  often  trodden  only  into  the 
ground.  It  is  then  lightly  watered  after  sunset  every  three 
days,  that  it  may  gradually  imbibe  the  moisture  until  such 
time  as  it  appears  above  ground.  The  young  trees  are  trans- 
planted at  the  end  of  a  year,  when  about  three-quarters  of  a 
foot  in  length,  due  care  being  taken  to  watch  for  a  clear  day 
with  no  wind,  such  being  the  best  suited  for  the  process  of 
transplanting.  It  is  a  singular  thing,  but  still  it  is  a  fact,  that 
if,  on  the  day  of  transplanting,  and  only  that  day,  there  is  the 
slightest  drop  of  rain  or  the  least  breeze  stirring,  it  is  attended 
with  danger51  to  the  young  trees ;  while  for  the  future  they 
are  quite  safe  from  peril,  though  at  the  same  time  they 
have  a  great  aversion  to  all  humidity.52     The  jujube-tree53  is 

47  B.  xix.  c.  48,  and  B.  xx,  c.  11.  As  Fee  remarks,  this  is  a  fabulous 
assertion,  which  may  still  be  based  upon  truth  ;  as  in  gum-resin,  for  in- 
stance, we  find  occasionally  the  seeds  of  the  parent  tree  accidentally  enclosed 
in  the  tear-like  drops. 

48  In  B.  xvi.  c.  47.  49  In  c.  11  of  this  Book. 

so  c<  Volgiolis."  This  word  is  found  nowhere  else,  and  the  reading  is 
doubtful.  51  This  is,  at  least,  an  exaggeration. 

62  See  B.  xvi.  c.  31,  and  c.  60. 

53  It  is  propagated  at  the  present  day  both  from  seed  and  suckers,  but 
mostly  from  the  latter,  as  the  seed  does  not  germinate  for  two  years. 


Chap.  15.]  MODE   OF   PROPAGATING   THE    ELM.  467 

propagated  from  seed  sown  in  the  month  of  April.  As  to  the 
tuber,64  it  is  the  best  plan  to  graft  it  upon  the  wild  plum,  the 
quince,  and  the  calabrix,55  this  last  being  the  name  that  is 
given  to  a  wild  thorn.  Every  kind  of  thorn,  too,  will  receive 
grafts  remarkably  well  from  the  myxa  plum,56  as  well  as 
from  the  sorb. 

(11.)  As  to  recommending  transferring  the  young  plants  from 
the  seed-plot  to  another  spot  before  finally  planting  them  out, 
I  look  upon  it  as  advice  that  would  only  lead  to  so  much  unne- 
cessary trouble,  although  it  is  most  confidently  urged  that  by 
this  process  the  leaves  are  sure  to  be  considerably  larger  than 
they  otherwise  would. 

CHAP.    15. THE  MODE  OF  PROPAGATING  THE  ELM. 

The  elm  seed  is  collected  about  the  calends  of  March,57 
before  the  tree  is  covered  with  leaves,  but  is  just  begkmirig  to 
have  a  yellow  tint.  It  is  then  left  to  dry  two  days  in  the 
shade,  after  which  it  is  thickly  sown  in  a  broken  soil,  earth 
that  has  been  riddled  through  a  fine  sieve  being  thrown  upon 
it,  to  the  same  thickness  as  in  the  case  of  the  cypress.56  If 
there  should  happen  to  be  no  rain,  it  is  necessary  to  water  the 
seed.  From  the  nursery  the  young  plants  are  carried  at  the 
end  of  a  year  to  the  elm-plots,  where  they  are  planted  at  inter- 
vals of  a  foot  each  way.  It  is  better  to  plant  elms  in  autumn 
that  are  to  support  the  vine,  as  they  are  destitute 59  of  seed 
and  are  only  propagated  from  plants.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
City,  the  young  elms  are  transplanted  into  the  vinejTard  at 
five  years  old,  or,  according  to  the  plan  adopted  by  some,  when 
they  are  twenty  feet  in  height.     A  furrow  is  first  drawn  for 

w  See  B.  xv.  c.  14.  Probably  a  variety  of  the  jujube ;  but  if  so,  it 
could  hardly  be  grafted  on  trees  of  so  different  a  nature  as  those  here  men- 
tioned-. 

55  This  tree  has  not  been  identified.  Dalechamps  thinks  that  it  is  a  species 
of  gooseberry,  probably  the  same  as  the  Bibes  grossularia  of  Linnaius.  It 
has  been  also  suggested  that  it  may  be  the  Spina  cervina  of  the  Italians, 
the  Bhamnus  catbarticus  of  Liiinams.  the  purgative  buckthorn. 

56  Fee  doubts  if  the  plum  can  be  grafted  on  the  thorn. 

57  First  of  March. 

58  The  thickness  of  the  thumb.     See  the  last  Chapter. 

59  He  alludes  to  the  Atinian  elm,  of  which  he  has  already  said  the  same 
in  B.  xvi.  c.  29. 

H  H  2 


468  pliny's  natural  histoet.  [Book  XVII. 

the  purpose,  the  name  given  to  which  is  "  nov<  nanus," 60  being 
three  feet  in  depth,  and  the  same  in  breadth  or  even  more  ; 
into  this  the  young  tree  is  put,  and  the  earth  is  moulded  up 
around  it  to  the  height  of  three  feet  every  way.  These  mounds 
are  known  by  the  name  of  "arula"61  in  Campania.  The 
intervals  are  arranged  according  to  the  nature  of  the  spot ;  but 
where  the  country  is  level,  it  is  requisite  that  the  trees  should 
be  planted  wider  apart.  Poplars  and  ashes,  too,  as  they  ger- 
minate with  greater  rapidity,  ought  to  be  planted  out  at  an 
earlier  period,  or,  in  other  words,  immediately  after  the  ides  of 
February.62  In  arranging  trees  and  shrubs  for  the  support  of 
the  vine,  the  form  of  the  quincunx63  is  the  one  that  is  gene- 
rally adopted,  and,  indeed,  is  absolutely  necessary  :  it  not  only 
facilitates  the  action  of  the  wind,  but  presents  also  a  very 
pleasing  appearance,  for  whichever  way  you  look  at  the  plan- 
tation, the  trees  will  always  present  themselves  in  a  straight 
line.  The  same  method  is  employed  in  propagating  the  poplar 
from  seed  as  the  elm,  and  the  mode  of  transplanting  it  from 
the  seed-plot  is  the  same  as  that  adopted  in  transplanting  it 
from  the  forests. 

CHAP.  16. THE  HOLES  FOE  TEANSPLANTTNG. 

But  it  is  more  particularly  necessary  in  transplanting,  that 
the  trees  should  always  be  removed  to  a  soil  that  is  similar,  or 
else  superior,64  to  the  one  in  which  they  grew  before.  If  taken 
from  warm  or  early  ripening  localities,  they  ought  not  to  be  re- 
moved to  cold  or  backward  sites,  nor  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  from 
these  last  to  the  former.  If  the  thing  can  possibly  be  done, 
the  holes  for  transplanting  should  be  dug  sufficiently  long  be- 
fore to  admit  of  their  being  covered  throughout  with  a  thick  coat 
of  grass.     Mago  recommends  that  they  should  be  dug  a  whole 

60  From  being  about  nine  feet  in  circumference. 

61  A  "  little  altar."  62  13^  0f  February. 
63  /.  e.  each  at  an  angle  with  the  other,  in  this  form : — 

*  *  * 


It  was  probably  so  called  from  the  circumstance  that  each  triangle  resembles 
V,  or  five. 

64  This  is  the  reason  why  a  soil  of  only  middling  quality  is  generally 
selected  for  nurseries  and  seed-plots ;  otherwise  it  might  be  difficult  to 
transplant  the  young  trees  to  an  improved  soil. 


Chap.  16.]  THE    HOLES    FOR   TRANSPLANTING.  469 

year  beforehand,  in  order  that  they  may  absorb  the  heat  of 
the  sun  and  the  moisture  of  the  showers;  or,  if  circumstances 
do  not  admit  of  this,  that  fires  should  be  made  in  the  middle 
of  them  some  two  months  before  transplanting,  that  being  only 
done  just  after  rain  has  fallen.  He  says,  too,  that  in  an  argil- 
laceous65 or  a  hard  soil,  the  proper  measurement  is  three  cubits 
every  way,  and  on  declivitous  spots  one  palm  more,  care  being 
taken  in  every  case  to  make  the  hole  like  the  chimney  of  a 
furnace,  narrower  at  the  orifice  than  at  the  bottom.  Where 
the  earth  is  black,  the  depth  should  be  two  cubits  and  a  palm, 
and  the  hole  dug  in  a  quadrangular  form. 

The  Greek  writers  agree  in  pointing  out  much  the  same 
proportions,  and  are  of  opinion  that  the  holes  ought  not  to  be 
more  than  two  feet  and  a  half  in  depth,  or  more  than  two  feet 
wide :  at  the  same  time,  too,  they  should  never  be  less  than 
a  foot  and  a  half  in  depth,  even  though  the  soil  should  be  wet, 
and  the  vicinity  of  water  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  soil 
going  any  deeper.  "  If  the  soil  is  watery,"  says  Cato,£6  «  the 
hole  should  be  three  feet  in  width  at  the  orifice,  and  one  palm 
and  a  foot  at  the  bottom,  and  the  depth  four  feet.  It  should 
be  paved,  too,  with  stones,67  or,  if  they  are  not  at  hand,  with 
stakes  of  green  willow,  or,  if  these  cannot  be  procured,  with  a 
layer  of  twigs ;  the  depth  of  the  layer  so  made  being  a  foot 
and  a  half." 

It  appears  to  me  that  I  ought  here  to  add,  after  what  has 
been  said  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  trees,  that  the  holes 
should  be  sunk  deeper  for  those  which  have  a  tendency  to  run 
near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  such  as  the  ash  and  the  olive, 
for  instance.  These  trees,  in  fact,  and  others  of  a  similar 
nature,  should  be  planted  at  a  depth  of  four  feet,  while  for  the 
others  three  feet  will  be  quite  sunicient.  "  Cut  down  that 
stump,"  said  Papirius  Cursor,  the  general,68  when  to  the  great 

65  The  ordinary  depth,  at  the  present  day,  is  about  two  feet ;  but  when 
in  an  argillaceous  soil,  as  Pliny  says,  the  hole  is  made  deeper.  If  the  soil 
is  black  mould,  the  hole  is  not  so  deep,  and  of  a  square  form,  just  as  recom- 
mended by  Pliny.  66  De  iie  Eust-  43 

67  This  would  be  either  useless,  or  positively  injurious  to  the  tree. 

68  See  B.  xiv.  c.  14.  It  seems  impossible  to  say  with  exactness  how 
this  passage  came  to  be  inserted  in  the  context ;  but  Sillig  is  probably  right 
in  suspecting  that  there  is  a  considerable  lacuna  here.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  Pliny  may  have  enlarged  upon  the  depth  of  the  roots  of  trees,  and  the 
method  of  removing  them  in  ancient  times.   Such  being  the  case,  he  might 


470  plot's  NATUBAX  HISTOHY.  [Book  XVII. 

terror  of  the  prsetor  of  Prccneste,  he  had  ordered  the  lictors  to 
draw09  their  axes.  And,  indeed,  there  is  no  harm  in  cutting 
away  those  portions  [of  the  root]  which  have  become  exposed. 
Some  persons  recommend  that  a  bed  should  be  formed  at  the 
bottom,  of  potsherds  or  round  pebbles,70  which  both  allow  the 
moisture  to  pass  and  retain  as  much  as  is  wanted ;  while  at 
the  same  time  they  are  of  opinion  that  flat  stones  are  of  no  use 
in  such  a  case,  and  only  prevent  the  root  from  penetrating 
the  earth.  To  line  the  bottom  with  a  layer  of  gravel  would  be 
to  follow  a  middle  course  between  the  two  opinions. 

Some  persons  recommend  that  a  tree  should  not  be  trans- 
planted before  it  is  two  years  old,  nor  yet  after  three,  while 
others,  again,  are  of  opinion  that  if  it  is  one  year  old  it  is 
quite  sufficient ;  Cato73  thinks  that  it  ought  to  be  more  than 
live  fingers  in  thickness  at  the  time.  The  same  author,  too, 
would  not  have  omitted,  if  it  had  been  of  any  importance,  to 
recommend  that  a  mark73  should  be  made  on  the  bark  for  the 
purpose  of  pointing  out  the  southern  aspect  of  the  tree ;  so 
that,  when  transplanted,  it  may  occupy  exactly  the  same  posi- 
tion that  it  has  previously  done  ;  from  an  apprehension  that 
the  north  side  of  the  tree,  on  finding  itself  opposite  to  a  south- 
ern sun,  might  split,  and  the  south  side  be  nipped  by  the 
north-eastern  blasts.  Indeed,  there  are  some  persons  who 
follow  a  directly  opposite  practice  even  in  the  vine  and  the  fig,' 
by  placing  the  north  side  of  the  tree,  when  transplanted,  to- 
wards the  south,   and  vice  versa;  being  of  opinion  that  by 

think  it  not  inappropriate  to  introduce  the  story  of  Papirius,  who,  when 
only  intending  to  have  a  stump  cut  down  that  grew  in  the  way,  took  the 
opportunity  of  frightening  the  prater  of  Pneneste,  by  the  suddenness  of 
the  order  to  his  lictor,  and  probably  the  peremptory  tone  in  which  it  was 
o-iven.  This  was  all  the  more  serious  to  the  prater,  as  Papirius  had  been 
rebuking  him  just  before  in  the  severest  terms. 
'  s*  From  the  bundle  of  fasces,  or  rods.  _ 

70  This  precept  is  borrowed  from  Virgil,  Georg.  n.  348,  et  seq. 

n  There  is  little  doubt  that  they  took  the  right  view. 

n  De  ReEust.  28.  ,      ,    . 

"3  This  precaution  is  omitted  by  the  modern  nurserymen,  though  t  ee  is 
inclined  to  think  it  might  be  attended  with  considerable  advantage  as  the 
fibres  of  the  side  that  has  faced  the  south  are  not  likely  to  be  so  firm  as 
those  of  the  northern  side.  This  precaution,  however,  would  be  ot  more 
importance  with  exotic  trees  than  indigenous  ones.  It  is  still  practised  to 
some  extent  with  the  layers  of  the  vine. 

■i  Fee  su°^ests  that  Pliny  mav  have  here  misunderstood  a  passage  in 
Theophrastust  Hist.  Plant,  ii.  8,  with  reference  to  the  planting  of  the  fig. 


Chap.  16.]  THE    HOLES   FOE    TRAJTBTLASTIMG.  4/1 

adopting  this  plan  the  foliage-  becomes  all  the  thicker75  and  the 
tetter  able  to  protect  the  fruit,  which  is  less  liable  to  fall  off  in 
consequence,  and  that  the  tree  is  rendered  all  the  better  for 
climbing.  Most  people,  however,  take  the  greatest  care  to  turn 
to  the  south  that  part  of  the  tree  from  which  the  branches  have 
been  lopped  at  the  top,  little  thinking  that  they  expose  it 
thereby  to  a  chance  of  splitting76  from  the  excessive  heat.  For 
my  own  part,  I  should  prefer  that  this  part  of  the  tree  should 
face  that  point  of  the  heavens  which  is  occupied  by  the  sun  at 
the  fifth77  or  even  the  eighth  hour  of  the  day.  People  are  also 
equally  unaware  that  they  ought  not,  through  neglect,  to  let 
the  roots  be  exposed  to  the  air  long  enough  to  get  dry;  and 
that  the  ground  should  not  be  worked  about  the  roots  of  trees 
while  the  wind  is  blowing  from  the  north,  or,  indeed,  from 
any  point  of  the  heavens  that  lies  between  north  and  south- 
east: or,  at  all  events,  that  the  roots  should  not  be  left  to  He 
exposed  to  these  winds ;  the  result  of  such  modes  of  proceeding 
being,  that  the  trees  die,  the  grower  being  all  the  while  in 
total  ignorance  of  the  cause. 

Cato76  disapproves,  too,  of  all  wind  and  rain  whenever  the 
work  of  transplanting  is  going  on.  When  this  is  the  case,  it 
will  be  beneficial  to  let  as  much  adhere  to  the  roots  as  possible 
of  the  earth  in  which  the  tree  has  grown,  and  to  cover  them 
all  round  with  clods79  of  earth  :  it  is  for  this  reason  that  Cato^ 
recommends  that  the  young  trees  should  be  conveyed  in  baskets, 
a  very  desirable  method,  no  doubt.  The  same  writer,  too,  ap- 
proves of  the  earth  that  has  been  taken  from  the  surface  being 
laid  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  Some  persons  say,a  that  if  a 
laver  of  stones  is  placed  beneath  the  root  of  the  pomegranate, 
the  fruit  will  not  split  while  upon  the  tree.    In  transplanting,  it 

'5  There  would  be  no  such  result,  Fee  says. 

7'"  This  is  a  useless  precaution  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  Pliny's  fears  of  its 
consequences  are  totally  misplaced. 

"At  11  a.m.,  or  2  p.m.  ;  i.  e.  between  south  and  south-east,  and  south 
and  south-west. 

w  De  Re  Rust.  28. 

"  Wet  moss,  or  moist  earth,  is  used  for  the  purpose  at  the  present  day. 

"  De  Re  Rust.  28.  It  is  most  desirable  to  transplant  trees  vrith  a  layer 
of  the  earth  in  which  they  have  grown ;  but  if  carried  out  to  any  extent, 
it  would  he  an  expensive  proeeo. 

o  "  Tradunt."  This  expression  shows  that  Pliny  does  not  give  credit 
to  the  statement.  Columella  and  Palladius  speak  of  'three  stones  being  laid 
under  the  root,  evidently  as  a  kind  of  charm. 


472  pliny's  nattjeal  histoey.  [Book  XVII. 

is  the  best  plan  to  give  the  roots  a  bent  position,  but  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  the  tree  should  be  placed  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  occupy  exactly  the  centre  of  the  hole.  The  fig-tree, 
if  the  slip  when  planted  is  stuck  in  a  squill82 — such  being  the 
name  of  a  species  of  bulb — is  said  to  bear  with  remarkable 
rapidity,  while  the  fruit  is  exempt  from  all  attacks  of  the 
worm  :  the  same  precaution,  too,  in  planting,  will  preserve 
the  fruit  of  all  other  trees  in  a  similar  manner.  Who  is 
there,  too,  that  can  entertain  a  doubt  that  the  very  greatest 
care  ought  to  be  taken  of  the  roots  of  the  fig-tree  when  trans- 
planted ? — indeed,  it  ought  to  bear  every  mark  of  being  taken, 
and  not  torn,  from  out  of  the  earth.  Upon  this  subject  I  omit 
various  other  practical  precepts,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  ne- 
cessity of  moulding  up  the  roots  with  a  rammer,  a  thing  that 
Cato83  looks  upon  as  of  primary  importance ;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  he  recommends  that  the  wound  made  in  the  stock 
should  be  first  covered  with  dung,  and  then  bound  with  a 
layer  of  leaves.84 

CHAP.   17.   (12.) THE  INTEEVALS  TO  BE  LEFT  BETWEEN  TEEES. 

The  present  seems  to  me  to  be  the  proper  occasion  for  making 
some  mention  of  the  intervals85  that  ought  to  be  left  between 
the  trees.  Some  persons  have  recommended  that  pomegra- 
nates, myrtles,  and  laurels  should  be  planted  closer  together  than 
the  other  trees,  leaving,  however,  a  space  of  nine  feet  between 
them.  Apple-trees,  they  say,  should  be  planted  a  little  wider 
apart,  and  pear-trees,  almonds,  and  figs  even  still  more  so. 
The  best  rule,  however,  is  to  consult  the  length  of  the  branches, 
and  the  nature  of  the  spot,  as  well  as  the  shade  that  is  formed 
by  the  tree  ;  for  it  is  of  great  importance  to  take  this  last  into 
consideration.  The  shadow  thrown  by  the  large  trees  even  is 
but  of  small  dimensions,  when  the  branches  are  disposed  around 

82  See  B.  xix.  c,  30.  A  somewhat  similar  practice  is  also  recommended 
in  B.  xv.  c.  18 ;  but,  of  course,  as  Fee  remarks,  it  can  lead  to  no  results. 

63  De  Re  Bust.  28. 

84  Fee  remarks  that  this  is  a  useful  precaution,  more  particularly  in  the 
case  of  the  coniferous  trees,  the  fig,  and  others  that  are  rich  in  juice ;  but 
if  universally  used,  would  be  attended  with  great  expense.  The  French 
use  for  the  purpose  a  mixture  of  fresh  earth  and  cow-dung,  to  which  they 
give  the  name  of  "  onguent  Saint-Fiacre."     Soe  p.  481. 

&5  This  is  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant,  ii.  7.  The  question,  how- 
ever, depends  entirely  upon  the  nature  of  the  tree,  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
and  various  other  considerations,  as  Pliny  himself  admits. 


Chap.  18.]  THE    SHADOW   THROWN    BY   TREES.  47 3 

the  body  of  the  tree  in  a  spherical  form,  as  in  the  apple  and 
the  pear,  for  instance.  In  the  cherry,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
the  laurel,  the  shadow  projected  is  of  enormous  extent. 

CHAP.   18. THE  NATURE  OF  THE  SHADOW  THROWN  BY  TREES. 

The  shadows  of  trees  are  possessed  of  certain  properties. 
That  of  the  walnut  is  baneful86  and  injurious  to  man,  in  whom 
it  is  productive  of  head-ache,  and  it  is  equally  noxious  to 
everything  that  grows  in  its  vicinity.  The  shadow,  too,  of 
the  pine  has  the  effect  of  killing87  the  grass  beneath  it ;  but 
in  both  of  these  trees  the  foliage  presents  an  effectual  resist- 
ance to  the  winds,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  vine  is  desti- 
tute of  such  protection.68  The  drops  of  water  that  fall  from 
the  pine,  the  quercus,  and  the  holm-oak  are  extremely  heavy, 
but  from  the  cypress  none  fall ;  the  shadow,  too,  thrown  by 
this  last  tree  is  extremely  small,  its  foliage  being  densely 
packed.89  The  shadow  of  the  fig,  although  widely  spread,  is 
but  light,  for  which  reason  it  is  allowed  to  be  planted  among 
vines.  The  shadow  of  the  elm  is  refreshing  and  even  imtri- 
mental  to  whatever  it  may  happen  to  cover  ;  though,  in  the 
opinion  of  Atticus,  this  tree  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  of 
them  all ;  and,  indeed,  I  have  no  doubt  that  such  may  be  the 
case  when  the  branches  are  allowed  to  become  too  long ; 
but  at  the  same  time  I  am  of  opinion  that  when  they  are 
kept  short  it  can  be  productive  of  no  possible  harm.  The 
plane  also  gives  a  very  pleasant  shade,90  though  somewhat 
dense  :  but  in  this  case  we  must  look  more  to  the  luxuriant 
softness  of  the  grass  beneath  it  than  the  warmth  of  the  sun  ; 
for  there  is  no  tree  that  forms  a  more  verdant  couch  on  which 
to  recline. 

The  poplar91  gives  no  shade  whatever,  in  consequence  of  the 

86  See  B.  xv.  c.  24.  This  notion,  Fee  remarks,  still  prevails  to  a  very 
considerable  extent. 

87  By  depriving  it  of  the  light,  and  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  but,  most 
probably,  from  no  other  reason. 

88  "  Quoniam  et  protecta  vinearum  ratione  egent."  This  passage  is 
probably  in  a  mutilated  state.  89  "In  se  convoluta." 

90  The  plane  was  much  valued  for  its  shade  by  convivial  parties.  Hence 
we  find  in  Virgil,  Georg.  iv.  146  —  "  Atque  ministrantem  platanum 
potantibus  umbram." 

91  He  clearly  alludes  to  the  quivering  poplar,  Populus  tremula  of 
Linnseus. 


474  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

incessant  quivering  of  its  leaves  :  while  that  of  the  alder  is  very 
dense,  but  remarkably  nutritive  to  plants.  The  vine  affords 
sufficient  shade  for  its  wants,  the  leaf  being  always  in  motion, 
and  from  its  repeated  movement  tempering  the  heat  of  the  sun 
with  the  shadow  that  it  affords ;  at  the  same  time  too  it 
serves  as  an  effectual  protection  against  heavy  rains.  In 
nearly  all  trees  the  shade  is  thin,  where  the  footstalks  of  the 
leaves  are  long. 

This  branch  of  knowledge  is  one  by  no  means  to  be  despised 
or  deserving  to  be  placed  in  the  lowest  rank,  for  in  the  case  of 
every  variety  of  plant  the  shade  is  found  to  act  either  as  a 
kind  nurse  or  a  harsh  step-mother.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  shadow  of  the  walnut,  the  pine,  the  pitch-tree,  and  the  fir 
is  poisonous  to  everything  it  may  chance  to  light  upon. 

CHAP.  19. THE  DROPPINGS  OF  WATER  FROM  THE  LEAVES. 

A  very  few  words  will  suffice  for  the  water  that  drops  from 
the  leaves  of  trees.  In  all  those  which  are  protected  by  a 
foliage  so  dense  that  the  rain  will  not  pass  through,  the  drops 
are  of  a  noxious  nature.92  In  our  enquiries,  therefore,  into 
this  subject  it  will  be  of  the  greatest  consequence  what  will 
be  the  nature  developed  by  each  tree  in  the  soil  in  which  we 
are  intending  to  plant  it.  .Declivities,  taken  hy  themselves, 
require  smaller93  intervals  between  the  trees,  and  in  localities 
that  are  exposed  to  the  wind  it  is  beneficial  to  plant  them 
closer  together.  However,  it  is  the  olive  that  requires  the 
largest  intervals  to  be  left,  and  on  this  point  it  is  the  opinion 
of  Cato,94  with  reference  to  Italy,  that  the  very  smallest  in- 
terval ought  to  be  twenty-five  feet,  and  the  largest  thirty : 
this,  however,  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  site.  Tho 
olive  is  the  largest95  of  all  the  trees  in  Beetica  :  and  in  Africa 
— if,  indeed,  we  may  believe  the  authors  who  say  so— there 
are  many  olive-trees  that  are  known  by  the  name  of  milliariae,96 

92  This  is  quite  a  fallacy.  Even  in  the  much  more  probable  cases  of 
the  upas  and  mangineel,  it  is  not  the  fact. 

93  Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  B.  iii.  c.  8,  says,  that  trees  that  grow  on 
declivities  have  shorter  branches  than  those  of  the  same  kind  growing  on 

plains.  94  De  ^e  ^ust-  c-  16- 

95  This  assertion  is  doubtful;  at  the  present  day,  in  Andalusia,  the 
palm,  the  poplar,  and  many  other  trees  are  much  larger  than  the  olive. 

96  "  Thousand  pounders."  This,  as  Fee  remarks,  is  clearly  an  exag- 
geration. 


Cbap.  21]  TREES   PROPAGATED   PROM   LAYERS.  475 

being  so  called  from  the  weight  of  oil  that  they  produce  each 
year?  Hence  it  is  that  Mago  has  prescribed  an  interval  be- 
tween these  trees  of  no  less  than  seventy-five  feet  every  way, 
or  of  forty-five  at  the  very  lowest,  when  the  soil  happens  to  be 
meagre,  hard,  and  exposed  to  the  winds.  There  is  no  doubt, 
however,  that  Ba?tica  reaps  the  most  prolific  harvests  from 
between  her  olives. 

It  will  be  generally  agreed  that  it  is  a  most  disgraceful 
piece  of  ignorance  to  lop  away  the  branches  more  than  is  ab- 
solutelv  necessary  in  trees  of  vigorous  growth,  and  so  preci- 
pitate old  age  ;  as  also,  on  the  other  hand,  what  is  generally  tan- 
tamount to  an  avowal  of  unskilfulness  on  the  part  of  those 
who  have  planted  them,  to  have  to  cut  them  down  altogether. 
Nothing  can  reflect  greater  disgrace  upon  agriculturists  than 
to  have  to  undo  what  they  have  done,  and  it  is  therefore  much 
the  best  to  commit  an  error  in  leaving  a  superfluity  of  room. 

CHAP.  20.  (13.)— TREES  WHICH  GROW  BUT  SLOWLY:    THOSE  WHICH 
GROW  WITH  RAPIDITY. 

Some  trees  are  naturally  slow  in  their  growth ;  and  those 
in  particular  which  grow  solely  from  seed97  and  are  long-lived. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  that  are  short-lived  grow  with  great 
rapidity,  such  as  the  fig,  pomegranate,  plum,  apple,  pear, 
myrtle,  and  willow,  for  instance ;  and  yet  these^  are  the  very 
first  to  display  their  productions,  for  they  begin  to  bear  at 
three  years  old,  and  make  some  show  of  it  even  before  that 
period.  The  pear  is  the  slowest  in  bearing  of  all  the  trees 
above  enumerated.  The  cypirus,98  however,  and  the  shrub 
known  as  the  pseudo- cypirus"  are  the  earliest  in  coming  to 
maturity,  for  they  flower  almost  immediately,  and  then  produce 
their  seed.  All  trees  will  come  to  maturity  more  rapidly  when 
the  suckers  are  removed,  and  the  nutrimental  juices  are  thrown 
into  the  stock  only. 

CHAP.  21. — TREES  PROPAGATED  FROM  LAYERS. 

Nature-   too,  has  taught  us  the  art  of  reproduction  from 
layers.     The  bramble,  by  reason  of  its  thinness  and  the  exees- 

97  Virgil,  Georg.  ii.  57,  makes  the  same  remark. 
^  This  shrub  has  not  been  identified. 
»9  See  B.  xii.  c.  26. 


476  pllny's  natural  histoky.  [Eook  XVII. 

sive  lengtli  to  which  it  grows,  bends  downwards,  and  throws 
the  extremities  of  its  branches  into  the  earth ;  these  imme- 
diately take  root  again,  and  would  fill  every  place  far  and 
wide,  were  it  not  that  the  arts  of  cultivation  put  a  check  to 
it ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  would  almost  appear  that  men 
are  born  for  nothing  else  but  to  take  care  of  the  earth.  Hence 
it  is,  that  a  thing  that  is  in  itself  most  noxious  and  most 
baneful,  has  taught  us  the  art  of  reproduction  by  layers  and 
quicksets.     The  ivy,  too,  has  a  similar  property. 

Cato  *  says,  that  in  addition  to  the  vine,  the  fig,  as  well  as 
the  olive,  the  pomegranate,  every  variety  of  the  apple,  the 
laurel,  the  plum,  the  myrtle,  the  filbert,  the  nut  of  Praeneste, 
and  the  plane,  are  capable  of  being  propagated  by  layers. 

Layers2  are  of  two  kinds  ;  in  the  one,  a  branch,  while  still 
adhering  to  the  tree,  is  pressed  downwards  into  a  hole  that 
measures  four  feet  every  way  :  at  the  end  of  two  years  it  is 
cut  at  the  part  where  it  curves,  and  is  then  transplanted  at 
the  expiration  of  three  years  more.  If  it  is  intended  to  carry 
the  plant  to  any  distance,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  place  the  layer, 
directly  it  is  taken  up,  either  in  an  osier  basket  or  any  earthen 
vessel,  for  its  better  security  when  carried.  The  other3  mode 
of  reproduction  by  layers  is  a  more  costly  one,  and  is  effected 
by  summoning  forth  a  root  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  even. 
For  this  purpose,  earthen  vessels  or  baskets  are  provided,  and 
are  then  well  packed  with  earth ;  through  these  the  extre- 
mities of  the  branches  are  passed,  and  by  this  mode  of  encou- 
ragement a  root  is  obtained  growing  amid  the  fruit  itself,  and 
at  the  very  summit  of  the  tree  ;  for  it  is  at  the  summit  that 
this  method  is  generally  adopted.  In  this  way  has  a  bold  and 
daring  inventiveness  produced  a  new  tree  aloft  and  far  away 
from  the  ground.  At  the  end  of  two  years,  in  the  manner 
already  stated,  the  layer  is  cut  asunder,  and  then  planted  in 
the  ground,  basket  and  all. 

The  herb  savin4  is  reproduced  by  layers,  as  also  by  slips ;  it 

»  De  Re  Rust.  c.  51. 

2  The  French  call  cultivation  by  layers  "marcotte,"  as  applied  to  trees 
in  general ;  and  "  provignage,"  as  applicable  to  the  vine.  The  two  methods 
described  by  Pliny  are  still  extensively  practised. 

3  Taken  from  Cato,  De  Re  Rust.  c.  133. 

4  The  Juniperus  sabina  of  Linnaeus :  see  B.  xxiv.  c.  61.  It  produces 
seed,  and  there  is  only  one  variety  that  is  barren  ;  the  plant  being,  in  re- 
ality, dioeceous. 


Chap.  24.]  YAEIOUS    KINDS    OF    GRAFTING.  4/7 

is  said,  too,  that  lees  of  wine  or  pounded  wall-bricks  make  it 
thrive  wonderfully  well.  Rosemary 5  also  is  reproduced  in  a 
similar  manner,  as  also  from  cuttings  of  the  branches  ;  neither 
savin  nor  rosemary  having  any  seed.  The  rhododendrum6  is 
propagated  by  layers  and  from  seed. 

CHAP.  22.    (14.) — GEAFTING  I    THE  FIEST  EISCOVEEY  OF  IT. 

Nature  has  also  taught  us  the  art  of  grafting  by  means  of 
seed.  We  see  a  seed  swallowed  whole  by  a  famished  bird ; 
when  softened  by  the  natural  heat  of  the  crop,  it  is  voided, 
with  the  fecundating  juices  of  the  dung,  upon  some  soft  couch 
formed  by  a  tree ;  or  else,  as  is  often  the  case,  is  carried  by  the 
winds  to  some  cleft  in  the  bark  of  a  tree.  Hence7  it  is  that 
we  see  the  cherry  growing  upon  the  willow,  the  plane  upon 
the  laurel,  the  laurel  upon  the  cherry,  and  fruits  of  various 
tints  and  hues  all  springing  from  the  same  tree  at  once.  It  is 
said,  too,  that  the  jack-daw,  from  its  concealment  of  the  seeds 
of  plants  in  holes  which  serve  as  its  store-houses,  gives  rise  to 
a  similar  result. 

CHAP.  23. INOCULATION    OE   BUDDING. 

In  this,  too,  the  art  of  inoculating8  took  its  rise.  By  the 
aid  of  an  instrument  similar  to  a  shoe-maker's  paring-knife 
an  eye  is  opened  in  a  tree  by  paring  away  the  bark,  and 
another  bud  is  then  enclosed  in  it,  that  has  been  previously  re- 
moved with  the  same  instrument  from  another  tree.  This  was  the 
ancient  mode  of  inoculation  with  the  fig  and  the  apple.  That 
again,  described  by  Virgil,9  requires  a  slight  fissure  to  be 
made  in  the  knot  of  a  bud  which  has  burst  through  the  bark, 
and  in  this  is  enclosed  a  bud  taken  from  another  tree.  Thus 
far  has  Nature  been  our  instructor  in  these  matters. 

CHAP.   24. THE  VAEIOUS    KINDS    OF    GEAFTING. 

A  different  mode  of  engrafting,  however,  has  been  taught  us 

5  The  rosemary,  in  reality,  is  a  hermaphroditic  plant,  and  in  all  cases 
produces  seed.  6  gee  j$   xvj  c>  ^. 

7  This,  Fee  remarks,  is  In  reality  no  more  a  case  of  grafting  than  the 
growing  of  a  tree  from  seed  accidentally  deposited  in  the  cleft  of  a  rock. 

8  Still  used  for  the  reproduction  of  fruit-trees  and  shrubs  in  the  pleasure 
garden.  9  Georg.  ii.  73 


478  PLINY'S  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

by  chance,  another  great  instructor,  and  one  from  whom,  per- 
haps, we  have  learnt  a  still  greater  number  of  lessons.  _  A 
careful  husbandman,10  being  desirous,  for  its  better  protection, 
to  surround  his  cottage  with  a  palisade,  thrust  the  stakes 
into  growing  ivy,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  rotting. 
Seized  by  the  tenacious  grasp  of  the  still  living  ivy,  the  stakes 
borrowed  life  from  the  life  of  another  wood,  and  it  was  found 
that  the  stock  of  a  tree  acted  in  place  of  earth. 

For  this  method  of  grafting  the  surface  is  made  level  with  a 
saw,  and  the  stock  carefully  smoothed  with  the  pruning-knife. 
This  done,  there  are  two  modes  of  proceeding,  the  first  of 
which  consists  in  grafting  between  the  bark  and  the  wood. 
The  ancients  were  fearful  at  first  of  cutting  into  the  wood,  but 
afterwards  they  ventured  to  pierce  it  to  the  very  middle,  and 
iriserted  the  graft  in  the  pith,  taking  care  to  enclose  but  one, 
because  the  pith,  they  thought,  was  unable  to  receive  more.  An 
improved  method  has,  however,  in  more  recent  times,  allowed 
of  as  many  as  six  grafts  being  inserted,  it  being  considered 
desirable  by  additional  numbers  to  make  a  provision  for  the 
contingency  of  some  of  them  not  surviving.  With  this  view, 
an  incision  is  carefully  made  in  the  middle  of  the  stock,  a  thin, 
wedge  being  inserted  to  prevent  the  sides  from  closing,  until 
the  graft,  the  end  of  which  is  first  cut  to  a  point,  has  been  let 
into  the  fissure.  In  doing  this  many  precautions  are  neces- 
sary, and  more  particularly  every  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  stock  is  that  of  a  tree  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  that 
the  graft  is  taken  from  one  that  is  proper  for  grafting.  The 
sap,11  too,  is  variously  distributed  in  the  several  trees,  and  does 
not  occupy  the  same  place  in  all.  In  the  vine  and  the  fig12  the 
middle  of  the  tree  is  the  driest,  and  it  is  in  the  summit  that 
the  generative  power  resides ;  hence  it  is,  that  from  the  top 
the  grafts  are  selected.    In  the  olive,  again,  the  sap  lies  in  the 

10  This  storv  is  borrowed  from  Theoplirastus,  De  Cans.  B.  ii.  c.  19. 
Fee  remarks,  that  it  is  very  doubtful  if  an  operation  of  so  coarse  a  nature 
could  be  productive  of  such  results  ;  and  he  says,  that,  at  all  events,  the  two 
woods  must  have  been  species  of  the  same  genus,  or  else  individuals  of  the 
same  family.  The  mode  of  grafting  here  described  is  called  by  agricul- 
turists in  foreign  countries,  "  Pliny's  graft." 

11  These  statements  as  to  the  locality  of  the  sap  are  erroneous. 

12  The  fig  is  the  only  fruit  that  is  not  improved  by  grafting  ;  but  then 
it  is  not  similar  to  most  fruit,  being,  as  Fee  says,  nothing  more  than  a 
fleshy  floral  receptacle. 


Chap.  24.]  VAEIOTJS  KINDS   OF   GEAFTING  479 

middle  of  the  tree,  and  the  grafts  are  accordingly  taken  from 
thence  :  the  upper  part  being  comparatively  dry.  The  graft 
takes  most  easily  in  a  tree,  the  bark  of  which  is  of  a  similar 1;J 
nature  to  its  own,  and  which,  blossoming  at  the  same  time  as 
itself,  has  an  affinity  with  it  in  the  development  of  the  natural 
juices.  On  the  other  hand,  the  process  of  uniting  is  but  slow 
where  the  dry  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  moist,  and  the 
hard  bark  with  the  soft. 

The  other  points  to  be  observed  are  the  following :  the  inci- 
sion must  not  be  made  in  a  knot,  as  such  an  inhospitable  rigidity 
will  certainly  repel  the  stranger  plant ;  the  incision  should  be 
made,  too,  in  the  part  which  is  most  compact,  and  it  must  not 
be  much  more  than  three  fingers  in  length,  not  in  a  slanting 
direction,  nor  yet  such  as  to  pierce  the  tree  from  side  to  side. 
Virgil14  is  of  opinion,  that  the  grafts  should  not  be  taken  from  the 
top,  and  it  is  universally  agreed  that  it  is  best  to  select  them  from 
the  shoulders  of  the  tree  which  look  towards  the  north-east  ;15 
from  a  tree,  too,  that  is  a  good  bearer,  and  from  a  young  shoot,16 
unless,  indeed,  the  graft  is  intended  for  an  old  tree,  in  which 
case  it  should  be  of  a  more  robust  growth.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  graft  ought  to  be  in  a  state  of  impregnation,  that  is  to  say, 
swelling17  with  buds,  and  giving  every  promise  of  bearing,  the 
same  year  ;  it  ought,  too,  to  be  two  years  old,  and  not  thinner 
than  the  little  finger.  The  graft  is  inserted  at  the  smaller 
end,  when  it  is  the  object  of  the  grower  that  it  should  not 
grow  to  any  considerable  length,  but  spread  out  on  either  side. 
But  it  is  more  particularly  necessary  that  the  buds  upon  the 
graft  should  be  smooth  and  regular,  and  there  must  be  nothing 
upon  it  at  all  scabbed  or  shrivelled.  Success  may  be  fully 
reckoned  on  if  the  pith  of  the  graft  is  brought  in  contact  with 
the  wood  and  bark  of  the  stock ;  that  being  a  much  better  plan 
than  merely  uniting  them  bark  to  bark.     In  pointing  the  graft, 

13  This  remark  is  founded  on  sound  notions  of  vegetable  physiology ; 
hut  at  the  same  time  it  is  contradictory  to  what  he  states  in  the  sequel  as 
to  grafting  the  pear  on  the  plane,  the  apple  on  the  cornel,  &c. 

14  Georg.  ii.  78. 

15  An  unnecessary  precaution.  It  is  not  the  situation  of  the  branches 
so  much  as  the  nature  of  the  soil,  traversed  by  the  roots,  corresponding  to 
them,  that  would  be  likely  to  have  an  influence  on  the  graft.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  Pliny  borrowed  the  present  passage  from  Columella,  De 
Re  Rust.  v.  11  ;  and  De  Arbor.  20. 

16  This  is  sound  advice.  17  See  B.  xvi.  c.  39,  40,  and  41. 


480  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XYII. 

the  pith  ought  not  to  be  laid  bare ;  still,  however,  it  should  be 
pared  with  a  small  knife,  so  that  the  point  may  assume  the  form 
of  a  fine  wedge,  not  more  than  three  fingers  in  length,  a  thing 
that  may  be  very  easily  effected  by  first  steeping  it  in  water 
and  then  scraping  it.  The  graft,  however,  must  not  be  pointed 
while  the  wind  is  blowing,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
bark  is  not  rubbed  off  from  either  graft  or  stock.  The  graft 
must  be  thrust  into  the  stock  up  to  the  point  where  the  bark 
begins ;  care,  too,  must  be  taken  not  to  wrench  off  the  bark 
during  the  process  of  insertion,  nor  must  it  be  thrust  back  so 
as  to  form  any  folds  or  wrinkles.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a 
graft  should  not  be  used  that  is  too  full  of  sap,  no,  by  Hercules ! 
no  more  than  one  that  is  dry  and  parched;  for  by  doing  so,  in 
the  former  case,  from  the  excess  of  moisture,  the  bark  becomes 
detached,  and  in  the  latter,  from  want  of  vitality,  it  yields 
no  secretions,  and  consequently  will  not  incorporate  with  the 
stock. 

It  is  a  point  most  religiously18  observed,  to  insert  the  graft 
during  the  moon's  increase,  and  to  be  careful  to  push  it  down 
with  both  hands  ;  indeed,  it  is  really  the  fact,  that  in  this  ope- 
ration, the  two  hands,  acting  at  the  same  moment,  are  of  neces- 
sity productive  of  a  more  modified  and  better  regulated  effort. 
Grafts  that  have  been  inserted  with  a  vigorous  effort  are  later 
in  bearing,  but  last  all  the  longer  ;  when  inserted  more  ten- 
derly, the  contrary  is  the  result.  The  incision  in  the  stock 
should  not  be  too  open  or  too  large ;  nor  ought  it  to  be  too 
small,  for  in  such  case  it  would  either  force  out  the  graft  or 
else  kill  it  by  compression.  But  the  most  necessary  precaution 
of  all  is  to  see  that  the  graft  is  fairly  inserted,  and  that  it 
occupies  exactly  the  middle  of  the  fissure  in  the  stock. 

Some 19  persons  are  in  the  habit  of  making  the  place  for  the 
fissure  in  the  stock  with  the  knife,  keeping  the  edges  of  the 
incision  together  with  bands  of  osier  bound  tightly  round 
the  stock ;  they  then  drive  in  the  wedges,  the  bands  keep- 
in°-  the  stock  from  opening  too  wide.     There  are  some  trees 

18  In  reprehending  this  absurd  notion,  Fee  bestows  a  passing  censure 
on  the  superstitions  of  this  nature,  contained  in  the  English  Vox  Stella- 
rum,  one  of  our  almanacks ;  and  in  the  French  "Almanach  des  Bergers," 
"  Shepherds'  Almanack." 

19  This  is  borrowed  by  Palladius,  in  the  operations  of  February,  tit. 
17,  and  October,  tit.  12. 


Chap.  24.]  VARIOUS   KINDS   OF    GRAFTING.  481 

that  are  grafted  in  the  seed-plot  and  then  transplanted  the 
very  same  day.  If  the  stock  used  for  grafting  is  of  very  con- 
siderable thickness,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  insert  the  graft  be- 
tween the  bark  and  the  wood ;  for  which  purpose  a  wedge 
made  of  bone  is  best,  for  fear  lest  when  the  bark  is  loosened 
the  wood  should  be  bruised.  In  the  cherry,  the  bark  is  removed 
before  the  incision  in  the  stock  is  made ;  this,  too,  is  the  only 
tree  that  is  grafted  after  the  winter  solstice.  When  the  bark 
is  removed,  this  tree  presents  a  sort  of  downy  substance,  which, 
if  it  happens  to  adhere  to  the  graft,  will  very  speedily  destroy 
it.  When  once  the  graft  is  safely  lodged  by  the  aid  of  the 
wedge,  it  is  of  advantage  to  drive  it  home.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan,  too,  to  graft  as  near  the  ground  as  possible,  if  the  con- 
formation of  the  trunk  and  knots  will  admit  of  it.  The  graft 
should  not  project  from  the  stock  more  than  six  fingers  in 
length. 

Cato20  recommends  a  mixture  of  argil21  or  powdered  chalk, 
and  cow-dung,  to  be  stirred  together  till  it  is  of  a  viscous  consis- 
tency, and  then  inserted  in  the  fissure  and  rubbed  all  round 
it.  Prom  his  writings  on  the  subject  it  is  very  evident  that 
at  that  period  it  was  the  practice  to  engraft  only  between  the 
wood  and  the  bark,  and  in  no  other  way;  and  that  the  graft 
was  never  inserted  beyond  a  couple  of  fingers  in  depth.22  He 
recommends,  too,  that  the  pear  and  the  apple  should  be  grafted 
in  spring,  as  also  during  fifty  days  at  the  time  of  the  summer 
solstice,  and  during  the  time  of  vintage ;  but  that  the  olive 
and  the  fig  should  be  grafted  in  spring  only,  in  a  thirsting,  or 
in  other  words,  a  dry  moon  :  he  says  also,  that  it  should  be 
done  in  the  afternoon,  and  not  while  a  south  wind  is  blowing. 
It  is  a  singular  thing,  that,  not  content  with  protecting  the 
graft  in  the  manner  already  mentioned,  and  with  sheltering 
it  from  showers  and  frosts  by  means  of  turfs  and  supple  bands 
of  split  osiers,  he  recommends  that  it  should^  be  covered  with 
bugloss23  as  well— a  kind  of  herb  so  called— which'  is  to  be 
tied  over  it  and  then  covered  up  with  straw.  At  the  present 
day,  however,  it  is  thought  suflicient  to  cover  the  bark  with  a 

20  De  Re  Rust.  40. 

21  This  is  the  onguent  Saint-Fiacre  of  the  French,  and  is  still  used  to 
protect  the  graft  from  all  contact  with  the  exterior  air. 

22  "Altitudinem,"  as  Dalechamps  suggests,  would  appear  to  he  a  better 
reading  than  "  latitudinem."  23  SeeB.  xxv.  c.  40. 

VOL.    III.  x   x 


482  punt's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

mixture  of  mud  and  chaff,  allowing  the  graft  to  protrude  a 
couple  of  fingers  in  length. 

Those  who  wait  for  spring  to  carry  on  these  operations,  will 
find  themselves  pressed  for  time ;  for  the  buds  are  then  just 
bursting,  except,  indeed,  in  the  case  of  the  olive,  the  buds  of 
which  are  remarkably  long  in  developing  themselves,  the  tree 
itself  having  extremely  little  sap  beneath  the  bark;  this, 
too,  is  apt,  when  in  too  large  quantities,  to  injure  the  grafts. 
As  to  the  pomegranate,  too,  the  fig,  and  the  rest  of  the  trees 
that  are  of  a  dry  nature,  it  is  far  from  beneficial  to  them  to 
put  off  the  process  of  grafting  till  a  late  period.  The  pear 
may  be  grafted  even  when  in  blossom,  so  that  with  it  the 
operation  may. be  safely  delayed  to  the  month  of  May  even. 
If  grafts  of  fruit  trees  have  to  be  carried  to  any  distance,  it 
is  considered  the  best  plan,  with  the  view  of  preserving  the 
juices,  to  insert  them  in  a  turnip ;  they  may  also  be  kept  alive 
by  placing  them  near  a  stream  or  a  pond,  between  two  hollow 
tiles  covered  up  at  each  end  with  earth.  (15.)  The  grafts  of 
vines,  however,  are  kept  in  dry  holes,  in  which  they  are 
covered  over  with  straw,  and  then  with  earth,  care  being  taken 
to  let  the  tops  protrude.24 

CHAP.    25. GRAFTING   THE   VINE. 

Cato25  speaks  of  three26  methods  of  grafting  the  vine._  The 
first  consists  in  piercing  the  stock  to  the  pith,  and  then  insert- 
ing the  grafts,  sharpened  at  the  end,  in  manner  already  men- 
tioned, care  being  taken  to  bring  the  pith  of  the  two  in  con- 
tact. The  second  is  adopted  in  case  the  two  vines  are  near 
one  another,  the  sides  of  them  both  being  cut  in  a  slanting 
direction  where  they  face  each  other ;  after  which  the  pith  of 
the  two  trees  is  united  by  tying  them  together.  In  employ- 
ing the  third  method,  the  vine  is  pierced  obliquely  to  the 
pith,  and  grafts  are  inserted  a  couple  of  feet  in  length ;  they 
are  then  tied  down  and  covered  over  with  prepared  earth,  care 
being  taken  to  keep  them  in  an  upright  position.     In  our 

2i  Borrowed  from  Columella,  B.  iv.  c.   29.     This  method  is  still  em- 
ployed for  young  plants;  in  France  it  is  called  "salting"  the  plants. 
25  De  Re  Rust.  41.  ,  „         .       , 

?6  The  fi-st  of  these  methods  is  now  the  only  one  at  all  employed 
with  the  vine;  indeed,  it  is  more  generally  reproduced  by  means  of  layers 
and  suckers. 


Chap.  26.]  GRAFTING    BY    SCUTCHEONS.  483 

time,  however,  this  method  has  been  greatly  improved  by 
making  use  of  the  Gallic  auger,27  which  pierces  the  tree  with- 
out scorching  it ;  it  being  the  fact,  that  everything  that  burns 
the  tree  weakens  its  powers.  Care,  too,  is  taken  to  select  a 
graft  that  is  just  beginning  to  germinate,  and  not  to  leave 
more  than  a  couple  of  the  buds  protruding  from  the  stock. 
The  vine,  too,  should  be  carefully  bound  with  withes  of  elm, 
incisions  being  made  in  it  on  either  side,  in  order  that  the 
slimy  juices  may  exude  through,  them  in  preference,  which 
are  so  particularly  injurious  to  the  vine.  After  this,  when 
the  graft  has  grown  a  couple  of  feet,  the  withe  by  which  it  is 
fastened  should  be  cut,  and  the  graft  left  to  increase  of  its  own 
natural  vigour. 

The  proper  time28  for  grafting  the  vine  has  been  fixed  as 
from  the  autumnal  equinox  to  the  beginning  of  the  budding 
season.  The  cultivated  plants  are  generallj*  grafted  on  the 
roots  of  wild  ones,  where  these  last  are  of  a  drier  nature.  But  if 
a  cultivated  tree  should  be  grafted  on  a  wild  one,  it  will  very 
soon  degenerate  and  become  wild.29  The  rest  depends  entirely 
on  the  weather.  Dry  weather  is  the  best  suited  for  grafting ; 
an  excellent  remedy  for  any  evil  effects  that  may  possibly  be 
caused  by  the  drought,  being  a  few  pots  of  earth  placed  near 
the  stock  and  filled  with  ashes  ;  through  which  a  little  water 
is  slowly  filtered.  Light  dews  are  extremely  favourable  to 
grafting  by  inoculation. 

CHAP.    26.    (16  )  —  GRAFTING    £Y    SCUTCHEONS.30 

Grafting  by  scutcheons  would  appear  to  owe  its  origin  to 
that  by  inoculation  ;  but  it  is  suited  more  particularly  to  a 
thick  bark,  such  as  that  of  the  fig-tree  for  instance.  For  this 
purpose,  all  the  branches  are  cut  off,  in  order  that  they  may 
not  divert  the  sap,  after  which  the  smoothest  part  is  selected 

-"  It  is  not  accurately  known  what  was  the  form  or  particular  merit  of 
this  auger  or  wimble. 

28  1  ee  remarks,  that  the  period  here  named  is  very  indefinite.  May 
and  the  early  part  of  June  are  the  periods  now  selected  for  grafting  the 
vine. 

-9  This  is  borrowed  from  Varro,  De  Re  Rust.  B.  i.  c.  40.  In  reality, 
if.  makes  no  difference  whether  the  stock  is  that  of  a  wild  tree  or  of  the 
cultivated  species. 

30  "  Emplastrum."  Properly,  the  little  strip  of  bark,  which  is  fitted  in  with 
the  eye,  and  which  \s  plastered  or  soldered  down. 


484  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

in  the  stock,  and  a  scutcheon31  of  the  bark  removed,  due  care 
being  taken  that  the  knife  does  not  go  below  it.  A  similar 
piece  of  bark  from  another  tree,  with  a  protuberant  bud  upon 
it,  is  then  inserted  in  its  place,  care  being  taken  that  the  union 
is  so  exact  that  there  is  no  room  left  for  a  cicatrix  to  form,  and 
the  juncture  so  perfect  as  to  leave  no  access  to  either  damp  or 
air :  still,  however,  it  is  always  the  best  plan  to  protect  the 
scutcheon  by  means  of  a  plaster  of  clay  and  a  band.  Those  who 
favour  the  modern  fashions  pretend  that  this  method  has  been 
only  discovered  in  recent  times  ;  but  the  fact  is,  that  we  find 
it  employed  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  described  by  Cato,32 
who  recommends  it  for  the  olive  and  the  fig ;  and  he  goes  so 
far  as  to  determine  the  very  dimensions  even,  in  accordance 
with  his  usual  exactness.  The  scutcheon,  he  says,  when  taken 
off  with  the  knife  should  be  four33  fingers  in  length,  and  three 
in  breadth.  It  is  then  fitted  to  the  spot  which  it  is  to  occupy, 
and  anointed  with  the  mixture  of  his  which  has  been  pre- 
viously described.34  This  method,  too,  he  recommends  for  the 
apple. 

Some  persons  have  adopted  another  plan  with  the  vine, 
which  consists  partly  -of  that  of  grafting  by  scutcheon,  and 
partly  by  fissure  ;  they  first  remove  a  square  piece  of  bark 
from  the  stock,  and  then  insert  a  slip  in  the  place  that  is  thus 
laid  bare.  I  once  saw  at  Thulise,35  near  Tibur,  a  tree  that  had 
been  grafted36  upon  all  these  various  ways,  and  loaded  with  fruit 
of  every  kind.  Upon  one  branch  there  were  nuts  to  be  seen, 
upon  another  berries,  upon  another  grapes,  upon  another 
pears,  upon  another  figs,  and  upon  others  pomegranates,  and 

31  "  Scutula."     So  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  "  little  shield." 

32  De  Be  Bust.  42.  33  Cato  says,  three  and  a-half. 

34  Chalk  and  cow-dung.     See  c.  24  of  this  Book. 

35  Perhaps  "  Tulise  ;  "  which  would  mean,  according  to  Festus,  the 
"cascades"  or  "  waterfalls"  of  Tibur.  now  Tivoli. 

36  Fee  says,  that  if  we  take  the  word  "grafted"  here  in  the  strictest 
sense,  Pliny  must  have  seen  as  great  a  marvel  as  any  of  those  mentioned 
an  the  "Arabian  Nights;"  in  fact,  utter  impossibilities.  He  thinks  it 
possible,  however,  that  a  kind  of  mock  grafting  may  have  been  produced 
in  the  case,  still  employed  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  and  known  as  the 
"  greffe- Diane."  A  trunk  of  an  orange  tree  is  split,  and  slips  of  numerous 
trees  are  than  passed  into  it,  which  in  time  throw  out  their  foliage  and 
blossoms  in  various  parts  of  the  tree,  or  at  the  top ;  the  consequence  of 
which  is,  that  the  stock  appears  to  bear  several  varieties  of  blossoms  at  the 
same  moment.     It  is  not  improbable  that  Pliny  was  thus  imposed  upon. 


Chap.  27.]         PLANTS  WHICH  GROW  FROM  A  BRANCH.  485 

several  varieties  of  the  apple  ;  the  tree,  however,  was  but 
very  short-lived.  But,  with  all  our  experiments,  we  find 
it  quite  impossible  to  rival  Nature ;  for  there  are  some 
plants  that  can  be  reproduced  in  no  other  manner  than  spon- 
taneously, and  then  only  in  wild  and  desert  spots.  The  plane''17 
is  generally  considered  the  best  adapted  to  receive  every  kind 
of  graft,  and  next  to  it  the  robur ;  both  of  them,  however, 
are  very  apt  to  spoil  the  flavour  of  the  fruit.  Some  trees 
admit  of  grafting  upon  them  in  any  fashion,  the  fig  and  the 
pomegranate  for  instance ;  the  vine,  however,  cannot  be 
grafted  upon  by  scutcheon,  nor,  indeed,  any  other  of  the  trees 
which  has  a  bark  that  is  thin,  weak,  or  cracked.  So,  too, 
those  trees  which  are  dry,  or  which  contain  but  little  moisture, 
will  not  admit  of  grafting  by  inoculation.  This  last  method  is 
the  most  prolific  of  them  all,  and  next  to  it  that  by  scutcheon, 
but  neither  of  them  can  be  depended  upon,  and  this  last  more 
particularly ;  for  when  the  adherence  of  the  bark  is  the  only 
point  of  union  the  scutcheon  is  liable  to  be  immediately  dis- 
placed by  the  slightest  gust  of  wind.  Grafting  by  insertion  is 
the  most  reliable  method,  and  the  tree  so  produced  will  bear 
more  fruit  than  one  that  is  merely  planted. 

(17.)  We  must  not  here  omit  one  very  singular  circum- 
stance. Corellius,  a  member  of  the  Equestrian  order  at  Home, 
and  a  native  of  Ateste,  grafted  a  chesnut,  in  the  territory  of 
Neapolis,  with  a  slip  taken  from  the  same  tree,  and  from  this 
was  produced  the  chesnut  which  is  so  highly  esteemed,  and 
from  him  has  derived  its  name.  At  a  later  period  again, 
Etereius,  his  freedman,  grafted  the  Corellian38  chesnut  afresh. 
There  is  this  difference  between  the  two ;  the  Corellian  is 
more  prolific,  but  the  Etereian  is  of  superior  quality. 

CHAP.  27. PLANTS  WHICH  GROW  FROM.  A  BRANCH. 

It. is  accident  that  has  the  credit  of  devising  the  other  me- 
thods of  reproduction,  and  has  taught  us  how  to  break  off  a 
branch  of  a  tree  and  plant  it  in  the  earth,  from  seeing  stakes, 
when  driven  in  the  earth,  take  root,  and  grow.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  many  of  the  trees  are  reproduced,  and  the  fig  more 
particularly ;  which  may  be  propagated  also  by  all  the  methods 
previously  stated,  with  the  exception,  indeed,  of  that  by  cuttings. 

37  The  plane  and  the  oak  are  no  longer  employed  for  the  purpose. 

38  See  B.  xv.  c.  25. 


4S6  pltnt's  natural  histort.  [Book  XVII. 

The  best  plan,  however,  is  to  take  a  pretty  large  branch,  and, 
after  sharpening  it  like  a  stake,*9  to  drive  it  to  a  considerable 
depth  in  the  earth,  taking  care  to  leave  only  a  small  portion 
above  ground,  and  then  to  cover  it  over  with  sand.  The  pome- 
granate, too,  may  be  planted  in  a  similar  manner,  the  hole 
being  first  widened  with  a  stake ;  the  same,  too,  with  the  myrtle. 
For  all  trees  of  this  nature  a  branch  is  required  three  feet  m 
length,  and  not  quite  the  thickness  of  the  arm,  care  being 
taken  to  keep  the  bark  on,  and  to  sharpen  the  branch  to  a 
point  at  the  lower  end. 

CHAF.  28.— TREES  WHICH   GROW  FROM    CUTTINGS;    THE   MODE    OF 

PLANTING    THEM. 

The  myrtle,  too, 'may  be  propagated  from  cuttings,  and  the 
mulberry  is  grown  no  other  way,  the  religious  observances 
relative  to  lightning40  forbidding  it  to  be  grafted  on  the  elm  ;4 
hence  it  would  appear  that  the  present  is  a  fitting  opportunity 
for  speaking  of  reproduction  from  cuttings.  Care  should  be 
taken  more  particularly  to  select  the  slips  from  fruitful  trees, 
and  it  should  be  seen  that  they  are  neither  bent,  scabbed,  nor 
bifurcated.  The  cuttings,  too,  should  be  thick  enough  to  fill 
the  hand,  and  not  less  than  a  foot  in  length :  the  bark,  too, 
should  be  uninjured,  and  the  end  which  is  cut  and  lies  nearest 
the  root  should  always  be  the  one  inserted  in  the  earth.  While 
the  work  of  germination  is  going  on,  the  slip  should  be  kept 
well  moulded  up,  until  such  time  as  it  has  fully  taken  root. 

CHAP.  29.   (18.) THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  OLIVE. 

Cato42  has  treated  so  well  of  the  precautions  that  are  neces- 
sary in  cultivating  the  olive,  that  we  cannot  do  better  than 
employ  his  own  words  on  the  subject.  "Let  the  slips  of 
olive,"  says  he,  "  which  you  are  about  to  plant  in  the  hole,  be 
three  feet  long,  and  be  very  careful  in  your  treatment  of  them, 
so  as  not  to  injure  the  bark  when  you  are  smoothing  or  cutting 
them.  Those  that  you  are  going  to  plant  in  the  nursery, 
should  be  a  foot  in  length  ;  and  you  should  plant  them  the 
following  way :    let  the  spot  be  turned  up  with  the  mattock, 

»»  See  c.  29  of  this  Book.  40  See  B.  xv.  c.  17. 

*i  The  mulberry  is  incapable  of  being  grafted  on  the  elm. 
«  De  Re  Rust.  45.     The  method  of  planting  here  described  is  still  the 
one  most  generally  approved  of  for  the  olive. 


Chap.  30.]  TRANSPLANTING   OPERATION  487 

and  the  soil  be  well  loosened.  When  j  ou  put  the  cutting  in  the 
ground,  press  it  down  with  the  foot  only.  If  there  is  any 
difficulty  in  making  it  descend,  drive  it  down  with  a  mallet  or 
the  handle  of  the  dibble,  but  be  careful  not  to  break  the  bark 
in  doing  so.  Take  care,  too,  not  to  make  a  hole  first  with  the 
dibble,  for  the  slip  will  have  the  better  chance  of  surviving  the 
other  way.  When  the  slip  is  three  years  old,  due  care  must  be 
taken  to  observe  the  direction  in  which  each  side  of  the  bark  is 
situate,  if  you  are  planting  in  holes  or  furrows,  you  must 
put  in  the  cuttings  by  threes,  but  be  careful  to  keep  them 
separate.  Above  ground,  however,  they  should  not  be  more 
than  four  fingers  distant  from  one  another,  and  each  of  them 
must  have  a  bud  or  eye  above  ground.  In  taking  up  the  olive 
for  transplanting,  you  must  use  the  greatest  caution,  and  see 
that  there  is  as  much  earth  left  about  the  roots  as  possible. 
When  you  have  covered  the  roots  well  up,  tread  down  the 
earth  with  the  foot,  so  that  nothing  may  injure  the  plant." 

CHAP.  30. TRANSPLANTING  OPERATIONS  AS  DISTRIBUTED  THROUGH- 
OUT THE  VARIOUS  SEASONS  OF  THE  YEAR. 

If  the  enquiry  is  made  what  is  the  proper  season  for  plant- 
ing the  olive,  my  answer  will  be,  "  where  the  soil  is  dry,  at 
seed-time ;  where  it  is  rich,  in  spring."     The  following  is  the 
advice  given  by  Cato43  on  the  subject:   " Begin  pruning  your 
olive-yard  fifteen  days  before  the  vernal  equinox ;  from  that 
period  for  forty  days  will  be  a  good  time  for  doing  so.     In 
pruning,  adopt  the  following  rules :  when  the  ground  is  ex- 
tremely productive,  remove  all  the  dry  branches  or  such  as 
may  have  been  broken  by  the  wind ;  where  it  is  not  so  pro- 
lific, you  must  cut  away  still  more,  then  tie  them  well  up, 
and  remove  all  tangled  branches,  so   as  to  lighten  the  roots. 
In  autumn  clear  away  the  roots  of  the  olive,  and  then  manure 
them.     The   man  who   labours   most   assiduously   and  most 
earnestly  will  remove  the  very  smallest  fibres  that  are  attached 
to  the  roots.     If,  however,  he  hoes  negligently,  the  roots  will 
soon  appear  again  above  ground,  and  become  thicker  than 
ever ;  the  consequence  of  which  will  be,  that  the  vigour  of  the 
tree  will  be  expended  in  the  roots." 

We  have  already  stated,  when  speaking  on  the  subject  of 
43  De  Re  Rust.  44.     The  rules  here  given  are  still  very  generally  ob- 
served. 


488  PLINY'S   NATURAL   HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

oil,44  what  are  the  different  varieties  of  the  olive,  in  what  kind 
of  soil  it  ought  to  be  planted,  and  what  is  the  proper  aspect 
for  the  olive-yard.  Mago  recommends  that  the  olive  should 
be  planted  on  declivities  and  in  dry  spots,  in  an  argillaceous 
soil,  and  between  autumn  and  the  winter  equinox.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  soil  is  thick,  humid,  or  somewhat  damp  even, 
it  ought  to  be  planted  between  harvest  and  the  winter  solstice ; 
advice,  however,  it  should  be  remembered,  applicable  to  Africa 
more  particularly.  At  the  present  day,  it  is  mostly  the  custom 
in  Italy  to  plant  the  olive  in  spring,  but  if  it  is  thought  de- 
sirable to  do  so  in  the  autumn  as  well,  there  are  only  four  days 
in  the  forty  between  the  equinox  and  the  setting  of  the  Ver- 
giliag  that  are  unfavourable  for  planting  it.45  It  is  a  practice 
peculiar  to  Africa,  to  engraft  the  olive  on  the  wild  olive  only, 
a  tree  which  is  made  to  be  everlasting,  as  it  were  ;  for  when  it 
becomes  old  the  best  of  the  suckers  are  carefully  trained  for 
adoption  by  grafting,  and  in  this  way  in  another  tree  it 
grows  young  again ;  an  operation  which  may  be  repeated  con- 
tinuously as  often  as  needed ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  the 
same  olive-yard  will  last  for  ages.46  The  wild  olive  also  is 
propagated  both  by  insertion  and  inoculation. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  plant  the  olive  in  a  site  where  the 
quercus  has  been  lately  rooted  up  ;  for  the  earth-worms,  known 
as  "raucae,"  which  breed  in  the  root  of  the  quercus,  are  apt 
to  get  into  that  of  the  olive.  It  has  been  found,  from  practical 
experience,  that  it  is  not  advisable  to  bury  the  cuttings  in  the 
ground  nor  yet  to  dry  them  before  they  are  planted  out.  Ex- 
perience has  also  taught  us  that  it  is  the  best  plan  to  clean  an 
old  olive-yard  every  other  year,  between  the  vernal,  equinox 
and  the  rising  of  the  Vergilige,  and  to  lay  moss  about  the  roots  ; 
to  dig  holes  also  round  the  trees  every  year,  just  after  the 
summer  solstice,  two  cubits  wide  by  a  foot  in  depth,  and  to 
manure  them  every  third  year. 

Mago,  too,  recommends  that  the  almond  should  be  planted 
between  the  setting  of  Arcturus47  and  the  winter  solstice.     All 

44  B.  xv.  c.  6. 

45  See  c.  2  of  this  Book,  and  B.  rviii.  c.  69. 

46  The  olive  is  an  extremely  long-lived  tree ;  it  has  been  known  to  live 
as  long  as  nine  or  ten  centuries.  A  fragment  of  the  bark,  with  a  little 
wood  attached,  if  put  in  the  ground,  will  throw  out  roots  and  spring  up. 
Hence  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  the  ancients  looked  upon  it  us  im- 
mortal. 47  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 


Chap.  30.]  TRANSPLANTING   OPERATIONS.  489 

the  varieties,  however,  of  the  pear,  he  says,  should  not  be 
planted  at  the  same  time,  as  they  do  not  all  blossom  together. 
Those  with  oblong  or  round  fruit  should  be  planted  between 
the  setting  of  the  Yergiliae  and  the  winter  solstice,  and  the 
other  kinds  in  the  middle  of  the  winter,  after  the  setting  of  the 
constellation  of  the  Arrow,48  on  a  site  that  looks  towards  the 
east  or  north.  The  laurel  should  be  planted  between  the 
setting  of  the  Eagle  and  that  of  the  Arrow ;  for  we  find  that 
the  proper  time  for  planting  is  equally  connected  with  the  aspect 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  For  the  most  part  it  has  been  recom- 
mended that  this  should  be  done  in  spring  and  autumn ;  but 
there  is  another  appropriate  period  also,  though  known  to  but 
few,  about  the  rising  of  the  Dog-star,  namely  ;  it  is  not,  how- 
ever, equally  advantageous  in  all  localities.  Still,  I  ought  not 
to  omit  making  mention  of  it,  as  I  am  not  setting  forth  the 
peculiar  advantages  of  any  one  country  in  particular,  but  am 
enquiring  into  the  operations  of  Nature  taken  as  a  whole. 

In  the  region  of  Cyrenaica,  the  planting  is  generally  done 
while  the  Etesian49  winds  prevail,  and  the  same  is  the  case  in 
Greece,  and  with  the  olive  more  particularly  in  Laconia.  At 
this  period,  also,  the  vine  is  planted  in  the  island  of  Cos  ;  and 
in  the  rest  of  Greece  they  do  not  neglect  to  inoculate  and  graft, 
though  they  do  not50  plant,  their  trees  just  then.  The  natural 
qualities,  too,  of  the  respective  localities,  exercise  a  very  consi- 
derable influence  in  this  respect ;  for  in  Egypt  they  plant  in 
any  month,  as  also  in  all  other  countries  where  summer  rains 
do  not  prevail,  India  and  Ethiopia,  for  instance.  When  trees 
are  not  planted  in  the  spring  they  must  be  planted  in  autumn, 
as  a  matter  of  course. 

There  are  three  stated  periods,  then,  for  germination;51  spring, 
the  rising  of  the  Dog-star,  and  that  of  Arcturus.  And,  indeed, 
it  is  not  the  animated  beings  only  that  are  ardent  for  the  pro- 
pagation of  their  species,  for  this  desire  is  manifested  in  even 
a  greater  degree  by  the  earth  and  all  its  vegetable  productions ; 
to  employ  this  tendency  at  the  proper  moment  is  the  most 

48  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 

49  B.  ii.  c.  47,  and  B.  xviii.  c.  68. 

50  There  is  a  contradiction  here  ;  a  few  lines  above,  he  says  that  they 
do  plant  their  trees  in  Greece  at  this  period.  He  may  possibly  mean  "sow." 

51  See  B.  xvi.  c.  41.  The  rules  here  laid  down  by  Pliny  are,  as  Fee 
remarks,  much  too  rigorous,  and  must  be  modified  according  to  extraneous 
circumstances. 


490  PLINY' S   NATURAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

advantageous  method  of  ensuring  an  abundant  increase.  These 
moments,  too,  are  of  peculiar  importance  in  relation  to  the 
process  of  grafting,  as  it  is  then  that  the  two  productions  ma- 
nifest a  mutual  desire  of  uniting.  Those  who  prefer  the  spring 
lor  grafting  commence  operations  immediately  after  the  vernal 
equinox,  reckoning  on  the  fact  that  then  the  buds  are  just 
coming  out,  a  thing  that  greatly  facilitates  the  union  of  the 
barks.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  prefer  the  autumn  graft 
immediately  after  the  rising  of- Arcturus,  because  then  the  graft 
at  once  takes  root  in  some  degree,  and  becomes  seasoned  for 
spring,  so  as  not  to  exhaust  its  strength  all  at  once  in  the  pro- 
cess of  germination.  However,  there  are  certain  fixed  periods 
of  the  year, ,  in  all  cases,  for  certain  trees ;  thus,  the  cherry, 
for  instance,  and  the  almond,  are  either  planted  or  grafted  about 
the  winter  solstice.  For  many  trees  the  nature  of  the  localitj 
will  be  the  best  guide  ;  thus,  where  the  soil  is  cold  and  moist 
it  is  best  to  plant  in  spring,  and  where  it  is  dry  and  hot,  in 
autumn. 

Taking  Italy  in  general,  the  proper  periods  for  these  opera- 
tions may  be  thus  distributed : — The  mulberry  is  planted  at 
any  time  between  the  ides  of  February52  and  the  vernal  equi- 
nox ;  the  pear,  in  the  autumn,  but  not  beyond  the  fifteenth 
day  before  the  winter  solstice  ;  the  summer  apples,  the  quince, 
the  sorb,  and  the  plum,  between  mid-winter  and  the  ides  of 
February :  the  Greek  carob53  and  the  peach,  at  any  time  in 
autumn  before  the  winter  solstice  ;  the  various  nuts,  such  as 
the  walnut,  pine,  filbert,  almond,  and  chesnut,  between  the 
calends  of  March54  and  the  ides  of  that  month  j55  the  willow 
and  the  broom  about  the  calends  of  March.  The  broom  is 
grown  from  seed,  and  in  a  dry  soil,  the  willow  from  plants,  in 
a  damp  locality,  as  already  stated  on  former  occasions.56 

(19.)  That  I  may  omit  nothing  to  my  knowledge  of  the 
facts  that  I  have  anywhere  been  able  to  ascertain,  I  shall  here 
add  a  new  method  of  grafting,  which  has  been  discovered  by 
Columella,57  as  he  asserts,  by  the  aid  of  which  trees  even  of  a 
heterogeneous  or  dissociable  nature  may  be  made  to  unite ; 

32  13th  of  February.  53  B.  xv.  c  26. 

54  1st  of  March.  55  1,5th  of  March. 

56  B.  xvi.  cc.  30,  46,  67,  and  78. 

57  De  Re  Rust.  B.  v.  c.  11.  A  very  absurd  and  useless  method,  Fee 
remarks. 


Chap.  31.]  CLEANING   AND   BA1UNG   THE    EOOTS. 


491 


such,  for  instance,  as  the  fig  and  the  olive.  In  accordance 
with  this  plan,  he  recommends  that  a  fig-tree  should  be  planted 
near  an  olive,  at  a  distance  sufficiently  near  to  admit  of  the  fig 
being  touched  by  a  branch  of  the  olive  when  extended  to  its 
full  length  ;  as  supple  and  pliant  a  one  as  possible  being  selected 
for  the  purpose,  and  due  care  being  taken  all  the  time  to 
render  it  seasoned  by  keeping  it  constantly  on  the  stretch. 
After  this,  when  the  fig  has  gained  sufficient  vigour,  a  thing 
that  generally  happens  at  the  end  of  three  or  five  years^  at 
most,  the  top  of  it  is  cut  off,  the  end  of  the  olive  branch  being 
also  cut  to  a  point  in  the  manner  already  stated.58  This 
point  is  then  to  be  inserted  in  the  trunk  of  the  fig,  and  made 
secure  with  cords,  lest,  being  bent,  it  should  happen  to  rebound : 
in  this  way  we  find  the  method  of  propagating  by  layers  com- 
bined with  that  of  grafting.  This  union  between  the  two  pa- 
rent trees  is  allowed  to  continue  for  three  years,  and  then  in 
the  fourth  the  branch  is  cut  away  and  left  entirely  upon  the 
tree  that  has  so  adopted  it.  This  method  however,  is  not 
at  present  universally  known,  at  all  events,  so  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  ascertain. 

CHAP.  31. CLEANING    A^D    BARING    THE    EOOTS,    AND    MOTJLDING 

THEM. 

In  addition  to  these  particulars,  the  same  considerations 
that  I  have  already59  mentioned  in  reference  to  warm  or  cold, 
moist  or  dry  soils,  have  also  taught  us  the  necessity  of  trench- 
ing around  the  roots.  These  trenches,  however,  in  a  moist, 
watery  soil,  should  be  neither  wide  nor  deep  ;  while  the  con- 
trary is  the  case  where  the  ground  is  hot  and  dry ;  it  being  the 
object,  in  the  latter  instance,  to  let  them  receive  and  retain  as 
much  water  as  possible.  This  rule  is  applicable  to  the  culture 
of  old  trees  as  well ;  for  in  very  hot  places  the-roots  are  well 
moulded  in  summer,  and  carefully  covered  up,  to  prevent  the 
heat  of  the  sun  from  parching  them.  In  other  places,  again, 
the  ground  is  cleared  away  from  the  roots,  in  order  to  give  free 
access  to  the  air,  while  in  winter  they  are  carefully  moulded 
to  protect  them  from  the  frost.  The  contrary  is  the  case,  how- 
ever, in  hot  climates,  for  there  they  bare  the  roots  in  winter 

»  In  c.  24  of  this  Book. 

59  All  the  precepts  given  in  this  Chapter  have  been  already  given  in  cc. 
3  and  4  of  the  present  Book. 


4[)2  pltny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

for   the   purpose   of  ensuring-   a  supply  of  moisture  to  the 
parched  fibres. 

In  all  places  the  rule  is  to  make  a  circular  trench  three 
feet  in  width  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  ;  this,  however,  it  is  not 
possible  to  do  in  meadows,  where  the  roots,  in  their  fondness 
for  the  sun  and  showers,  range  near  the  surface  far  and  wide. 
Such,  then,  are  the  general  observations  that  we  have  to  make 
in  reference  to  the  planting  and  grafting  of  trees  that  we  value 
for  their  fruits. 

CHAP.  32.  (20.) — WILLOW-BEDS. 

It  now  remains  to  give  an  account  of  those  trees  which  are 
planted  for  the  sake  of  others — the  vine60  more  particularly — 
and  the  wood  of  which  is  cut  from  time  to  time.  Holding  the 
very  first  rank  among  these  we  find  the  willow,  a  tree  that  is 
always  planted  in  a  moist  soil.  The  hole,  however,  should  be 
two  feet  and  a  half  in  depth,  and  the  slip  a  foot  and  a  half 
only  in  length.  Willow  stakes  are  also  used  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  the  stouter  they  are  the  better  :  the  distance  left 
between  these  last  should  be  six  feet.  When  they  are  three 
years  old  their  growth  is  checked  by  cutting  them  down 
within  a  couple  of  feet  from  the  ground,  the  object  being  to 
make  them  spread  out,  so  that  by  the  aid  of  their  branches 
they  may  be  cleared  without  the  necessity  of  using  a  ladder  ; 
for  the  willow  is  the  more  productive  the  nearer  its  branches 
are  to  the  ground.  It  is  generally  recommended  to  trench 
round  the  willow  every  year,  in  the  month  of  April.  Such 
is  the  mode  of  cultivation  employed  for  the  osier  willow.61 

The  stake  willow62  is  reproduced  both  from  suckers  and 
cuttings,  in  a  trench  of  the  same  dimensions.  Stakes  may  be 
cut  from  it  at  the  end  of  about  three  years  mostly.  These 
stakes  are  also  used  to  supply  the  place  of  the  trees  as  they 
grow  old,  being  fixed  in  the  ground  as  laj^ers,  and  cut  away 
from  the  trunk  at  the  end  of  a  year.     A  single  jugerum  of 

30  The  maple,  linden,  elm,  and  arundo  donax,  are  still  employed,  as  well 
as  the  willow,  for  this  purpose ;  the  latter,  however,  but  very  rarely.  The 
account  of  its  cultivation  here  given  is  borrowed  from  Columella,  De  Se 
Rust.  B.  iv.  c.  30. 

61  The  Salix  viminalis  of  Linnaeus,  or  white  osier. 

62  The  Salix  alba  of  Linnaeus.  These  stakes,  or  props,  are  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  vine. 


Chap.  S3.]  BEED-BEDS.  493 

osier  willows  will  supply  osiers63  sufficient  for  twenty-five  jugera 
of  vines.  It  is  for  a  similar  purpose  that  the  white  poplar64 
is  grown  ;  the  trenches  being  two  feet  deep  and  the  cutting  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  length.  It  is  left  to  dry  for  a  couple  of  days 
before  it  is  planted,  and  a  space  is  left  between  the  plants  a  foot 
and  a  palm  in  width,  after  which  they  are  covered  with  earth 
to  the  depth  of  a  couple  of  cubits. 

CHAP.  33. KEED-BEDS. 

The  reed65  requires  a  soil  still  moister  even  than  that  em- 
ployed for  the  willow.  It  is  planted  by  placing  the  bulb  of 
the  root,  that  part  which  some  people  call  the  "eye,"66  in  a 
trench  three  quarters  of  a  foot  in  depth,  at  intervals  of  two 
feet  and  a  half.  A  reed-bed  will  renew  itself  spontaneously 
after  the  old  one  has  been  rooted  up,  a  circumstance  which  it 
has  been  found  more  beneficial  to  take  advantage  of  than 
merely  to  thin  them,  as  was  formerly  the  practice  ;  the  roots 
being  in  the  habit  of  creeping  and  becoming  interlaced,  a 
thing  that  ends  eventually  in  the  destruction  of  thebed.  The 
proper  time  for  planting  reeds  is  before  the  eyes  begin  to  swell, 
or,  in  other  words,  before  the  calends  of  March.67  The  reed 
continues  to  increase  until  the  winter  solstice,  but  ceases  to  do 
so  when  it  begins  to  grow  hard,  a  sign  that  it  is  fit  for  cutting. 
It  is  generally  thought,  too,  that  the  reed  requires  to  bo 
trenched  round  as  often  as  the  vine. 

The  reed  also  is  planted  in  a  horizontal  position,68  and  then 
covered  with  earth  to  a  very  great  depth  ;  by  this  method  as 
many  plants  spring  up  as  there  are  eyes.  It  is  propagated,  also, 
by  planting  out  in  trenches  a  foot  in  depth,  care  being  taken  to 
cover  up  two  of  the  eyes,  while  a  third  knot  is  left  just  on  a 
level  with  the  ground ;  the  head,  too,  is  bent  downwards,  that 
it  may  not  become  charged  with  dew.  The  reed  is  usually  cut 
when  the  moon  is  on  the  wane.69  When  required  for  the 
vineyard,  it  is  better  dried  for  a  year  than  used  in  a  green 
state. 

63  For  making  baskets  and  bindings. 

64  The  Populus  canescens  of  Willdenow. 

65  The  Arundo  donax  of  Linnaeus.  This  account  is  mostly  from  Colu- 
mella, B.  iv.  c.  32.  "66  B.  xvi.  c.  67.  67  First  of  March. 

6e  This  method  is  condemned  by  Columella,  De  Arbor.  29,  as  the  pro- 
duce is  poor,  meagre,  and  weak.  It  is  but  little  practised  at  the  present 
day,  69  A  mere  superstition,  of  course. 


494  pliny's  NATURAL  1IIST0RY.  [Book  XVII. 

CHAP.    34.- — OTHER    PLANTS    THAT    ARE     CUT    FOR    POLES   AND 

STAKES. 

The  chesnut  is  found  to  produce  better  stays 70  for  the  vine 
than  any  other  tree,  both  from  the  facility  with  which  they 
are  worked,  their  extremely  lasting  qualities,  and  the  circum- 
stance that,  when  cut,  the  tree  will  bud  again  more  speedily 
than  the  willow71  even.  It  requires  a  soil  that  is  light  without 
being  gravelly,  a  moist,  sandy,  one  more  particularly,  or  else  a 
charcoal  earth,72  or  a  fine  tufa 73  even ;  while  at  the  same  time 
a  northern  aspect,  however  cold  and  shady,  and  if  upon  a 
declivity  even,  greatly  promotes  its  growth.  It  refuses  to 
grow,  however,  in  a  gravelly  soil,  or  in  red  earth,  chalk,  or, 
indeed,  any  kind  of  fertilizing  ground.  We  have  already 
stated,74  that  it  is  reproduced  from  the  nut,  but  it  will 
only  grow  from  those  of  the  largest  size,  and  then  only  when 
they  are  sown  in  heaps  of  five  together.  The  ground  above 
the  nuts  should  be  kept  broken  from  the  month  of  November 
to  February,  as  it  is  at  that  period  that  the  nuts  lose  their 
hold  and  fall  of  themselves  from  the  tree,  and  then  take 
root.  There  ought  to  be  intervals  of  a  foot  in  width  left 
between  them,75  and  the  hole  in  which  they  are  planted  should 
be  nine  inches  every  way.  At  the  end  of  two  years  or  more 
they  are  transplanted  from  this  seed  plot  into  another,  where 
they  are  laid  out  at  intervals  of  a  couple  of  feet. 

Layers  are  also  employed  for  the  reproduction  of  this  tree, 
and  there  is  none  to  which  they  are  better76  adapted  :  the  root 
of  the  plant  is  left  exposed,  and  the  layer  is  placed  in  the 
trench  at  full  length,  with  the  summit  also  protruding  from 
the  earth  ;  the  result  being,  that  it  shoots  from  the  top  as  well 

70  «  Pedamenta,"  uprights,  stays,  stakes,  or  props. 

71  This  is  not  the  fact,  for  the  chesnut  both  grows  and  buds  very  slowly. 

72  A  black,  hot  kind  of  earth.     See  c.  3  of  this  Book. 

73  In  reality,  the  chesnut  will  not  thrive  in  a  tufaceous,  or,  indeed,  in  any 
kind  of  calcareous,  soil.  74  In  B.  xv.  c.  25. 

75  The  heaps  of  five  in  which  they  are  sown. 

76  The  chesnut  is  grown  with  the  greatest  difficulty 'from  layers  and  slips, 
and  never  from  suckers.  Pliny  borrows  this  erroneous  assertion  from 
Columella,  B.  iv.  c.  32.  In  mentioning  the  heaps  of  five  nuts,  Pliny  seems 
to  have  had  some  superstitious  observance  in  view,  for  Columella  only  says 
that  they  must  be  sown  thickly,  to  prevent  accident.  The  same  is  done  at 
the  present  day,  in  order  to  make  provision  for  the  depredations  of  field- 
mice,  rats,  and  mice,  which  are  particularly  fond  of  them. 


Chap.  35.]  CULTUEE    OP   THE   VINE.  495 

as  the  root.  When  transplanted,  however,  it  is  very  hard  to  be 
reconciled,  as  it  stands  in  dread  of  all  change.  Hence  it  is, 
that  it  is  nearly  two  years  before  it  will  begin  to  shoot  upward  ; 
from  which  circumstance  it  is  generally  preferred  to  rear  the 
slips  in  the  nursery  from  the  nut  itself,  to  obtaining  them  from 
quicksets.  The  mode  of  cultivation  does  not  differ  from  that 
employed  with  the  plants  already  mentioned.17  It  is  trenched 
around,  and  carefully  lopped  for  two  successive  years ;  after 
which  it  is  able  to  take  care  of  itself,  the  shade  it  gives  sufficing 
to  stifle  all  superfluous  suckers :  before  the  end  of  the  sixth 
year  it  is  fit  for  cutting. 

A  single  jugerum  of  chesnuts  will  provide  stays  for  twenty 
jugera  of  vineyard,  and  the  branches  that  are  taken  from  near 
the  roots  afford  a  supply  of  two-forked  uprights  ;  they  will  last, 
too,  till  after  the  next  cutting  of  the  tree. 

The  sesculus,78  too,  is  grown  in  a  similar  manner,  the  time 
for  cutting  being  three  years  at  the  latest.  Being  less  diffi- 
cult, too,  to  propagate,  it  may  be  planted  in  any  kind  of  earth, 
the  acorn — and  it  is  only  with  the  sesculus  that  this  is  done — 
being  sown  in  spring,  in  a  hole  nine  inches  in  depth,  with  in- 
tervals between  the  plants  of  two  feet  in  width.  This  tree  is 
lightly  hoed,  four  times  a  year.  This  kind  of  stay  is  the  least 
likely  to  rot  of  them  all ;  and  the  more  the  tree  is  cut,  the 
more  abundantly  it  shoots.  In  addition  to  the  above,  they 
also  grow  other  trees  for  cutting  that  we  have  already  men- 
tioned— the  ash  for  instance,  the  laurel,  the  peach,  the  hazel, 
and  the  apple ;  but  then  they  are  of  slower  growth,  and  the 
stays  made  from  them,  when  fixed  in  the  ground,  are  hardly 
able  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  earth,  and  much  less  any 
moisture.  The  elder,  on  the  other  hand,  which  affords  stakes 
of  the  very  stoutest  quality,  is  grown  from  cuttings,  like  the 
poplar.  As  to  the  cypress,  we  have  already  spoken  of  it  at 
sufficient  length.79 

CHAP.  35.    (21.) THE    CULTURE    OF    THE    VINE  AND  THE  VARIOUS 

SHRUBS  WHICH  SUPPORT  IT. 

Having  now  described  what  we  may  call  the  armoury80  of 

"7  The  willow  and  the  reed. 

w  See  B.  xvi.  cc.  5,  6,  and  56.  79  In  B.  xvi.  c.  60. 

b0  "  Armamentis."     More  properly,  "rigging,"  or  "  tackle."     Heal- 


496  plint's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

the  vine,  it  remains  for  us  to  treat  with  a  particular  degree  of 
care  of  the  nature  of  the  vine  itself. 

The  shoots  of  the  vine,  as  also  of  certain  other  trees,  the 
interior  of  which  is  naturally  of  a  spongy  quality,  have  certain 
knots  or  joints  upon  the  stem  that  intercept  the  pith.  The  in- 
tervals between  these  joints  in  the  branches  are  short,  and 
more  particularly  so  towards  the  extremities.  The  pith,  in 
itself  the  vivifying  spirit  of  the  tree,  is  always  taking  an 
onward  direction,  so  long  as  the  knot,  by  being  open  in  the 
centre,  allows  it  a  free  passage.  If,  however,  the  knot  should 
become  solidified  and  deny  it  a  passage,  the  pith  is  then  thrown 
downward  upon  the  knot  that  lies  next  below  it,  and  making 
its  escape,  issues  forth  there  in  the  shape  of  a  bud,  these  buds 
always  making  their  appearance  on  each  side  alternately,  as 
already  mentioned  in  the  case  of  the  reed  and  the  giant- 
fennel  ;81  in  other  words,  where  one  bud  makes  its  appearance 
at  the  bottom  of  a  knot  to  the  right,  the  next  one  takes  its  place 
on  the  left,  and  so  on  alternately.  In  the  vine  this  bud  is  known 
as  the  "  gem,"82  as  soon  as  the  pith  has  formed  there  a  small 
round  knob ;  but  before  it  has  done  this,  the  concavity  that  is 
left  upon  the  surface  is  merely  called  the  "  eye  :"83  when  situate 
at  the  extremity  of  the  shoot,  it  is  known  as  the  "  germ."84 
It  is  in  the  same  way,  too,  that  the  stock  branches,  suckers, 
grapes,  leaves,  and  tendrils  of  the  vine  are  developed :  and  it 
is  a  very  surprising  fact,  that  all  that  grows  on  the  right85 
side  of  the  tree  is  stronger  and  stouter  than  on  the  left. 

Hence  it  is,  that  when  slips  of  this  tree  are  planted,  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  these  knots  in  the  middle,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  pith  from  making  its  escape.  In  the  same  way,  too, 
when  planting  the  fig,  suckers  are  taken,  nine  inches  in  length, 
and  after  the  ground  is  opened  they  are  planted  with  the  part 
downwards  that  grew  nearest  to  the  tree,  and  with  a  couple  of 
eyes  protruding  from  the  earth — in  slips  of  trees,  that  part  is 
properly  called  the  eye  which  is  to  give  birth  to  the  future 
bud.     It  is  for  this  reason  that,  in  the  seed-plots  even  the 

ludes  to  the  trees  from  which  the  uprights  or  stays  for  the  vine  are  cut,  or 
which  produce  osiers  for  baskets  and  bindings  required  in  the  vintage. 

81  See  B.  xiii.  c.  42,  and  B.  xvi.  c.  65. 

82  'l  Gemma."     A  name  now  given  by  botanists  to  the  buds  in  general. 

83  "  Oculus."     A  bud  undeveloped  is  still  so  called. 

84  Germen. 

65  This  remark  is  not  confirmed  by  experience. 


Chop.  35.]  CULTUEE    OF    THE    YI]STE.  497 

slips  that  are  thus  planted  sometimes  bear  the  same  year  the 
fruit  that  they  would  have  borne  if  they  had  remained  upon 
the  tree  :  this  takes  place  when  they  have  been  planted  in 
good  seasons  and  are  replete  with  fecundity,  for  then  they 
bring  to  maturity  the  fruits  the  conception  of  which  was  com- 
menced in  another  spot.  Pig-trees  that  are  thus  planted  may 
very  easily  be  transplanted  in  the  third  year.  As  some  com- 
pensation for  the  rapidity  with  which  this  tree  becomes86  old, 
it  has  thus  received  the  privilege  of  coming  to  maturity87  at  a 
very  early  period. 

The  vine  throws  out  a  great  number  of  shoots.  In  the  first 
place,  however,  none  of  them  are  ever  used  for  planting, 
except  those  which  are  useless,  and  would  have  been  cut  away 
as  mere  brushwood ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  eveiy  part  is 
pruned  off  that  has  borne  fruit  the  previous  year.  In  former 
times,  it  was  the  custom  to  plant  the  slip  with  a  head  at  the 
extremity,  consisting  of  a  piece  of  the  hard  wood  on  each  side 
of  it,  the  same,  in  fact,  that  is  called  a  mallet  shoot 88  at  the 
present  day.  In  more  recent  times,  however,  the  practice 
has  been  adopted  of  pulling  it  off  merely  with  a  heel  attached 
to  it,  as  in  the  fig;89  and  there  is  no  kind  of  slip  that  takes 
with  greater  certainty.  A  third  method,  again,  has  been  added 
to  the  former  ones,  and  a  more  simple  one  as  well,  that  of 
taking  the  slip  without  any  heel  at  all.  These  slips  are 
known  by  the  name  of  arrow-90shoots,  when  they  are  twisted 
before  planting;  and  the  same,  when  they  are  neither  cut 
short  nor  twisted,  are  called  three-budded91  slips.  The  same 
sucker  very  often  furnishes  several  slips  of  this  kind.  To 
plant  a  stock-shoot92  of  the  vine  is  unproductive,  and,  indeed, 
no  shoots  will  bear  unless  they  are  taken  from  a  part  that  has 
borne  fruit  already.  A  slip  that  has  but  few  knots  upon  it,  is 
looked  upon  as  likely  not  to  bear ;  while  a  great  number  of 
buds  is  considered  an  indication  of  fruitfulness.  Some  persons 
say  that  no  suckers  ought  to  be  planted,  but  those  which  have 
already  blossomed.     It  is  far  from   advantageous93  to  plant 

86  On  the  contrary,  the  fig-tree  has  been  known  to  live  to  a  very  great 
age.  si  see  b.  Xvi.  c.  51. 

88  This  method  of  planting  the  vine  is  still  extensively  used  ;  especially 
the  low  kinds.  89  gee  c.  13  of  this  Book. 

9'  Sagittse.  si  Trigemmes. 

93  "  Pampinarius."     This  assertion  has  been  found  to  be  erroneous. 

93  This  practice  has  been  condemned  by  modern  cultivators. 

VOL.    III.  K    K 


4g8  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

arrow-slips,  for  after  being  twisted,  they  are  apt  to  break  in 
transplanting.  The  slips  when  planted  should  be  a  foot  in 
length,94  and  not  less,  and  they  ought  to  have  five  or  six  knots 
upon  them ;  with  the  dimensions  above  stated,  they  cannot, 
however,  possibly  have  less  than  three  buds.  It  is  considered 
the  most  advantageous  plan  to  plant  them  out  the  same  day 
that  they  are  cut ;  but  if  it  is  found  necessary  to  plant  them 
some  time  after,  they  should  be  kept  in  the  way  that  we  have 
already  mentioned  ;95  particular "  care  being  taken  not  to  let 
them  protrude  from  the  earth,  lest  they  should  become  dried 
by  the  action  of  the  sun,  or  nipped  by  the  wind  or  frost. 
When  they  have  been  kept  too  long  in  a  dry  place,  they  must 
be  put  in  water  for  several  days,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring 
their  verdancy  and  freshness. 

The  spot  selected,  whether  for  nursery  or  vineyard,  ought 
to  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  of  as  great  extent  as  possible ; 
the  soil  being  turned  up  to  a  depth  of  three  feet  with  a  two- 
pronged  fork.  The  earth,  on  being  thrown  up  with  the  mat- 
tock/6 swells  naturally,97  and  ridges  are  formed  with  it  four  feet 
in  height,  intersected  by  trenches  a  couple98  of  feet  m  depth. 
The  earth  in  the  trenches  is  carefully  cleansed  and  raked  out,9* 
so  that  none  of  it  may  be  left  unbroken,  care  being  taken  also 
to  keep  it  exactly  level ;  if  the  ridges  are  unequal,  it  shows 
that  the  ground  has  been  badly  dug.  At  the  same  time  the 
breadth  should  be  measured  of  each  ridge  that  lies  between 
the  trenches.  The  slips  are  planted  either  in  holes  or  else  m 
elongated  furrows,  and  then  covered  with  very  fine  earth ; 
but  where  it  is  a  light  soil,  the  grower  will  lose  his  pains 
should  he  neglect  to  place  a  layer  of  richer  mould  beneath. 
Not  less  than  a  couple  of  slips  should  be  planted  _  together, 
keeping  them  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  adjoining  earth, 
which  should  be  pressed  down  and  made  compact  with  the 
dibble.  In  the  seed-plot  there  should  be  intervals  left  between 
each  two  settings  a  foot  and  a  half  in  breadth  and  half  a  foot 
in  length :  when  thus  planted,  it  is  usual,  at  the  end  of  two 
years,°to  cut  the  mallet-shoots  at  the  knot  nearest  the  ground, 

si  From  Columella,  B.  iii.  c.  19.  °5  In  c.  24  of  this  Book. 

96  "  Marra."     Probably  a  mattock,  with  several  prongs. 

97  Occupies  more  space  when  thus  loosened. 

9s  As  compared  with  the  original  level  of  tlm  ground. 
99  Query,  if  this  is  the  meaning  of  "  extendi"? 


Chap.  35.]  CULTURE    OF   THE   VIKE.  499 

unless  there  is  some  good  reason  for  sparing  them.  When  this 
is  done,  they  throw  out  eyes,  and  with  these  upon  them  at  the 
end  of  three  years  the  quicksets  are  transplanted. 

There  is  another  method,  also,  of  planting1  the  vine,"  which 
a  luxurious  refinement  in  these  matters  has  introduced.  Pour 
mallet-shoots  are  tightly  fastened  together  with  a  cord  in  the 
greenest  part,  and  when  thus  arranged  are  passed  through  the 
shank-bone  of  an  ox  or  else  a  tube  of  baked  earth,  after  which 
they  are  planted  in  the  ground,  care  being  taken  to  leave  a 
couple  of  buds  protruding  :  in  this  way  they  become  impreg- 
nated with  moisture,  and,  immediately  on  being  cut,  throw  out 
fresh  wood.  The  tube  is  then  broken,  upon  which  the  root, 
thus  set  at  liberty,  assumes  fresh  vigour,  and  the  clusters2  ulti- 
mately bear  upon  them  grapes  belonging  to  the  four  kinds 
thus  planted  together. 

In  consequence  of  a  more  recent  discovery,  another  method 
has  been  adopted.  A  mallet-shoot  is  split  down  the  middle 
and  the  pith  extracted,  after  which  the  two  portions  are  fastened 
together,  every  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  buds.  The 
mallet-shoot  is  then  planted  in  a  mixture  of  earth  and  manure, 
and  when  it  begins  to  throw  out  branches  it  is  cut,  the  ground 
being  repeatedly  dug  about  it.  Columella3  assures  us  that  the 
grapes  of  this  plant  will  have  no  stones,  but  it  is  a  more  sur- 
prising thing  that  the  slip  itself  should  survive  when  thus  de- 
prived of  the  pith.4  Still,  however,  I  think  I  ought  not  to 
omit  the  fact  that  there  are  some  slips  that  grow  without  the  or- 
dinary articulations  of  trees  upon  them  ;  thus,  for  instance,  five 
or  six  very  small  sprigs  of  box,5  if  tied  together  and  put  in 
the  ground,  will  take  root.  It  was  formerly  made  a  point  to 
take  these  sprigs  from  a  box-tree  that  had  not  been  lopped,  as 
it  was  fancied  that  in  the  last  case  they  would  not  live ;  expe- 
rience, however,  has  since  put  an  end  to  that  notion. 

The  culture  of  the  vineyard  naturally  follows  the  training 
of  the  nursery.     There  are  five6  different  kinds  of  vine:  that 

1  This  method  is  no  longer  used. 

2  This,  Fee  remarks,  is  not  the  case  :  the  tree  might  bear  four  kinds  of 
grapes,  but  not  four  kinds  on  the  same  bunch. 

3  De  Arbor,  c.  9.     This  is  not  the  fact. 

4  He  was  little  aware",  Fee  says,  that  all  ligneous  plants  have  a  radiating 
pith,  distinct  from  the  central  one.  5  See  B.  xvi.  c.  72. 

6  Oliver  de  Serres  distinguishes  only  three— the  low,  middling,  and  tall 
vines. 

Ki2 


500  pliny's  NaTUKAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XYII. 

with  the  branches  running7  along  the  ground,  the  vine  that 
stands  without  support,8  the  vine  that  is  propped  and  re- 
quires no  cross-piece,9  the  vine  that  is  propped  and  requires 
a  single  cross-piece,  and  the  vine  that  requires  a  trellis  of  four 
compartments.10  The  mode  of  cultivation  requisite  for  the 
propped  vine  may  be  understood  as  equally  adapted  to  the  one 
that  stands  by  itself  and  requires  no  support,  for  this  last  me- 
thod is  only  employed  where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  wood  for  stays. 
The  stay  with  the  single  cross-piece  in  a  straight  line  is  known 
by  the  name  of  "  canterius."  It  is  the  best  of  all  for  the 
wine,  for  then  the  tree  throws  no  shadow,  and  the  grape  is 
ripened  continuously  by  the  sun,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it 
derives  more  advantage  from  the  action  of  the  wind,  and  dis- 
engages the  dew  with  greater  facility :  the  superfluous  _  leaves 
and  shoots,  too,  are  more  easily  removed,  and  the  breaking  up 
of  the  earth  and  other  operations  about  the  tree  are  effected 
with  greater  facility.  But,  above  all,  by  the  adoption  of  this 
method,  the  tree  sheds  its  blossoms  more  beneficially  than 
under  any  other  circumstances.  This  cross-piece  is  generally 
made  of  a  stake,  or  a  reed,  or  else  of  a  rope  of  hair  or  hemp, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  Spain  and  at  Brundisium.  When  the 
trellis  is  employed,  wine  is  produced  in  greater  quantities ; 
this  method  has  its  name  of  "  compluviata"  from  the  "  com- 
pluvium"  or  square  opening  in  the  roofs  of  our  houses ;  the 
trellis  is  divided  into  four  compartments  by  as  many  cross- 
pieces.  This  mode  of  planting  the  vine  will  now  be  treated 
of,  and  it  will  be  found  equally  applicable  to  every  kind,  with 
the  only  difference  that  under  this  last  method  the  operation 
is  somewhat  more  complicated. 

The  vine  is  planted  three  different  ways  ;  in  a  soil  that  has 
been  turned  up  with  the  spade—the  best  of  the  three  ;  in  fur- 
rows, which  is  the  nest  best ;  and  in  holes,  the  least  advisable 
method  of  all :  of  the  way  in  which  ground  is  prepared  by 
digging,  we  have  made  sufficient  mention  already.  (22. )_  In 
preparing  the  furrows11  for  the  vine  it  will  be  quite  sufficient 

7  See  B.  xiv.  c.  4.  8  See  B  xiv.  o.  4 

9  "  Juo-um."  The  cross-piece  running  along  the  top  oi  the  stay  at  ngnt 
angles ;  a  rail  or  trail.  .  . 

°o  "  CompluviatsB  quadruplici."  Four  cross-pieces  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  prop  or  stay.     See  B.  xvi.  c.  68. 

»  When  these  trenches  and  furrows  are  employed  by  the  moderns,  they 


Chap.  35.]  CITLTFEE    OF    THE    VINE.  501 

if  they  are  a  spade  in  breadth ;  but  if  holes  are  employed  for 
the  purpose,  they  should  be  three  feet  every  way.  The  depth 
required  for  every  kind  of  vine  is  three  feet ;  it  should,  there- 
fore, be  made  a  point  not  to  transplant  any  vine  that  is  less 
than  three  feet  in  length,  allowing  then  two  buds  to  be  above 
the  ground.  It  will  be  necessary,  too,  to  soften  the  earth  by 
working  little  furrows  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  and  mixing 
it  up  with  manure.  Where  the  ground  is  declivitous,  it  is 
requisite  that  the  hole  should  be  deeper,  in  addition  to  which 
it  should  be  artificially  elevated  on  the  edge  of  the  lower  side. 
Holes  of  this  nature,  which  are  made  a  little  longer,  to  receive 
two  vines,  are  known  as  "  alvei,"  or  beds.  The  root  of  the 
vine  should  occupy  the  middle  of  the  hole,  and  when  firmly 
fixed  in  the  ground  it  should  incline  at  the  top  due  east ;  its 
first  support  it  ought  to  receive  from  a  reed.12  The  vineyard 
should  be  bounded  by  a  decuman13  path  eighteen  feet  in  width, 
sufficiently  wide,  in  fact,  to  allow  two  carts  to  pass  each  other ; 
others,  again,  should  run  at  right  angles  to  it,  ten  feet  in 
width,  and  passing  through  the  middle  of  each  jugerum  ;  or 
else,  if  the  vineyard  is  of  very  considerable  extent,  cardinal14 
paths  may  be  formed  instead  of  them,  of  the  same  breadth  as 
the  decuman  path.  At  the  end,  too,  of  every  five  of  the  stays  a 
path  should  be  made  to  run,  or,  in  other  words,  there  should 
be  one  continuous  cross-piece  to  every  five  stays ;  each  space 
that  is  thus  included  from  one  end  to  the  other  forming  a 
bed.15 

Where  the  soil  is  dense  and  hard  it  must  be  turned  up  only 
with  the  spade,  and  nothing  but  quicksets  should  be  planted 
there  ;  but  where,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  thin  and  loose, 
mallet-shoots  even  may  be  set  either  in  hole  or  furrow.  Where 
the  ground  is  declivitous  it  is  a  better  plan  to  draw  furrows 
across  than  to  turn  up  all  the  soil  with  the  spade,  so  that  the 
falling  away  of  the  earth  may  be  counteracted  by  the  position 
of  the  cross-pieces.16     It  will  be  best,  too,  where  the  weather 

are  made  to  run  as  much  as  possible  from  east  to  west.  Most  of  the  rules 
here  mentioned  by  Pliny  are  still  adopted  in  France. 

12  Fee  regards  tins  precept  as  a  puerility. 

13  See  B.  xviii.  c.  77.' 

14  See  B.  xviii.  c.  77.  Decuman  roads  or  paths  ran  from  east  to  west ; 
cardinal  roads  were  tbose  at  right  angles  to  them. 

15  "  Pagina."     A  set,  compartment,  or  bed. 

16  "  Transtris."  "  Bidges,"  would  appear  to  be  the  proper  reading  here ; 


502  pleat's  natueal  histoet.  [Book  XVII. 

is  wet  or  the  soil  naturally  dry,  to  plant  the  mallet-shoots  in 
autumn,  unless,  indeed,  there  is  anything  in  the  nature  of  the 
locality  to  counteract  it ;  for  while  a  dry,  hot  soil  makes  it 
necessary  to  plant  in  autumn,  in  a  moist,  cold  one  it  may  he 
necessary  to  defer  it  until  the  end  of  spring  even.  _  In  a 
parched  soil,  too,  it  would  be  quite  in  vain  to  plant  quicksets, 
and  it  is  far  from  advantageous  to  set  mallet-shoots  in  a  dry 
ground,  except  just  after  a  fall  of  rain.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  moist  localities,  a  vine  in  leaf  even  may  be  transplanted  and 
thrive  very  well,  and  that,  too,  even  as  late  as  the  summer 
solstice,  in  Spain,  for  example.  It  is  of  very  considerable  ad- 
vantage that  there  should  be  no  wind  stirring  on  the  day  of 
planting,  and,  though  many  persons  are  desirous  that  there 
should  be  a  south  wind  blowing  at  the  time,  Cato17  is  of  quite 
a  different  way  of  thinking. 

In  a  soil  of  medium  quality,  it  is  best  to  leave  an  interval  of 
five18  feet  between  every  two  vines ;  where  it  is  very  fertile 
the  distance  should  be  five  feet  at  least,  and  where  it  is  poor 
and  thin  eight  at  the  very  most.  The  TJmbri  and  the  Marsi 
leave  intervals  between  their  vines  of  as  much  as  twenty  feet 
in  length,  for  the  purpose  of  ploughing  between  them ;  such 
a  plot  of  ground  as  this  they  call  by  the  name  of  "porcule- 
tum."  In  a  rainy,  foggy  locality,  the  plants  ought  to  be  set 
wider  apart,  but  in  dry  spots  nearer  to  one  another.  Careful 
observation  has  discovered  various  methods  of  economizing 
space ;  thus,  for  instance,  when  a  vineyard  is  planted  in 
shaded  ground,  a  seed-plot  is  formed  there  as  well ;  or,  in 
other  words,  at  the  same  time  that  the  quickset  is  planted  in 
the  place  which  it  is  finally  to  occupy,  the  mallet-shoot  in- 
tended for  transplanting  is  set  between  the  vines,  aswell  as 
between  the  rows.  By  adopting  this  method,  each  jugerum 
will  produce  about  sixteen  thousand  quicksets ;  and  the  result 
is,  that  two  years'  fruit  is  gained  thereby,  a  cutting  planted 
being  two  years  later  in  bearing  than  a  quickset  transplanted. 
Quicksets,  when  growing  in  a  vineyard,  are  cut  down  at 
the  end  of  a  year,   leaving  only  a  single  eye  above  ground ; 

more  especially  as  it  agrees  with  what  has  heen  previously  said  in  this 
Chapter  in  reference  to  declivitous  ground. 

"  De  He  Rust.  40. 

18  He  differs  somewhat  in  these    measurements  from  Columella,  B. 

IT.  C.  11. 


Chap.  35.]  CULTURE    OF    THE    VISE.  503 

some  manure  is  then  placed  upon  the  spot,  and  a  stay  driven 
in  close  to  the  plant.  In  the  same  manner  it  is  again  cut 
down  at  the  end19  of  the  second  year,  and  from  this  it  acquires 
additional  strength,  and  receives  nutriment  to  enable  it  to 
endure  the  onerous  task  of  reproduction.  If  this  is  neglected, 
in  its  over-haste  to  bear  it  will  shoot  up  slim  and  meagre, 
like  a  bulrush,  and  from  not  being  subjected  to  such  a  train- 
ing, will  grow  to  nothing  but  wood.  In  fact,  there  is  no  tree 
that  grows  with  greater  eagerness  than  the  vine,  and  if  its 
strength  is  not  carefully  husbanded  for  the  bearing  of  fruit,  it 
will  be  sure  to  grow  to  nothing  but  wood. 

The  best  props  for  supporting  the  vine  are  those  which  we 
have  already  mentioned,20  or  else  stays  made  of  the  robur  and 
the  olive ;  if  these  cannot  be  procured,  then  props  of  juniper, 
cypress,  laburnum,  or  elder,21  must  be  employed.  If  any  other 
wood  is  used  for  the  purpose,  the  stakes  should  be  cut  at  the 
end  each  year  :  reeds  tied  together  in  bundles  make  excellent 
cross-rails  for  the  vine,  and  will  last  as  long  as  five  years. 
Sometimes  the  shorter  stock-branches  of  the  vines  are  brought 
together  and  tied  with  vine-cuttings,  like  so  many  cords  :  by 
this  method  an  arcade  is  formed,  known  to  us  by  the  name  of 
"funetuni." 

The  vine,  by  the  end  of  the  third  year,  throws  out  strong 
and  vigorous  stock-branches  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  and 
these  in  due  time  form  the  tree  ;  after  this,  it  begins  to  mount 
the  cross-piece*  Some  persons  are  in  the  habit  of  fi  blinding'' 
the  vine  at  this  period,  by  removing  the  eyes  with  the  end  of 
the  pruning-knife  turned  upwards,  their  object  being  to  in- 
crease the  length  of  the  branches — a  most  injurious  practice, 
however  ;  for  it  is  far  better  to  let  the  tree  become  habituated 
to  grow  of  itself,  and  to  prune  away  the  tendrils  every  now 
and  then  when  they  have  reached  the  cross-rail,  so  long  as  it 
may  be  deemed  proper  to  add  to  its  strength.  There  are  some 
persons  who  forbid  the  vine  to  be  touched  for  a  whole  year 
after  it  has  been  transplanted,  and  who  say  that  the  pruning- 
knife  ought  never  to  be  used  before  it  is  five  years  old ;  and 

19  This  is  condemned  -by  Columella,  B.  iv.  c.  11 ;  but  is  approved  of  by 
Virgil,  Cato,  and  other  authors. 

20  In  c.  34  of  this  Book. 

21  Stays  of  elder  would  be  utterly  worthless,  as  they  would  soon  rot,  and 
break  directly,  upon  the  least  strain. 


504  plint's  natural  histoey.  [Book  XYIJ. 

then  at  that  period  they  are  for  cutting  it  down  so  completely 
as  to  leave  three  buds  only.  Others,  again,  cut  down  the  vine 
within  a  year  even  after  it  has  been  transplanted,  but  then 
they  take  care  to  let  the  stem  increase  every  year  by  three  or 
four  joints,  bringing  it  on  a  level  with  the  cross-piece  by  the 
fourth.  These  two  methods,  however,  both  of  them,  retard  the 
fruit  and  render  the  tree  stunted  and  knotty,  as  we  see  the 
case  in  all  dwarf  trees.  The  best  plan  is  to  make  the  parent 
stem  as  robust  and  vigorous  as  possible,  and  then  the  wood 
will  be  sure  to  be  strong  and  hardy.  It  is  far  from  safe,  too, 
to  take  slips  from  a  cicatrized  stem ;  such  a  practice  is  erro- 
neous, and  only  the  result  of  ignorance.  All  cuttings  of  this 
nature  are  sure  to  be  the  offspring  of  acts  of  violence,  and  not 
in  reality  of  the  tree  itself.  The  vine,  while  growing,  should 
be  possessed  of  all  its  natural  strength;  and  we  find  that 
when  left  entirely  to  itself,  it  will  throw  out  wood  in  every 
part ;  for  there  is  no  portion  of  it  that  Nature  does  not  act 
upon.  When  the  stem  has  grown  sufficiently  strong  for  the 
purpose,  it  should  at  once  be  trained  to  the  cross-piece  ;  if,  how- 
ever, it  is  but  weak,  it  should  be  cut  down  so  as  to  lie  below 
the  hospitable  shelter  of  the  cross-piece.  Indeed,  it  is  the 
strength  of  the  stem,  and  not  its  age,  that  ought  to  decide  the 
matter.  It  is  not  advisable24  to  attempt  to  train  a  vine  before 
the  stem  has  attained  the  thickness  of  the  thumb  ;  but  in  the 
year  after  it  has  reached  the  frame,  one  or  two  stock-branches 
should  be  preserved,  according  to  the  strength  developed  by 
the  parent  tree.  The  same,  too,  must  be  done  the  succeeding 
year,  if  the  weakness  of  the  stem  demands  it ;  and  in  the  next, 
two  more  should  be  added.  Still,  however,  there  should  never 
be  more  than  four  branches  allowed  to  grow ;  in  one  word, 
there  must  be  no  indulgence  shown,  and  every  exuberance  in 
the  tree  must  in  all  cases  be  most  carefully  repressed ;  for 
such  is  the  nature  of  the  vine,  that  it  is  more  eager  to  bear 
than  it  is  to  live.  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  all  that 
is  subtracted  from  the  wood  is  so  much  added  to  the  fruit. 
The  vine,  in  fact,  would  much  rather  produce  shoots  and  ten- 
drils than  fruit,  because25  its  fruit,  after  all,  is  but  a  transitory 
possession :  hence  it  is  that  it  luxuriates  to  its  own  undoing, 
and  instead  of  really  gaining  ground,  exhausts  itself. 

24  This  applies  solely,  Fee  observes,  to  the  vine  trained  on  the  trail  or 
cross-piece. 

28  This  certainly  appears  to  be  a  non  sequitur,  as  applied  to  the  vine. 


Chap.  35.]  CULTUBE    OP    THE    TINE.  505 

The  nature,  too,  of  the  soil  will  afford  some  very  useful 
suggestions.  Where  it  is  thin  and  hungry,  even  though  the 
vine  should  display  considerable  vigour,  it  should  be  pruned 
down  below  the  cross-piece  and  kept  there,  so  that  all  the 
shoots  may  be  put  forth  below  it.  The  interval,  however,  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  vine  and  the  cross-piece  ought  to  be  but 
very  small ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  as  to  leave  it  hopes,  as  it 
were,  of  reaching  it,  which,  however,  it  must  never  be  suffered 
to  do ;  for  it  should  never  be  allowed  to  recline  thereon  and 
spread  and  run  on  at  its  ease.  This  mode  of  culture  ought,  in 
fact,  to  be  so  nicely  managed,  that  the  vine  should  show  an 
inclination  rather  to  grow  in  body  than  to  run  to  wood. 

The  main  branch  should  have  two  or  three  buds  left  below 
the  cross-piece  that  give  promise  of  bearing  wood,  and  it 
should  be  carefully  trained  along  the  rail,  and  drawn  close 
to  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  supported  by  it,  and  not 
merely  hang  loosely  from  it,  When  this  is  done,  it  should 
be  tightly  fastened  also  with  a  binding  three  buds  off,  a 
method  which  will  greatly  contribute  to  check  the  too  abun- 
dant growth  of  the  wood,  while  stouter  shoots  will  be  thrown 
out  below  the  ligature :  it  is  absolutely  forbidden,  how- 
ever, to  tie  the  extremity  of  the  main  branch.  When  all 
this  is  done,  Nature  operates  in  the  following  way — the  parts 
that  are  allowed  to  fall  downward,  or  those  which  are  held  fast 
by  the  ligature,  give  out  fruit,  those  at  the  bend  of  the  branch 
more  particularly.  On  the  other  hand,  the  portion  that  lies 
below  the  ligature  throws  out  wood  ;  by  reason,  I  suppose,  of 
the  interception  of  the  vital  spirit  and  the  marrow  or  pith,  pre- 
viously mentioned  :26  the  wood,  too,  that  is  grown  under  these 
circumstances  will  bear  fruit  in  the  following  year.  In  this 
way  there  are  two  kinds  of  stock  branches  :  the  first  of  which, 
issuing  from  the  solid  stock,  gives  promise"  of  wood  only  for 
this  year,  and  is  known  as  the  leaf  stock-branch  ;27  while  that 
which  grows  beyond  the  mark  made  by  the  ligature  is  a  fruit 
stock-branch.28  There  are  other  lands,  again,  that  shoot  from 
the  stock-branches  when  they  are  a  year  old,  and  these  are  in 
all  cases  fruit  stock-branches.  There  is  left,  also,  beneath  the 
cross-piece  a  shoot  that  is  known  as  the  reserve29  shoot,  being 
always  a  young  stock-branch,  with  not  more  than  three  buds 
upon  it.     This  is  intended  to  give  out  wood  the  next  year,  in 

26  In  the  present  Chapter.  27  Pampinarium. 

28  Fructuariura.  29  Gustos. 


506  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XYII. 

case  tlie  vine  by  over-luxuriance  should  happen  to  exhaust 
itself.  Close  to  it  there  is  another  bud  left,  no  bigger  than  a 
wart;  this  is  known  as  the  " furunculus," 30  and  is  kept  in 
readiness  in  case  the  reserve  shoot  should  fail. 

The  vine,  if  enticed  to  bear  fruit  before  the  seventh  year 
from  its  being  planted  as  a  slip,  will  pine31  away,  become  as 
slim  as  a  bulrush,  and  die.  It  is  thought  equally  undesirable, 
too,  to  let  an  old  stock-branch  range  far  and  wide,  and  extend 
as  far  as  the  fourth  stay  from  the  stem ;  to  such  a  branch  the 
name  of  dragon32-branch  is  given  by  some,  and  of  juniculus  by 
others ;  if  these  are  allowed  to  spread,  they  will  run  to  wood 
only,  and  make  male  vines,  as  they  are  called.  When  a  vine 
has  become  quite  hard,  it  is  an  extremely  bad  plan  to  use  it 
for  reproduction  by  layers.  When  the  vine  is  five  years  old 
the  stock-branches  are  twisted,  but  each  is  allowed  to  throw 
out  some  new  wood ;  and  so  from  one  to  another,  care  being 
taken  to  prune  away  the  old  wood.  It  is  always  the  best 
plan,  however,  to  leave  a  reserve  shoot ;  but  this  should  always 
be  very  near  the  main  stem  of  the  vine,  not  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance, in  fact,  than  that  already  mentioned.33  If,  too,  the 
stock  branches  should  throw  out  too  luxuriantly,  they  must 
be  twisted,  the  object  being  that  the  vine  may  put  forth  no 
more  than  four  secondary  branches,  or  even  two  only,  if  it 
happens  to  be  a  single  cross-railed  vine. 

If  the  vine  is  to  be  trained  to  grow  without  any  stay  at  all, 
still  it  will  stand  in  need,  at  first,  of  some  support  or  other, 
until  it  has  learnt  to  support  itself :  in  all  other  respects  the 
mode  of  proceeding  will  be  the  same  at  first.  When  pruning, 
it  will  be  necessary  that  the  thumb-branches34  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  equal  numbers  on  either  side,  in  order  that  the  fruit 
may  not  overload  one  side  of  the  tree  ;  and  we  may  here  remark 
by  the  way,  that  the  fruit  by  its  weight  is  apt  to  bear  down 
the  tree  and  counteract  any  tendency  to  increase  in  height. 
The  vine,  unsupported,  when  more  than  three  feet  in  height, 
begins  to  bend,  but  the  others  do  not,  until  they  are  five  feet 

30  The  pilferer,  "or  little  thief,"  apparently, 

31  This,  Fee  observes,  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  fact. 

32  "  Draco."  Male  vines  appear  to  have  been  a  kind  that  threw  out  no 
stock-branches,  but  ran  to  wood. 

33  Than  three  buds,  as  already  mentioned  in  the  present  Chapter. 

?,i  "  Pollices."  Branches,  so  called  from  the  resemblance,  being  cut  off 
above  the  first  eye.     See  Columella,  De  Be  Bust.  B.  iv.  c.  24. 


Chap.  35.]  CULTURE    OF   THE   TINE.  507 

high  at  the  least ;  care  should  be  taken,  however,  never  to  let 
them  exceed  the  height  of  a  man  of  moderate  stature.  Growers 
are  in  the  habit  of  surrounding  the  vines  that  creep  along  the 
ground  with  a  low  fence35  for  them  to  lean  upon ;  and  round 
this  fence  they  dig  a  trench  by  way  of  precaution,  for  fear  lest 
the  branches  in  their  range  should  meet  one  another  and  so 
come  into  collision.  The  greater  part  of  the  world,  in  fact, 
gather  grapes  at  their  vintage,  grown  in  this  fashion,  and  lying 
upon  the  ground — at  all  events,  it  is  so  in  Africa,  Egypt,  and 
Syria ;  throughout  the  whole  of  Asia,  too,  and  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  as  well,  this  method  prevails.  In  such  cases  the 
vine  ought  to  be  kept  down  close  to  the  ground,  and  the  root 
should  be  nurtured  at  the  same  time  and  in  just  the  same  way 
as  in  the  case  of  the  vine  that  grows  on  the  cross-piece.  Care, 
too,  should  be  taken  to  leave  only  the  young  thumb-shoots, 
together  with  three  buds,  where  it  is  a  prolific  soil,  two  where 
it  is  poor  and  thin :  it  is  better,  too,  that  the  shoots  should  be 
numerous  than  individually  long.  The  influences  of  soil,  of 
which  we  have  made  mention  already,  will  make  themselves 
felt  all  the  more  powerfully  the  nearer  the  grapes  grow  to  the 
ground. 

It  is  a  very  advantageous  plan  to  separate36  the  various 
species  of  vines  and  to  set  them  in  different  compartments — 
for  the  mixture  of  different  varieties  is  apt  to  deteriorate  the 
flavour  not  only  of  the  must,  but  the  wine  even  as  well.  If, 
again,  for  some  reason  or  other,  the  different  kinds  must  be 
intermingled,  it  will  be  requisite  to  keep  all  those  together 
which  ripen  at  exactly  the  same  period.  The  more  fertile  and 
the  more  level  the  soil,  the  higher  the  cross-pieces  must  be 
placed.37  High  cross-pieces,  too,  are  best  suited  to  localities 
that  are  subject  to  heavy  dews  and  fogs,  but  not  to  those 
that  are  exposed  to  high  winds  ;  on  the  other  -hand,  where  the 
soil  is.  thin,  parched,  and  arid,  or  exposed  to  the  wind,  the 
cross-pieces  should  be  set  lower.  The  cross-piece  should  be 
fastened  to  the  stay  with  cords  tied  as  tight  as  possible,  while 
the  bindings  used  for  tying  the  vine  should  be  thin.  As  to 
the  various  species  of  vines,  and  the  soils  and  climates  requi- 

35  Small  forks  of  hazel  are  still  used  for  the  purpose,  in  Berri  and  the 
Orleanais. 

36  This  plan  is  highly  recommended  by  the  modern  growers. 

37  This,  as  Fee  remarks,  is  based  upon  sound  reason. 


503  puny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

site  for  the  growth  of  each,  we  have  already  treated38  of  them, 
when  enumerating  the  several  varieties  of  the  vine  and  the 
wines  which  they  produce. 

With  reference  to  other  points  connected  with  the  culture 
of  the  vine,  there  are  very  considerable  doubts.  Many  per- 
sons recommend  that  the  vineyard  should  be  turned  up  with 
the  spade  after  every  dew  that  falls  in  the  summer.  Others, 
again,  forbid  this  practice  when  the  vine  is  in  bud ;  for  the 
clothes,  they  say,  of  the  people  coming  and  going  to  and  fro 
are  apt  to  catch  the  buds,  and  either  knock  or  rub  them  off; 
it  is  for  this  reason,  too,  that  they  are  so  careful  to  keep  all 
animals  away  from  the  vines,  those  with  long  wool  in  parti- 
cular, as  it  is  very  apt  to  pull  off  the  buds.  Raking,  too, 
they  say,  is  very  injurious  to  the  vine  while  the  grape  is  form- 
ing ;  and  it  will  be  quite  sufficient,  they  assure  us,  if  the 
ground  is  turned  up  three  times  in  the  year,  after  the  vernal 
equinox — first,  at  the  rising  of  the  Vergiliae,39  the  second  at 
the  rising  of  the  Dog-star,  and  the  third  time  just  as  the  grape 
is  turning  black.  Some  persons  make  it  a  rule  that  an  old 
vineyard  shall  have  one  turning  up  between  the  time  of  vin- 
tage and  the  winter  solstice,  though  others,  again,  are  of  opi- 
nion that  it  is  quite  sufficient  to  bare  the  roots  and  manure 
them.  They  turn  up  the  ground  again  after  the  ides  of  April,40 
but  before  the  time  for  germination,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
sixth  of  the  ides  of  May  ;41  then  again  before  the  tree  begins 
to  blossom,  after  it  has  shed  its  blossom,  and,  last  of  all, 
when  the  grape  is  just  on  the  turn.  The  most  skilful  growers 
say  that  if  the  ground  is  dug  up  oftener  than  necessary,  the 
grapes  will  become  so  remarkably  thin-skinned  as  to  burst. 
When  the  ground  is  turned  up,  care  should  be  taken  to  do  it 
before  the  hot  hours  of  the  day ;  a  clayey  soil,  too,  should 
never  be  ploughed  or  dug.  The  dust  that  is  raised  in  digging 
is  beneficial42  to  the  vine,  it  is  said,  by  protecting  it  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun  and  the  injurious  effects  of  fogs. 

The  spring  clearing  ought  to  be  done,  it  is  universally  ad- 
mitted, within  ten  days  after  the  ides  of  May,43  and  before  the 

38  In  B.xiv.  cc.  4  and  5.  39  B.  xviii.  c.  66. 

40  13th  of  April  41  10th  of  May. 

42  A  mere  puerility — the  dust,  in  fact,  "being  injurious  to  the  grape,  by 
obstructing  the  natural  action  of  heat  and  humidity. 

4:5  15th  of  May.  This  clearing  of  the  leaves,  though  still  practised,  Fee 
says,  is  by  no  means  beneficial ;  the  only  result  is,  that  the  grapes  become 


Chap.  35.]  CULTURE    OF    THE    TINE.  509 

blossoming  begins ;  in  addition  to  which,  it  should  always  be 
done  below  the  cross-piece.  As  to  the  second  clearing,  opi- 
nions differ  very  considerably.  Some  think  it  ought  to  be  done 
when  the  blossoming  is  over,  others,  again,  when  the  grapes 
are  nearly  at  maturity.  This  point,  however,  may  be  decided 
by  following  the  advice  of  Cato  on  the  subject;  for  we  must 
now  pass  on  to  a  description  of  the  proper  mode  of  pruning 
the  vine. 

Immediately  after44  the  vintage,  and  while  the  weather  is  still 
warm,  the  work  of  pruning45  begins ;  this,  however,  ought  never 
to  be  done,  for  certain  physical  reasons,46  before  the  rising  of  the 
Eagle,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  explain  in  the  following 
Book.  Nor  should  it  be  done  either  when  the  west  winds 
begin  to  prevail,  for  even  then  there  is  great  doubt  whether  a 
fault  may  not  be  committed  by  being  in  too  great  haste  to 
commence  the  work.  If  any  return  of  wintry  weather  should 
chance  to  nip  the  vines,  while  still  labouring  under  the  wounds 
recently  inflicted  on  them  in  pruning,  there  is  little  doubt 
that  their  buds  will  become  quite  benumbed  with  cold,  the 
wounds  will  open  again,  and  the  eyes,  moistened  by  the  juices 
that  distil  from  the  tree,  will  become  frost-bitten  by  the  rigour 
of  the  weather.  For  who  is  there,46  in  fact,  that  does  not  know 
that  the  buds  are  rendered  brittle  by  frost  ?  All  this,  how- 
ever, depends  upon  accurate  calculations  in  the  management  of 
large  grounds,  and  the  blame  of  precipitation  cannot  with  any 
justice  be  laid  upon  Nature.  The  earlier  the  vine  is  pruned, 
in  suitable  weather,  the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  wood,  while 
the  later  the  pruning,  the  more  abundant  is  the  fruit.  Hence 
it  is  that  it  is  most  advisable  to  prune  the  poor  meagre  vines 
first,  and  to  defer  pruning  the  more  thriving  ones  to  the  very 
last.  In  pruning,  due  care  should  always  be  taken  to  cut  in 
a  slanting  direction,  in  order47  that  the  rain  may  run  off  with 
all  the  greater  facility.     The  wounds,  too,  should  look  down- 

of  a  higher  colour,  but  in  no  degree  riper  than  they  otherwise  would  have 
been. 

44  The  proper  period  for  pruning  varies  in  reality  according  to  tke 
climate. 

45  See  B.  xviii.  c  59. 

46  See  Columella,  De  Re' Rust.  B.  iv.  c.  29. 

47  The  real  reason,  as  Fee  remarks,  is  the  comparative  facility  of  cutting 
aslant  rather  than  horizontally  ;  indeed,  if  the  latter  were  attempted,  injury 
to  the  wood  would  be  the  certain  result. 


510  pliky's  fatubal  history.  [Book  XVII. 

wards  towards  the  ground,  and  should  be  made  as  lightly  as 
possible,  the  edge  of  the  knife  being  well-sharpened  for  the 
purpose,  so  as  to  make  a  clean  cut  each  time.  Care  should  be 
taken,  too,  to  cut  always  between  two  buds,  and  that  the  eyes 
are  not  injured  in  the  operation.  It  is  generally  thought  that 
wherever  the  vine  is  black,  all  those  parts  may  be  cut  off,  the 
healthy  parts  not  being  touched ;  as  no  useful  shoots  can  he 
put  forth  by  wood  that  is  bad  in  itself.  If  a  meagre  vine  has 
not  good  stock-shoots,  the  best  plan  is  to  cut  it  down  to  the 
ground,  and  then  to  train  new  ones.  In  clearing  away  the 
leaves,  too,  those  leaves  should  not  be  removed  which  accompany 
the  clusters,  for  by  so  doing  the  grapes  are  made  to  fall  off,  ex- 
cept where  the  vine  happens  to  be  young.  Those  leaves  are 
regarded  as  useless  which  grow  on  the  sides  of  the  trunk  and 
not  from  an  eye ;  and  so,  too,  are  the  bunches  which  shoot 
from  the  hard,  strong  wood,  and  are  only  to  be  removed  by  the 
aid  of  the  knife. 

Some  persons  are  of  opinion  that  it  is  a  better  plan  to  fix 
the  stay  midway  between  two  vines ;  and,  indeed,  by  the  adop- 
tion of  this  method  the  roots  are  cleared  with  greater  facility. 
It  is  best,  however,  where  the  vine  needs  but  a  single  cross- 
rail,  due  care  being  taken  that  the  rail  is  a  strong  one,  and  the 
locality  not  exposed  to  high  winds.  In  the  case  of  those 
vines  which  require  trellissed  cross-rails,  the  stay  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  burden  it  has  to  support ;  in 
order,  however,  that  there  may  be  no  impediment  thrown  in 
the  way  of  clearing  the  roots,  it  may  be  placed  at  the  distance 
of  one  cubit  from  the  stock,  but  not  more.  It  is  generally 
recommended  to  clear  the  roots  before  the  pruning48  is  com- 
menced. 

Cato49  gives  the  following  general  precepts  in  relation  to  the 
culture  of  the  vine  : — "  Let  the  vine  grow  as  high  as  possible, 
and  fasten  it  firmly,  but  not  too  tight.  You  should  treat  it  in 
the  following  manner.  Clean  the  roots  of  the  vine  at  seed- 
time, and  after  pruning  it  dig  about  it,  and  then  begin  to 
labour  at  the  ground,  by  tracing  with .  the  plough  continuous 
furrows  every  way.  Plant  the  young  vines  in  layers  as  early 
as  possible,  and  then  break  up  the  ground  about  them.     If  the 

48  The  pruning  should  come  first,  in  every  case,  Fee  says. 

49  De  Re  Rust,  c  33.  The  advice  given  by  him,  though  good,  is  not 
applicable  to  all  vineyards. 


Chap.  35.J  CULTURE    Or   THE   VINE.  511 

Tine  is  old,  take  care  and  prune  it  as  little  as  possible.  In 
preference,  bend  the  vine  into  the  ground  for  layers,  if  neces- 
sary, and  cut  it  at  the  end  of  two  years.  The  proper  time  for 
cutting  the  young  vine,  is  when  it  has  gained  sufficient 
strength.  If  the  vineyard  is  bald  of  vines,  then  draw  furrows 
between  them,  and  plant  quicksets  there :  but  let  no  shadow 
be  thrown  on  the  furrows,  and  take  care  and  dig  them  often. 
If  the  vineyard  is  old,  sow  ocinuni50  there,  in  case  the  trees  are 
meagre  :  but  take  care  and  sow  there  nothing  that  bears  seed. 
Put  manure,  chaff,  and  grape-husks  about  the  roots,  or,  in- 
deed, anything  of  a  similar  nature  that  will  give  the  tree  ad- 
ditional strength.  As  soon  as  the  vine  begins  to  throw  out 
leaves,  set  about  clearing  them.  Fasten  the  young  trees  in 
more  places  than  one,  so  that  the  stem  may  not  break.  As 
soon  as  it  begins  to  run  along  the  stay,  fasten  down  the  young 
branches  lightly,  and  extend  them,  in  order  that  they  may  gain 
the  right  position.  When  the  grape  begins  to  be  mottled, 
then  tie  down  the  vine.  The  first  season  for  grafting  the  vine 
is  the  spring,  the  other  when  the  grape  is  in  blossom  ;  the  last 
period  is  the  best.  If  it  is  your  wish  to  transplant  an  old 
vine,  you  will  only  be  able  to  do  so  in  case  it  is  no  thicker  than 
the  arm  :  first,  however,  you  must  prune  it,  taking  care  not  to 
have  more  than  two  buds  upon  the  stem.  Then  dig  it  well  up 
by  the  roots,  being  careful  to  trace  them,  and  using  every 
possible  precaution  not  to  injure  them.  Place  it  in  the  hole  or 
furrow  exactly  in  the  position  in  which  it  has  stood  before, 
then  cover  it  with  earth,  which  should  be  well  trodden  down. 
You  must  then  prop  it  up,  fasten  it,  and  turn  it  in  the  same 
direction  as  before  ;  after  which,  dig  about  it  repeatedly."  The 
ocinum  that  Cato  here  recommends  to  be  sown  in  the  vine- 
yards, is  a  fodder  known  by  that  name  by  the  ancients ;  it 
thrives  in  the  shade  remarkably  well,  and  received  its  name51 
from  the  rapidity  with  which  it  grows. 

(23.)  We  come  now  to  speak  of  the  method  of  growing 
vines  upon  trees,52  a  mode  that  has  been  condemned53  in  the 
strongest  terms  by  the  Saserna's,  both  father  and  son,  and  up- 

50  A  sort  of  clover,  probably.  See  B.  xviii.  c.  42,  and  a  few  lines 
below. 

51  From  the  Greek  wKswg,  "quickly" — Yarro  says. 

52  See  c.  15  of  this  Book. 

53  It  is  still  practised  in  Dauphine  and  the  department  of  the  Basses 
Alpes.     It  is  very  prevalent,  also,  in  the  South  of  Italy. 


512  pliny's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

held  by  Scrofa,  these  being  our  most  ancient  writers  on  agri- 
culture next  to  Cato,  and  men  of  remarkable  skill.  Indeed, 
Scrofa  himself  will  not  admit  that  it  is  beneficial  anywhere 
except  in  Italy.  The  experience  of  ages,  however,  has  suffi- 
ciently proved  that  the  wines  of  the  highest  quality  are  only 
grown  upon  vines  attached  to  trees,  and  that  even  then  the 
choicest  wines  are  produced  by  the  upper  part  of  the  tree,  the 
produce  of  the  lower  part  being  more  abundant ;  such  being  the 
beneficial  results  of  elevating  the  vine.  It  is  with  a  view  to 
this  that  the  trees  employed  for  this  purpose  are  selected.  In 
the  first  rank  of  all  stands  the  elm,54  with  the  exception  of  the 
Atinian  variety,  which  is  covered  with  too  many  leaves  ;  and 
next  comes  the  black  poplar,  which  is  valued  for  a  similar 
reason,  being  not  so  densely  covered  with  leaves.  Most  people, 
too,  by  no  means  hold  the  ash  and  the  fig  in  disesteem,  as 
also  the  olive,  if  it  is  not  overshadowed  with  branches.  We 
have  treated  at  sufficient  length  already  of  the  planting  and 
culture  of  these  several  trees. 

They  must  not  be  touched  with  the  knife  before  the  end  of 
three  years  ;  and  then  the  branches  are  preserved,  on  each  side 
in  its  turn,  the  pruning  being  done  in  alternate  years.  In  the 
sixth  year  the  vine  is  united  to  the  tree.  In  Italy  beyond  the 
Padus,  in  addition  to  the  trees  already  mentioned,  they  plant 
for  their  vines  the  cornel,  the  opulus,  the  linden,  the  maple, 
the  ash,  the  yoke-elm,  and  the  quercus  ;  while  in  Yenetia  they 
grow  willows  for  the  purpose,  on  account  of  the  humidity55  of 
the  soil.  The  top  of  the  elm  is  lopped  away,  and  the  branches 
of  the  middle  are  regularly  arranged  in  stages;  no  tree  in 
general  being  allowed  to  exceed  twenty  feet  in  height.  The 
stories  begin  to  spread  out  in  the  tree  at  eight  feet  from  the 
ground,  in  the  hilly  districts  and  upon  dry  soils,  and  at  twelve 
in  champaign  and  moist  localities.  The  hands56  of  the  trunk 
ought  to  have  a  southern  aspect,  and  the  branches  that  project 
from  them  should  be  stiff  and  rigid  like  so  many  fingers ;  at 
the  same  time  due  care  should  be  taken  to  lop  off  the  thin 
beardlike  twigs,  in  order  to  check  the  growth  of  all  shade. 
The  interval  best  suited  for  the  trees,  if  it  is  the  grower's  in- 
tention to  keqj  the  soil  turned  up  with  the  plough,  is  forty  feet 
back  and  front,  and  twenty  at  the  side ;  if  it  is  not  to  be  turned 

54  All  these  trees  are  still  employed  for  the  purpose  in  Italy. 
65  B.  xvi.  c.  68.  56  Palmse, 


Chap.  35.]  CULTUBE   OF   THE   VINE.  513 

up,  then  twenty  feet57  every  way  will  do.  A  single  tree  is 
often  made  to  support  as  many  as  ten  vines,  and  the  grower  is 
greatly  censured  who  attaches  less  than  three.  It  is  worse 
than  useless  to  attach  the  vine  before  the  tree  has  gained  its 
full  strength,  as  in  such  case  its  rapidity  of  growth  would 
only  tend  to  kill  the  tree.  It  is  necessary  to  plant  the  vine 
in  a  trench  three  feet  in  depth,  leaving  an  interval  of  one 
foot  between  it  and  the  tree.  In  this  case  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  using  mallet  shoots,  or  for  going  to  any  expense  in 
spading  or  digging ;  for  this  method  of  training  on  trees  has 
this  advantage  in  particular,  that  it  is  beneficial  even  to  the 
vine  that  corn  should  be  sown  in  the  same  soil ;  in  addition  to 
which,  from  its  height,  it  is  quite  able  to  protect  itself,  and 
does  not  call  for  the  necessity,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary 
vineyard,  of  enclosing  it  with  walls  and  hedges  or  ditches, 
made  at  a  considerable  expense,  to  protect  it  from  injury  by 
animals. 

In  the  method  of  training  upon  trees,  reproduction  from 
quicksets  or  from  layers  is  the  only  mode  employed  of  all 
those  that  have  been  previously  described ;  the  growing  by 
layers  being  effected  two  different  ways,  as  already  mentioned. 
The  plan,  however,  of  growing  from  layers  in  baskets  set  upon 
the  stages58  of  the  tree  is  the  most  approved  one,  as  it  ensures 
an  efficient  protection  from  the  ravages  of  cattle  ;  while,  accord- 
ing to  another  method,  a  vine  or  else  a  stock-branch  is  bent 
into  the  ground  near  the  tree  it  has  previously  occupied,  or  else 
the  nearest  one  that  may  be  at  liberty.  It  is  recommended 
that  all  parts  of  the  parent  tree  that  appear  above  ground 
should  then  be  scraped,  so  that  it  may  not  throw  out  wood ; 
while  at  the  same  time  there  are  never  less  than  four  buds  on 
the  part  that  is  put  into  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
root ;  there  are  also  two  buds  left  above  ground  at  the  head. 
The  vine  intended  for  training  on  a  tree  is  planted  in  a  furrow 
four  feet  long,  three  broad,  and  two  and  a  half  in  depth.  At 
the  end  of  a  year  the  layer  is  cut  to  the  pith,  to  enable  it  to 
strengthen  gradually  at  the  root ;  after  which,  the  end  of  the 
branch  is  pruned  down  to  within  two  buds  from  the  ground. 
At  the  end  of  two  years  the  layer  is  completely  separated 
from  the  stock,  and  buried  deeper  in  the  ground,  that  it  may 

51  From  Columella,  B.  v.  c.  7. 
58  This  method  is  no  longer  employed. 
VOL.    III.  L   L 


514  pliny's  NATURAL  HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

not  shoot  at  the  place  where  it  has  been  cut.     As  to  the  quick- 
sets, they  ought  to  be  removed  directly  after  the  vintage. 

In  more  recent  times,  a  plan  has  been  discovered  of  planting 
a  dragon  branch  near  the  tree — that  being  the  name  given  to 
an  old  stock-branch  that  has  become  hard  and  tough  in  the 
course  of  years.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  cut  as  long  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  bark  is  taken  off  from  three-fourths  of  its  length, 
that  being  the  portion  which  is  to  be  buried  in  the  ground  ; 
hence  it  is,  too,  that  it  is  called  a  "barked"59  plant.  It  is 
then  laid  at  full  length  in  the  furrow,  the  remaining  part  pro- 
truding from  the  ground  and  reclining  against  the  tree.  This 
method  is  the  most  speedy  one  that  can  be  adopted  for  growing 
the  vine.  If  the  vine  is  meagre  or  the  soil  impoverished,  it  is 
usual  to  keep  it  cut  down  as  near  to  the  ground  as  possible, 
until  such  time  as  the  root  is  strengthened.  Care,  too,  should 
be  taken  not  to  plant  it  covered  with  dew,60  nor  yet  while  the 
wind  is  blowing  from  the  north.  The  vine  itself  ought  to 
look  towards  the  north-east,  but  the  young  stock-shoots  should 
have  a  southern  aspect. 

There  should  not  be  too  great  haste61  in  pruning  a  young 
vine,  but  a  beginning  should  be  made  by  giving  the  wood  and 
foliage  a  circular  form,  care  being  taken  not  to  prune  it  until 
it  has  become  quite  strong ;  it  should  be  remembered,  too, 
that  the  vine,  when  trained  upon  a  tree,  is  generally  a  year 
later  in  bearing  fruit  than  when  grown  on  the  cross-piece. 
There  are  some  persons,  again,  who  altogether  forbid  that^  a 
vine  should  be  pruned  until  such  time  as  it  equals  the  tree  in 
height.  At  the  first  pruning  it  may  be  cut  to  within  six  feet 
from  the  ground,  below  which  a  shoot  must  be  left,  and  en- 
couraged to  run  out  by  bending  the  young  wood.  Upon  this 
shoot,  when  pruned,  there  should  not  be  more  than  three  buds 
left.  The  branches  that  take  their  rise  from  these  buds  should 
be  trained  in  the  following  year  upon  the  lowermost  stages  of 
the  tree,  and  so  in  each  successive  year  taught  to  climb  to  the 
higher  ones.  Care,  too,  should  always  be  taken  to  leave  one 
hard,  woody  branch  at  each  stage,  as  well  as  one  breeding 
shoot,  at  liberty  to  mount  as  high  as  it  pleases.  In  addition 
to  these  precautions,  in  all  pruning,  those  shoots  should  be  cut 
off  which  have  borne  fruit  the  last  year,  and  after  the  ten- 

59  Easilis.  s0  Columella,  B.  v.  c.  6. 

ei  Columella,  B.  v.  c.  6. 


Chap.  35.]  CULTURE   OF   THE  VEtfE.  515 

drils62  have  been  cut  away  on  every  side  fresh  branches  should 
be  trained  to  run  along  the  stages.  In  Italy  the  pruning  is  so 
managed  that  the  shoots  and  tendrils  of  the  vines  are  arranged 
so  as  to  cover  the  branches  of  the  tree,  while  the  shoots  of  the 
vine  in  their  turn  are  surrounded  with  clusters  of  grapes.  In 
Gallia,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vine  is  trained  to  pass  from  tree 
to  tree.  On  the  iEmilian  Way,  again,  the  vine  is  seen  em- 
bracing the  trunks  of  the  Atinian  elms  that  line  the  road, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  carefully  avoids  their  foliage.63 

It  is  a  mark  of  ignorance  in  some  persons  to  suspend  the 
vine  with  a  cord  beneath  the  branches  of  the  tree,  to  the  great 
risk  of  stifling  it ;  for  it  ought  to  be  merely  kept  up  with  a 
withe  of  osier,  and  not  tightly  laced.  Indeed,  in  those  places 
where  the  willow  abounds,  the  withes  that  it  affords  are  pre- 
ferred, on  account  of  their  superior  suppleness,  while  the  Sici- 
lians employ  for  the  purpose  a  grass,  which  they  call  "  ampelo- 
desmos  :"64  throughout  the  whole  of  Greece,  rushes,  cyperus, 
and  sedge65  are  similarly  employed.  When  at  any  time  the 
vine  has  been  liberated  from  its  bonds,  it  should  be  allowed  to 
range  uncontrolled  for  some  days,  and  to  spread  abroad  at 
pleasure,  as  well  as  to  recline  upon  the  ground  which  it  has 
been  looking  down  upon  the  whole  year  through.  For  in  the 
same  manner  that  beasts  of  burden  when  released  from  the 
yoke,  and  dogs  when  they  have  returned  from  the  chase,  love 
to  roll  themselves  on  the  ground,  just  so  does  the  vine  delight 
to  stretch  its  loins.  The  tree  itself,  too,  seems  to  rejoice,  and, 
thus  relieved  from  the  continuous  weight  which  has  burdened 
it,  to  have  all  the  appearance  of  now  enjoying  a  free  respira- 
tion. Indeed,  there  is  no  object  in  all  the  economy  of  Nature 
that  does  not  desire  certain  alternations  for  the  enjoyment  of 
rest,  witness  the  succession  of  night  and  day,  for  instance.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  forbidden  to  prune  the  vine  directly 
the  vintage  is  over,  and  while  it  is  still  exhausted  by  the 
process  of  reproduction. 

Directly  the  vine  has  been  pruned,  it  ought  to  be  fastened 
again  to  the  tree,  but  in  another  place ;  for  there  is  no  doubt 
that  it  feels  very  acutely  the  indentations  that  are  made  in  it 

62  Capreolis.  63  ^s  being  too  dense  and  shad  v. 

64  From  the  Greek,  meaning  the  "  vine-band."  It  was,  probabiy,  a 
kind  of  rush. 

65  Fee  thinks  that  he  may  mean  the  Festuca  fluitans  more  particularly, 
by  the  name  ulva. 


5jg  PLINY'S   EATTJEAL   HI3T0BY.  [Book  XVII- 

by  the  holdfasts.  In  the  Gallic  method  of  cultivation  they 
train  out  two  branches  at  either  side,  if  the  trees  are  forty  feet 
apart,  and  four  if  only  twenty;  where  they  meet,  these  branches 
are  fastened  together  and  made  to  grow  in  unison  ;  if,  too,  they 
are  anywhere  deficient  in  number  or  strength,  care  is  taken 
to  fortify  them  by  the  aid  of  small  rods.  In  a  case,  however, 
where  the  branches  are  not  sufficiently  long  to  meet,  they  are 
artificially  prolonged  by  means  of  a  hook,  and  so  united  to  the 
tree  that  desires  their  company.  The  branches  thus  trained  to 
unite  they  used  to  prune  at  the  end  of  the  second  year.  But 
where  the  vine  is  aged,  it  is  a  better  plan  to  give  them  a  longer 
time  to  reach  the  adjoining  tree,  in  case  they  should  not  have 
gained  the  requisive  thickness  ;  besides  which,  it  is  always 
good  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the  hard  wood  in  the  dragon 
branches. 

There  is  yet  another  method,66  which  occupies  a  middle 
place  between  this  mode  of  propagation  and  that  by  layers. 
It  consists  of  laying  the  entire  vine  in  the  earth,  and  then 
splitting  the  stock  asunder  by  means  of  wedges ;  the  fibrous 
portions  are  then  trained  out  in  as  many  furrows,  care  being 
taken  to  support  each  of  the  slender  plants  by  fastening  it  to 
a  stake,  and  not  to  cut  away  the  branches  that  shoot  from  the 
sides.  The  growers  of  Novara,  not  content  with  the  mul- 
titude of  shoots  that  run  from  tree  to  tree,  nor  yet  with  an 
abundance  of  branches,  encourage  the  stock-branches  to  en- 
twine around  forks  planted  in  the  ground  for  the  purpose  ;  a 
method,  however,  which,  in  addition  to  the  internal  defects 
arising  from  the  soil,  imparts  a  harshness  to  the  wine. 

There  is  another  fault,  too,  that  is  committed  by  the  people 
of  Varracina,67  near  Rome— they  only  prune  their  vines  every 
other  year  ;  not,  indeed,  because  it  is  advantageous  to  the  tree, 
but  from  a  fear  lest,  from  the  low  prices  fetched  by  their  wines, 
the  expense  might  exceed  the  profits.  At  Carseoli  they  adopt 
a  middle  course,  by  pruning  away  only  the  rotten  parts  of 
the  vine,  as  well  as  those  which  are  beginning  to  wither,  and 
leaving  the  rest  to  bear  fruit,  after  thus  clearing  away  all 
superfluous  incumbrances.  The  only  nutriment  they  give 
it  is  this  exemption  from  frequent  pruning ;  but  unless  the 
soil  should  happen  to  be  a  very  rich  one,  the  vine,  under  such 

56  It  is  no  longer  used,  and  Fee  doubts  its  utility. 
«7  Hardouin  suggests  "  Tarracina." 


Chap.  37.]  THE   DISEASES    OE   TREES.  51/ 

a  method  of  cultivation,  will  very  soon  degenerate  to  a  wild 
state. 

The  vine  that  is  thus  trained  requires  the  ground  to  be 
ploughed  very  deep,  though  such  is  not  the  case  for  the  sowing 
there  of  grain.  It  is  not  customary  to  cut  away  the  leaves 
in  this  case,  which,  of  course,  is  so  much  labour  spared. 
The  trees  themselves  require  pruning  at  the  same  period 
as  the  vine,  and  are  thinned  by  clearing  away  all  useless 
branches,  and  such  parts  as  would  only  absorb  the  nutriment. 
"We  have  already68  stated  that  the  parts  that  are  lopped  should 
never  look  north  or  south  :  and  it  will  be  better  still,  if  they 
have  not  a  western  aspect.  The  wounds  thus  made  are  very 
susceptible  for  a  considerable  time,  and  heal  with  the  greatest 
difficulty,  if  exposed  to  excesses  of  cold  or  heat.  The  vine 
when  trained  on  a  tree  enjoys  advantages  that  are  not  pos- 
sessed by  the  others ;  for  the  latter  have  certain  fixed  aspects, 
while  in  the  former,  it  is  easy  to  cover  up  the  wounds  made 
in  pruning,  or  to  turn  them  whichever  way  you  please.  When 
trees  are  pruned  at  the  top,  cup-like  cavities  should  be  formed69 
there,  to  prevent  the  water  from  lodging. 

CHAP.    36. HOW    GRAPES   ARE    PROTECTED    FROM    THE    RAVAGES 

OF    INSECTS. 

Stays,  too,  should  be  given  to  the  vine  for  it  to  take  hold  of 
and  climb  upwards,  if  they  are  taller  than  it.  (24.)  Espaliers70 
for  vines  of  a  high  quality  should  be  cut,  it  is  said,  at  the 
Quinquatria,71  and  when  it  is  intended  to  keep  the  grapes, 
while  the  moon  is  on  the  wane.  We  are  assured,  moreover, 
that  those  which  are  cut  at  the  change  of  the  moon,  are  exempt 
from  the  attacks  of  all  insects.72  According  to  another  system, 
it  is  said  that  vines  should  be  pruned  by  night  at  full  moon, 
and  while  it  is  in  Leo,  Scorpio,  Sagittarius,"  or  Taurus  :  and 
that,-  in  general,  they  ought  to  be  planted  either  when  the 
moon  is  at  full  or  on  the  increase.  In  Italy,  ten  workmen 
will  suffice  for  one  hundred  jugera  of  vineyard. 

CHAP.  37. —  THE    DISEASES    OF    TREES. 

Having  now  treated  sufficiently  at  length  of  the  planting 

68  In  c.  16  of  this  Book.  69  To  drain  the  upper  part  of  the  tree. 

70  Pergulas.     See  B.  xiv.  c.  3. 

71  See  B.  xviii,  c.  56.     These,  of  course,  are  mere  superstitions. 

72  Animalium. 


518  pllnt's  nattjeal  histoey.  [Book  XVII. 

and  cultivation  of  trees — (for  we  have  already  said  enough  of 
the  palm73  and  the  cytisus,74  when  speaking  of  the  exotic 
trees) — we  shall  proceed,  in  order  that  nothing  may  be  omitted^ 
to  describe  other  details  relative  to  their  nature,  which  are  of 
considerable  importance,  when  taken  in  connection  with  all 
that  precedes.  Trees,  we  find,  are  attacked  by  maladies; 
and,  indeed,  what  created  thing  is  there  that  is  exempt  from 
these  evils  ?  Still  however,  the  affections  of  the  forest  trees, 
it  is  said,  are  not  attended 75  with  danger  to  them,  and  the 
only  damage  they  receive  is  from  hail-storms  while  they  are 
budding  and  blossoming ;  with  the  exception,  indeed,  of  being 
nipped  either  by  heat  or  cold  blasts  in  unseasonable  weather  ; 
for  frost,  when  it  comes  at  the  proper  times,  as  we  have  already 
stated,76  is  serviceable  to  them.  "  Well  but,"  it  will  be  said, 
"  is  not  the  vine  sometimes  killed  with  cold  ?"  No  doubt  it  is, 
and  this  it  is  through  which  we  detect  inherent  faults  in  the 
soils,  for  it  is  only  in  a  cold  soil  that  the  vine  will  die.  Just  in 
the  same  way,  too,  in  winter  we  approve  of  cold,  so  long  as 
it  is  the  cold  of  the  weather,  and  not  of  the  ground.  It  is  not 
the  weakest  trees,  too,  that  are  endangered  in  winter  by  frost, 
but  the  larger  ones.  When  they  are  thus  attacked,  it  is  the 
summit  that  dries  away  the  first,  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  sap  becomes  frozen  before  it  is  able  to  arrive  there. 

Some  diseases  of  trees  are  common  to  them  all,  while 
others,  again,  are  peculiar  to  individual  kinds  /  Worms 77  are 
common  to  them  all,  and  so,  too,  is  sideration,73  with  pains  in 
the  limbs,79  which  ai'e  productive  of  debility  in  the  various 
parts.  Thus  do  we  apply  the  names  of  the  maladies  that  pre- 
vail among  mankind  to  those  with  which  the  plants  are 
afflicted.  In  the  same  way,  too,  we  speak  of  their  bodies  being 
mutilated,  the  eyes  of  the  buds  being  burnt  up,  with  many 
other  expressions  of  a  similar  nature.  It  is  in  accordance 
with  the  same  phraseology  that  we  say  that  trees  are  afflicted 
with  hunger  or  indigestion,  both  of  which  result  from  the 

73  In  B,  xiii.  c.  6.  74  In  B.  xiii.  c.  47. 

75  This  is  the  opinion  of  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv.  c.  16. 

76  In  c.  2  of  this  Book. 

77  "Vermiculatio."  Fee  understands  this  to  apply  to  the  attacks  of  insects 
in  general,  the  Dermestes  typographic  more  particularly. 

78  Or,  in  other  words,  the  evil  influences  of  the  heavenly  bodies :  this,  of 
course,  is  not  believed  in  at  the  present  day. 

79  Necrosis,  in  particular  portions  of  the  piant. 


Chap.  37.] 


THE    DISEASES    OE    TREES.  519 


comparative  amount  of  sap  that  they  contain ;  while  some, 
again,  are  troubled  with  obesity,  as  in  the  case  of  all  the  re- 
sinous trees,  which,  when  suffering  from  excessive  fatness,  are 
changed  into  a  torch-tree.80  When  the  roots,  too,  begin  to 
wax  fat,  trees,  like  animals,  are  apt  to  perish  from  excess  of 
fatness.  Sometimes,  too,  a  pestilence81  will  prevail  in  certain 
classes  of  trees,  just  as  among  men,  we  see  maladies  attack, 
at  one  time  the  slave  class,  and  at  another  the  common  people, 
in  cities  or  in  the  country,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Trees  are  more  or  less  attacked  by  worms ;  but  still,  nearly 
all  are  subject  to  them  in  some  degree,  and  this  the  birds82  are 
able  to  detect  by  the  hollow  sound  produced  on  tapping  at 
the  bark.  These  worms  even  have  now  begun  to  be  looked 
upon  as  delicacies 83  by  epicures,  and  the  large  ones  found  in 
the  robur  are  held  in  high  esteem  ;  they  are  known  to  us  by 
the  name  of  "  cossis;"  and  are  even  fed  with  meal,  in  order 
to  fatten  them  !  But  it  is  the  pear,  the  apple,  and  the  fig84 
that  are  most  subject  to  their  attacks,  the  treesthat  are  bitter 
and  odoriferous  enjoying  a  comparative  exemption  from  them. 
Of  those  which  infest  the  fig,  some  breed  in  the  tree  itself, 
while  others,  again,  are  produced  by  the  worm  known  as  the 
cerastes ;  they  all,  however,  equally  assume  the  form  of  the 
cerastes,85  and  emit  a  small  shrill  noise.  The  service-tree  is 
infested,  too,  with  a  red  hairy  worm,  which  kills  it ;  and  the 
medlar,  when  old,  is  subject  to  a  similar  malady. 

The  disease  known  as  sideration  entirely  depends  upon  the 
heavens ;  and  hence  we  may  class  under  this  head,  the  ill 

80  See  B.  xvi.  c.  19.  He  alludes  to  an  exuberant  secretion  of  resin,  in 
which  case  the  tree  becomes  charged  with  it  like  a  torch. 

81  He  alludes  to  the  epidemic  and  contagious  maladies  by  which  trees 
are  attacked.  The  causes  of  these  attacks  are  often  unknown,  but  they 
may  probably  proceed,  in  mauy  instances,  from  springs  of  hot  water,  or 
gaseous  emanations  secreted  in  the  earth. 

83  -The  woodpecker  more  particularly.     See  B.  x.  c.  20. 

83  It  is  not  known,  with  certainty,  what  these  worms  or  caterpillars 
were.  The  larva  of  the  Capricorn  beetle,  or  of  the  stag-beetle,  has  been 
suggested.  Geoffroi  thinks  that  it  may  have  been  the  larva  of  the  palm- 
weevil.  This  taste  for  caterpillars,  probably,  no  longer  prevails  in  any 
part  of  Europe. 

84  This  passage,  which  is  quite  conformable  to  truth,  is  from  Theo- 
phrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv.  c.  16,  and  B.  iii.  c.  12. 

85  See  B.  xvi.  c.  80. 


520  plint's  natueal  history.  [Book  XVII. 

effects  produced  by  hail- storms,  carbunculation,86  and  the 
damage  caused  by  hoar-frosts.  When  the  approach  of  spring 
tempts  the  still  tender  shoots  to  make  their  appearance,  and 
they  venture  to  burst  forth,  the  malady  attacks  them,  and 
scorches  up  the  eyes  of  the  buds,  filled  as  they  are  with 
their  milky  juices  :  this  is  what  upon  flowers  they  call  "  char- 
coal"87 blight.  The  consequences  of  hoar-frost  to  plants  are 
even  more  dangerous  still,  for  when  it  has  once  settled,  it 
remains  there  in  a  frozen  form,  and  there  is  never  any  wind  to 
remove  it,  seeing  that  it  never  prevails  except  in  weather  that 
is  perfectly  calm  and  serene.  Sideration,  however,  properly 
so  ^  called,  is  a  certain  heat  and  dryness  that  prevails  at  the 
rising  of  the88  Dog-star,  and  owing  to  which  grafts  and  young 
trees  pine  away  and  die,  the  fig  and  the  vine  more  particu- 
larly. The  olive,  also,  besides  the  worm,  to  which  it  is  equally 
subject  with  the  fig,  is  attacked  by  the  measles,89  or  as  some 
think  fit  to  call  it,  the  fungus  or  platter ;  it  is  a  sort  of  blast 
produced  by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Cato90  says  that  the  red 
moss91  is  also  deleterious  to  the  olive.  An  excessive  fertility, 
too,  is  very  often  injurious  to  the  vine  and  the  olive.  Scab  is  a 
malady  common  to  all  trees.  Eruptions,92  too,  and  the  attacks 
of  a  kind  of  snail  that  grows  on  the  bark,  are  diseases  peculiar 
to  the  fig,  but  not  in  all  countries  ;  for  there  are  some  maladies 
that  are  prevalent  in  certain  localities  only. 

In  the  same  way  that  man  is  subject  to  diseases  of  the  si- 
news, so  are  the  trees  as  well,  and,  like  him,  in  two  different 
ways.  Either93  the  virulence  of  the  disease  manifests  itself  in 
the  feet,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  roots  of  the  tree,  or 
else  in  the  joints  of  the  fingers,  or,  in  other  words,  the  extre- 
mities of  the  branches  that  are  most  distant  from  the  trunk. 
The  parts  that  are  thus  affected  become  dry  and  shrivel  up  : 
the  Greeks  have  appropriate  names94  by  which  to  distinguish 

86  The  effects  produced  upon  young  shoots  by  frost,  are  still  so  called. 

87  Probably  from  the  black  colour  which  it  turns. 

88  In  this  case  it  would  be  very  similar  to  what  we  call  sun-stroke. 

89  "Clavum,"  a  nail.  He  appears  to  allude  to  a  gall  that  appears  on  the 
bark  of  the  olive,  the  eruption  forming  the  shape  of  a  nail,  and,  in  some 
instances,  a  "patella,"  or  platter.  The  Coccus  adonideum  is  an  insect 
that  is  very  destructive  to  the  olive.  9°  De  Ee  Rust.  6. 

91  A  sort  of  Erineum,  Fee  suggests.     See  B.  xv.  c  6. 

92  "  Impetigo."     "  Tetter,"  or  "  ringworm,"  literally. 

93  From  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv.  c.  16. 

94  S^a/ctXioyioc,  and  icpadog. 


Chap.  37.]  THE    DISEASES    OF    TKEES.  521 

each  of  these  affections.  In  either  case  the  first  symptoms  are 
that  the  tree  is  suffering  from  pain,  and  the  parts  affected  be- 
come emaciated  and  brittle ;  then  follows  rapid  consumption 
and  ultimately  death ;  the  juices  being  no  longer  able  to  enter 
the  diseased  parts,  or,  at  all  events,  not  circulating  in  them. 
The  fig  is  more  particularly  liable  to  this  disease  :  but  the 
wild  fig  is  exempt  from  all  that  we  have  hitherto  mentioned. 
Scab95  is  produced  by  viscous  dews  which  fall  after  the  rising 
of  the  Yergiliae ;  but  if  they  happen  to  fall  copiously,  they 
drench  the  tree,  without  making  the  bark  rough.  When  the 
fig  is  thus  attacked,  the  fruit  falls  off  while  green ;  and  so,  too, 
if  there  is  too  much  rain.  The  fig  suffers  also  from  a  super- 
fluity of  moisture  in  the  roots. 

In  addition  to  worms  and  sideration,  the  vine  is  subject  to 
a  peculiar  disease  of  its  own,  which  attacks  it  in  the  joints, 
and  is  produced  from  one  of  the  three  following  causes : — 
either  the  destruction  of  the  buds  by  stormy  weather,  or  else 
the  fact,  as  remarked  by  Theophrastus,  that  the  tree,  when 
pruned,  has  been  cut  with  the  incisions  upwards,96  or  has  been 
injured  from  want  of  skill  in  the  cultivator.  All  the  injury 
that  is  inflicted  in  these  various  ways  is  felt  by  the  tree  in  the 
joints  more  particularly.  It  must  be  considered  also  as  a 
species  of  sideration,  when  the  cold  dews  make  the  blossoms 
fall  off,  and  when  the  grapes  harden97  before  they  have  attained 
their  proper  size.  Vines  also  become  sickly  when  they  are 
perished  with  cold,  and  the  eyes  are  frost-bitten  just  after  they 
have  been  pruned.  Heat,  too,  out  of  season,  is  productive  of 
similar  results  :  for  everything  is  regulated  according  to  a  fixed 
order  and  certain  determinate  movements.  Some  maladies, 
too,  originate  in  errors  committed  by  the  vine- dresser  ;  when 
they  are  tied  too  tight,  for  instance,  as  already  mentioned,98  or 
when  in  trenching  round  them  the  digger  has  .struck  them  an 
unlucky  blow,  or  when  in  ploughing  about  them  the  roots  have 
been  strained  through  carelessness,  or  the  bark  has  been 
stripped  from  off  the  trunk:  sometimes,  too,  contusions  are 
produced  by  the  use  of  too  blunt  a  priming-knife.  Through 
all  the  causes  thus  enumerated  the  tree  is  rendered  more  sen- 

95  From  Theophrastus, .  Hist.  Plant,  B.  iv.  c.  16.  Fee  is  at  a  loss  to 
know  what  is  meant  by  these  viscous  dews,  and  is  unable  to  identify  the 
disease  here  mentioned  as  "  scabies."  It  is  not  improbable  that  it  was 
caused  by  an  insect.  96  See  cc.  35  and  50  of  this  Book. 

9T  See  B.  xviii.  c.  69.  98  In  c.  35.     See  also  c.  45  of  this  Book 


522  plikt's  natural  histoet.  [Book  XVII. 

sitive  to  either  cold  or  heat,  as  every  injurious  influence  from 
without  is  apt  to  concentrate  in  the  wounds  thus  made.  The 
apple,  however,  is  the  most  delicate  of  them  all,  and  more 
particularly  the  one  that  bears  the  sweetest  fruit.  In  some 
trees  weakness  induced  by  disease  is  productive  of  barrenness, 
and  does  not  kill  the  tree ;  as  in  the  pine"  for  instance,  or  the 
palm,  when  the  top  of  the  tree  has  been  removed ;  for  in  such 
case  the  tree  becomes  barren,  but  does  not  die.  Sometimes,  too, 
the  fruit  itself  is  sickly,  independently  of  the  tree ;  for  example, 
when  there  is  a  deficiency  of  rain,  or  of  warmth,  or  of  wind, 
at  the  periods  at  which  they  usually  prevail,  or  when,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  have  prevailed  in  excess  ;  for  in  such  cases  the 
fruit  will  either  drop  off  or  else  deteriorate.  But  the  worst 
thing  of  all  that  can  befall  the  vine  or  the  olive,  is  to  be  pelted 
with  heavy  showers  just  when  the  tree  is  shedding  its  blossom, 
for  then  the  fruit  is  sure  to  fall  oh01  as  well. 

Eain,  too,  is  productive  of  the  caterpillar,  a  noxious  insect 
that  eats  away  the  leaves,  and,  some  of  them,  the  blossoms  as 
well ;  and  this  in  the  olive  even,  as  we  find  the  case  at  Miletus  ; 
giving  to  the  half-eaten  tree  a  most  loathsome  appearance.  This 
pest  is  produced  by  the  prevalence  of  a  damp,  languid  heat ; 
and  if  the  sun  should  happen  to  shine  after  this  with  a  more 
intense  heat  and  burn  them  up,  this  pest  only  gives  place  to 
another2  just  as  bad,  the  aspect  only  of  the  evil  being  changed. 

There  is  still  one  other  affection  that  is  peculiar  to  the  olive 
and  the  vine,  known  as  the  " cobweb,"3  the  fruit  being  en- 
veloped in  a  web,  as  it  were,  and  so  stifled.  There  are  certain 
winds,  too,  that  are  particularly  blighting  to  the  olive  and  the 
vine,  as  also  to  other  fruits  as  well :  and  then  besides,  the  fruits 
themselves,  independently  of  the  tree,  are  very  much  worm- 
eaten  in  some  years,  the  apple,  pear,  medlar,  and  pomegranate 
for  instance.     In  the  olive  the  presence  of  the  worm  may  be 

99  From  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv.  c.  16.  If  the  terminal  bud 
of  the  palm  is  taken  off,  it  will  mostly  die. 

1  "  Decidunt."  The  French  use  a  similar  word — couler.  In  this  case  the 
pollen,  being  washed  off  by  the  showers,  has  not  the  opportunity  of  fecun- 
dating the  ovary  of  the  flower. 

2  The  insect  Ichneumon  or  Pupivora,  probably,  which  breeds  in  the 
larvae  or  else  in  the  body  of  the  caterpillar.  The  passage  is  from  Theo- 
phrastus, B.  iv.  c.  16. 

3  Caused  probably  by  a  maggot  or  moth  passing  from  one  grape  or  olive 
to  another,  and  spinning  its  web  in  vast  quantities.  See  Theophrastus, 
B  iv.  c.  17. 


Chap.  37.]  THE   DISEASES    OF   TEEES.  523 

productive  of  a  twofold  result :  if  it  grows  beneath  the  skin, 
it  will  destroy  the  fruit,  but  if  it  is  in  the  stone,  it  will  only 
gnaw  it  away,  making  the  fruit  all  the  larger.  The  prevalence 
of  showers  after  the  rising  of  Arcturus4  prevents  them  from 
breeding ;  but  if  the  rains  are  accompanied  with  wind  from 
the  south,  they  will  make  their  appearance  in  the  ripe  fruit 
even,  which  are  then  very  apt  to  fall.  This  happens  more 
particularly  in  moist,  watery  localities ;  and  even  if  they  do 
not  fall,  the  olives  that  are  so  affected  are  good  for  nothing. 
There  is  a  kind  of  fly  also  that  is  very  troublesome  to  some 
fruit,  acorns  and  figs  for  instance  :  it  would  appear  that  they 
breed  from  the  juices5  secreted  beneath  the  bark,  which  at 
this  period  are  sweet.  These  trees,  too,  are  generally  in  a 
diseased  state  when  this  happens. 

There  are  certain  temporary  and  local  influences  which  cause 
instantaneous  death  to  trees,  but  which  cannot  properly  be 
termed  diseases ;  such,  for  example,  as  consumption,  blast,  or 
the  noxious  effects  of  some  winds  that  are  peculiar  to  certain 
localities  ;  of  this  last  nature  are  the  Atabulus6  that  prevails 
in  Apulia,  and  the  Olympias7  of  Euboea.  This  wind,  if  it 
happens  to  blow  about  the  winter  solstice,  nips  the  tree  with 
cold,  and  shrivels  it  up  to  such  a  degree  that  no  warmth  of  the 
sun  can  ever  revive  it.  Trees  that  are  planted  in  valleys,  and 
are  situate  near  the  banks  of  rivers,  are  especially  liable  to 
these  accidents,  the  vine  more  particularly,  the  olive,  and  the 
fig.  "When  this  has  been  the  case,  it  may  instantly  be  detected 
the  moment  the  period  for  germination  arrives,  though,  in  the 
olive,  somewhat  later.  With  all  of  these  trees,  if  the  leaves 
fall  off,  it  is  a  sign  that  they  will  recover ;  but  if  such  is  not 
the  case,  just  when  you  would  suppose  that  they  have  escaped 
uninjured,  they  die.  Sometimes,  however,  the  leaves  will 
become  green  again,  after  being  dry  and  shrivelled.  Other 
trees,  again,  in  the  northern  regions,  Pontus  and  Phrygia,  for 
example,  suffer  greatly  from  cold  or  frost,  in  case  they  should 
continue  for  forty  days  after  the  winter  solstice.  In  these 
countries,  too,  as  well  as  in  other  parts,  if  a  sharp  frost  or  co- 
pious rains  should  happen  to  come  on  immediately  after  fruc- 
tification, the  fruit  is  killed  in  a  very  few  days  even. 

4  See  B.  xviii.  c.  74. 

5  On  the  contrary,  this  sweet  juice  is  secreted  by  the  insect  itself,  an 
aphis  or  vine-fretter. 

6  The  north-west  wind.     See  Horace,  Sat.  B,  i.  s.  v.  1.  71. 

7  See  B.  ii.  c.  46. 


524  plint's  natural  history.  [Book  XVII. 

Injuries  inflicted  by  the  hand  of  man  are  productive  also  of 
bad  effects.  Thus,  for  instance,  pitch,  oil,  and  grease,8  if  ap- 
plied to  trees,  and  young  ones  more  particularly,  are  highly 
detrimental.  They  may  be  killed,  also,  by  removing  a  circular 
piece  of  the  bark  from  around  them,  with  the  exception,  in- 
deed, of  the  cork-tree,9  which  is  rather  benefitted  than  other- 
wise by  the  operation ;  for  the  bark  as  it  gradually  thickens 
tends  to  stifle  and  suffocate  the  tree  :  the  andrachle,10  too,  re- 
ceives no  injury  from  it,  if  care  is  taken  not  to  cut  the  body 
of  the  tree.  In  addition  to  this,  the  cherry,  the  lime,  and  the 
vine  shed  their  bark  ;u  not  that  portion  of  it,  indeed,  which  is 
essential  to  life,  and  grows  next  the  trunk,  but  the  part  that 
is  thrown  off,  in  proportion  as  the  other  grows  beneath.  In 
some  trees  the  bark  is  naturally  full  of  fissures,  the  plane  for 
instance :  in  the  linden  it  will  all  but  grow  again  when  re- 
moved. Hence,  in  those  trees  the  bark  of  which  admits  of 
cicatrization,  a  mixture  of  clay  and  dung13  is  employed  by  way 
of  remedy  ;  and  sometimes  with  success,  in  case  excessive  cold 
or  heat  does  not  immediately  supervene.  In  some  trees,  again, 
by  the  adoption  of  these  methods  death  is  only  retarded,  the 
robur  and  the  quercus,13  for  example.  The  season  of  the  year 
has  also  its  peculiar  influences ;  thus,  if  the  bark  is  removed 
from  the  fir  and  the  pine,  while  the  sun  is  passing  through 
Taurus  or  Gemini,  the  period  of  their  germination,  they  will 
instantly  die,  while  in  winter  they  are  able  to  withstand  the 
injurious  effects  of  it  much  longer  :  the  same  is  the  case,  too, 
with  the  holm-oak,  the  robur,  and  the  quercus.  In  the  trees 
above  mentioned,  if  it  is  only  a  narrow  circular  strip  of  bark 
that  is  removed,  no  injurious  effects  will  be  perceptible  ;  but 
in  the  case  of  the  weaker  trees,  as  well  as  those  which  grow  in 
a  thin  soil,  the  same  operation,  if  performed  even  on  one  side 
only,  will  be  sure  to  kill  them.     The  removal  of  the  top,14  in 

8  He  probably  means  if  applied  to  the  bark  of  young  trees. 

9  The  cork-tree  forms  no  exception  to  the  rule — if  a  complete  ring  of 
the  bark  that  lies  under  the  epidermis  is  removed,  the  death  of  the  tree  is 
the  inevitable  result.     See  B.  xvi.  c.  13. 

10  Probably  the  Arbutus  integrifolia.     See  B.  xiii.  c.  40. 

11  This  in  reality  is  not  the  bark,  but  merely  the  epidermis,  which  is 
capable  of  reproduction  in  many  trees.  12  See  c.  16  of  this  Book. 

13  This  method,,  however,  is  often  found  efficacious  in  preserving  the  life 
of  the  oak,  as  well  as  many  other  trees,  by  excluding  the  action  of  the 
air  and  water. 

14  It  prevents  them  from  increasing  in  height,  but  does  not  cause  their 
death. 


Chap.  37.]  THE    DISEASES    OF  TREES.  525 

the  pitch-tree,  the  cedar,  and  the  cypress  is  productive  of  a 
similar  result ;  for  if  it  is  either  cut  off  or  destroyed  by  fire, 
the  tree  will  not  survive  :  the  same  is  the  case,  too,  if  they 
are  bitten  by  the  teeth  of  animals. 

Varro15  informs  us,  too,  as  we  have  already  stated,16  that  the 
olive,  if  only  licked  by  a  she-goat,  will  be  barren/7  When 
thus  injured,  some  trees  will  die,  while  in  others  the  fruit  be- 
comes deteriorated,  the  almond,ls  for  instance,  the  fruit  of  which 
changes  from  sweet  to  bitter.  In  other  cases,  again,  the  tree  is 
improved19  even — such,  for  instance,  as  the  pear  known  in  Chios 
as  the  Phocian  pear.  We  have  already  mentioned20  certain 
trees,  also,  that  are  all  the  better  for  having  the  tops  removed. 
Most  trees  perish  when  the  trunk  is  split ;  but  we  must  except 
the  vine,  the  apple,  the  fig,  and  the  pomegranate.  Others, 
again,  will  die  if  only  a  wound  is  inflicted  :  the  fig,  however, 
as  well  as  all  the  resinous  trees,  is  proof  against  such  injury. 
It  is  far  from  surprising  that,  when  the  roots  of  a  tree  are  cut, 
death  should  be  the  result ;  most  of  them  perish,  however, 
when,  not  all  the  roots,  but  only  the  larger  ones,  and  those 
which  are  more  essential  to  life,  have  been  severed. 

Trees,  too,  will  kill  one  another21  by  their  shade,  or  the 
density  of  their  foliage,  as  also  by  the  withdrawal  of  nourish- 
ment. Ivy,22  by  clinging  to  a  tree,  will  strangle23  it.  The 
mistletoe,  too,  is  far  from  beneficial,  and  the  cytisus  is  killed 
by  the  plant  to  which  the  Greeks  have  given  the  name  of 
halimon.24  It  is  the  nature  of  some  plants  not  to  kill,  but  to 
injure,  by  the  odour  they  emit,  or  by  the  admixture  of  their 
juices  ;  such  is  the  influence  exercised  by  the  radish  and  the 
laurel  upon  the  vine.25     Tor  the  vine  may  reasonably  be  looked 

15  De  Re  Rust.  B.  i.  c.  2.  16  In  B.  viii.  c.  76,  and  B.  xv.  c.  8. 

17  This  statement  is  fabulous.  Goats  are  apt  to  injure  trees  by  biting 
the  buds  and  young  shoots.  Fabulous  as  it  is,  however,"  Fee  remarks  that 
it  still  obtains  credit  among  the  peasantry  in  France. 

18  This  fabulous  story  is  taken  from  Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  B.  v.  c.  25. 

19  Also  from  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant.  B.  iv.  cc.  19-20,  and  De  Causis, 
B.  v.  c.  22.  It  is  just  possible  that  on  some  of  the  branches  heing  torn 
off  bv  an  animal,  the  tree  may  have  grown  with  increased  vigour. 

20  'in  B.  xiii.  c.  9,  and  in  c.  30  of  this  Book.  2l  See  B.  xvi.  c.  47. 

22  It  must  he  remembered  that  ivy  is  not  a  parasite,  and  that  it  has  no 
suckers  to  absorb  the  nutriment  of  another  tree. 

23  See  B.  xvi.  c.  62. 

24  C.  Bauhin  gives  this  name  to  several  species  of  Atriplex.  Lacuna 
was  of  opinion  that  the  Halimon  of  Dioscorides  was  the  same  as  the 
Viburnum.  25  A  superstitious  belief  only,  as  Fee  remarks. 


526  plint's  natural  history.         [Book  XVII. 

upon  as  possessed  of  the  sense  of  smell,  and  affected  by  odours 
in  a  singular  degree  ;  hence,  when  it  is  near  a  noxious  exhala- 
tion, it  will  turn  away  and  withdraw  from  it.  It  was  from 
his  observation  of  this  fact  that  Androcydes  borrowed  the 
radish26  as  his  antidote  for  drunkenness,  recommending  it  to 
be  eaten  on  such  occasions.  The  vine,  too,  abhors  all  cole- 
worts  and  garden  herbs,  and  the  hazel21  as  well ;  indeed  it  will 
become  weak  and  ailing  if  they  are  not  removed  to  a  distance 
from  it.  Nitre,  alum,  warm  sea- water,  and  the  shells  of  beans28 
and  fitches  act  as  poisons  on  the  vine. 

CHAP.  38.  (25.) PRODIGIES  CONNOTED  WITH  TREES. 

Among  the  maladies  which  affect  the  various  trees,  we  may 
find  room  for  portentous  prodigies  also.  For  we  find  some 
trees  that  have  never  had  a  leaf  upon  them ;  a  vine  and  a  pome- 
granate bearing29  fruit  adhering  to  the  trunk,  and  not  upon 
the  shoots  or  branches ;  a  vine,  too,  that  bore  grapes  but  had 
no  leaves ;  and  olives  that  have  lost  their  leaves  while  the  fruit 
remained  upon  the  tree.  There  are  some  marvels  also  connected 
with  trees  that  are  owing  to  accident ;  an  olive  that  was  com- 
pletely burnt,  has  been  known  to  revive,  and  in  Boeotia,  some 
fig-trees  that  had  been  quite  eaten  away  by  locusts  budded 
afresh.30  Trees,  too,  sometimes  change  their  colour,  and  turn 
from  black  to  white  ;  this,  however,  must  not  always  be  looked 
upon  as  portentous,  and  more  particularly  in  the  case  of  those 
which  are  grown  from  seed;  the  white  poplar,  too,  often  becomes 
black.  Some  persons  are  of  opinion  also  that  the  service-tree, 
if  transplanted  to  a  warmer  locality,  will  become  barren.  But 
it  is  a  prodigy,  no  doubt,  when  sweet  fruits  become  sour,  or 
sour  fruits  sweet;  and  when  the  wild  fig  becomes  changed 
into  the  cultivated  one,  or  vice  versa.  It  is  sadly  portentous,31 
too,  when  the  tree  becomes  deteriorated  by  the  change,  the 
cultivated  olive  changing  into  the  wild,  and  the  white  grape 
or  fig  becoming  black :  such  was  the  case,  also,  when  upon  the 
arrival  of  Xerxes  there,   a  plane-tree  at  Laodicea  was  trans- 

26  See  B.  xix.  c.  26.       27  Virgil  shared  this  belief:  see  Georg.ii.  1.  299. 

28  This  may  be  true  in  some  measure  as  to  nitre,  alum,  and  warm  sea- 
water  ;  but  not  so  as  to  the  shells  of  beans  and  pigeon-pease,  which  would 
make  an  excellent  manure  for  it. 

29  This,  as  Fee  remarks,  is  not  by  any  means  impossible,  nor,  indeed, 
are  any  other  of  the  cases  mentioned  in  this  paragraph,  owing  to  some 
accidental  circumstance.  30  See  B.  xxix.  c.  29. 

31  These  stories  can,  of  course,  be  only  regarded  as  fabulous. 


Chap.  38.]  PRODIGIES    COKS"ECTED   WITH   TREES.  527 

formed  into  an  olive.  In  such  narratives  as  these,  the  book 
written  in  Greek  by  Aristander  abounds,  not  to  enter  any  fur- 
ther on  so  extended  a  subject ;  and  we  have  in  Latin  the  Com- 
mentaries of  C.  Epidius,  in  which  we  find  it  stated  that  trees 
have  even  been  known  to  speak.  In  the  territory  of  Cumce,  a  tree, 
and  a  very  ominous  presage  it  was,  sank  into  the  earth  shortly 
before  the  civil  wars  of  Pompeius  Magnus  began,  leaving  only 
a  few  of  the  branches  protruding  from  the  ground.  The  Sibyl- 
line Books  were  accordingly  consulted,  and  it  was  found  that 
a  war  of  extermination  was  impending,  which  would  be  at- 
tended with  greater  carnage  the  nearer  it  should  approach  the 
city  of  Rome. 

Another  kind  of  prodigy,  too,  is  the  springing  up  of  a  tree 
in  some  extraordinary  and  unusual  place,  the  head  of  a  statue, 
for  instance,  or  an  altar,  or  upon  another  tree  even.33  A  fig- 
tree  shot  forth  from  a  laurel  at  Cyzicus,  just  before  the  siege 
of  that  city ;  and  so  in  like  manner,  at  Tralles,  a  palm  issued 
from  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  the  Dictator  Ca3sar,  at  the 
period  of  his  civil  wars.  So,  too,  at  Rome,  in  the  Capitol 
there,  in  the  time  of  the  wars  against  Perseus,  a  palm-tree 
grew  from  the  head  of  the  statue  of  Jupiter,  a  presage  of  im- 
pending victory  and  triumphs.  This  palm,  however,  having 
been  destroyed  by  a  tempest,  a  fig-tree  sprang  up  in  the  very 
same  place,  at  the  period  of  the  lustration  made  by  the  censors 
M.  Messala  and  C.  Cassius,33  a  time  at  which,  according  to  Piso, 
an  author  of  high  authority,  all  sense  of  shame  had  been  utterly 
banished.  Above  all  the  prodigies,  however,  that  have  ever 
been  heard  of,  we  ought  to  place  the  one  that  was  seen  in  our 
own  time,  at  the  period  of  the  fall  of  the  Emperor  Nero,  in  the 
territory  of  Marrucinum ;  a  plantation  of  olives,  belonging  to 
Vectius  Marcellus,  one  of  the  principal  members  of  the  Eques- 
trian order,  bodily  crossed  the  public  highway,  "while  the  fields 
that  lay  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  road  passed  over  to  supply 
the  place  which  had  been  thus  vacated  by  the  olive-yard.34 

CKAP.  39.   (26.) TREATMENT    OF    THE    DISEASES    OF    TREES. 

Having  set  forth  the  various  maladies  by  which  trees  -are  at- 
tacked, it  seems  only  proper  to  mention  the  most  appropriate 

33  This  may  easily  be  accounted  for,  by  the  seed  accidentally  lodging  in 
a  crevice  of  the  tree.  33  a.  u.  c.  600. 

34  An  exaggerated  account  merely  of  a  land-slip. 


528  plint's  natural  histoey.  |_Bo°k  XVII. 

remedies  as  well.  Some  of  these  remedies  may  be  applied  to 
all  kinds  of  trees  in  common,  while  others,  again,  are  peculiar 
to  some  only.  The  methods  that  are  common  to  them  all,  are, 
baring  the  roots,  or  moulding  them  up,  thus  admitting  the  air 
or  keeping  it  away,  as  the  case  may  be ;  giving  them  water,  or 
depriving  them  of  it,  refreshing  them  with  the  nutritious  juices 
of  manure,  and  lightening  them  of  their  burdens  by  pruning. 
The  operation,  too,  of  bleeding,35  as  it  were,  is  performed  upon 
them  by  withdrawing  their  juices,  and  the  bark  is  scraped  all 
round36  to  improve  them.  In  the  vine,  the  stock  branches  are 
sometimes  lengthened  out,  and  at  other  times  repressed  ;  the 
buds  too  are  smoothed,  and  in  a  measure  polished  up,  in  case 
the  cold  weather  has  made  them  rough  and  scaly.  These  re- 
medies are  better  suited  to  some  kinds  of  trees  and  less  so  to 
others  :  thus  the  cypress,  for  instance,  has  a  dislike  to  water, 
and  manifests  an  aversion  to  manure,  spading  round  it,  pruning, 
and,  indeed,  remedial  operations  of  every  kind ;  nay,  what  is 
more,  it  is  killed  by  irrigation,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
vine  and  the  pomegranate  receive  their  principal  nutriment 
from  it.  In  the  fig,  again,  the  tree  is  nourished  by  watering, 
while  the  very  same  thing  will  make  the  fruit  pine  and  die  : 
the  almond,  too,  if  the  ground  is  spaded  about  it,  will  lose  its 
blossom.  In  the  same  way,  too,  there  must  be  no  digging 
about  the  roots  of  trees  when  newly  grafted,  or  indeed  until 
such  time  as  they  are  sufficiently  strong  to  bear.  Many 
trees  require  that  all  superfluous  burdens  should  be  pruned 
away  from  them,  just  as  we  ourselves  cut  the  nails  and  hair. 
Old  trees  are  often  cut  down  to  the  ground,  and  then  shoot  up 
again  from  one  of  the  suckers ;  this,  however,  is  not  the  case 
with  all  of  them,  but  only  those,  the  nature  of  which,  as  we 
have  already  stated,37  will  admit  of  it. 

CHAP.  40. METHODS    OF    IRRIGATION. 

Watering  is  good  for  trees  during  the  heats  of  summer,  but 
injurious  in  winter  ;  the  effects  of  it  are  of  a  varied  nature  in 
autumn,  and  depend  upon  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  soil. 
Thus,  in  Spain  for  instance,  the  vintager  gathers  the  grapes 
while  the  ground  beneath  is  under  water ;  on  the  other  hand, 
in  most  parts  of  the  world,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  carry 
off  the  autumn  rains  by  draining.     It  is  about  the  rising  of  the 

35  See  c.  43  of  this  Book.  36  gee  c#  45  0f  t^g  Book. 

37  In  B.  xvi.  cc.  53,  56,  66}  67,  and  90. 


Chap.  42.]  INCISIONS    MADE    IN   TEEES.  529 

Dog-star  that  irrigation  is  so  particularly  beneficial ;  but  even 
then  it  ought  not  to  be  in  excess,  as  the  roots  are  apt  to  become 
inebriated,  and  to  receive  injury  therefrom.  Care  should  be 
taken,  too,  to  proportion  it  to  the  age  of  the  tree,  young  trees 
being  not  so  thirsty  as  older  ones ;  those  too  which  require  the 
most  water,  are  the  ones  that  have  been  the  most  used  to  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  plants  which  grow  in  a  dry  soil,  require  no 
more  moisture  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  their  existence. 

CHAP.    41. REMARKABLE    FACTS    CONNECTED    WITH   IRRIGATION. 

In  the  Fabian  district,  which  belongs  to  the  territory  of 
Sulmo38  in  Italy,  where  they  are  in  the  habit,  also,  of  irrigating 
the  fields,  the  natural  harshness  of  the  wines  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  water  the  vineyards ;  it  is  a  very  singular  thing,  too, 
that  the  water  there  kills  all  the  weeds,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  nourishes  the  corn,  thus  acting  in  place  of  the  weeding- 
hook.  In  the  same  district,  too,  at  the  winter  solstice,  and 
more  particularly  when  the  snow  is  on  the  ground  or  frosts 
prevail,  they  irrigate  the  land,  a  process  which  they  call 
"  warming  "  the  soil.  This  peculiarity,  however,  exists  in  the 
water  of  one  river39  only,  the  cold  of  which  in  summer  is 
almost  insupportable. 

CHAP.  42.   (27.) INCISIONS    MADE    IN    TREES. 

The  proper  remedies  for  charcoal-blight  and  mildew40  will 
be  pointed  out  in  the  succeeding  Book.41  In  the  meantime, 
however,  we  may  here  observe  that  among  the  remedies  may 
be  placed  that  by  scarification.42  When  the  bark  becomes 
meagre  and  impoverished  by  disease,  it  is  apt  to  shrink,  and  so 
compress  the  vital  parts  of  the  tree  to  an  excessive  degree  : 
upon  which,  by  means  of  a  sharp  pruning  knife  held  with  both 
hands,  incisions  are  made  perpendicularly  down  the  tree,  and 
a  sort  of  looseness,  as  it  were,  imparted  to  the  skin.      It  is  a 

•    38  This  was  the  native  place  of  Ovid,  who  alludes  to  its  cold  streams, 
Tristia,  B.  iv.  El.  x.  11.  3,  4  :— 

"  Sulmo  mini  patria  est,  gelidis  uberrimus  undis, 
Millia  qui  novies  distat  ab  urbe  decern." 
Irrigation  of  the  vine  is  still  practised  in  the  east,  in  Italy,  and  in  Spain; 
but  it  does  not  tend  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  wine. 

39  The  Sagrus,  now  the  Sangro. 

40  "  Uredo  rubigo  "  and  "  uredo  caries."  41  Cc.  45  and  70.    ' 
42  Still  practised  upon  the  cherry-tree. 

VOL.    III.  M   M 


530  flint's  natural  history.  [Bock  XVII. 

proof  that  the  method  has  heen  adopted  with  success,  when 
the  fissures  so  made  remain  open  and  become  filled  with  wood 
of  the  trunk  growing  between  the  lips. 

CHAP.  43. OTHER   REMEDIES    FOR    THE    DISEASES    OF    TREES. 

The  medical  treatment  of  trees  in  a  great  degree  resembles 
that  of  man,  seeing  that  in  certain  cases  the  bones  of  them  both 
are  perforated  even.43  The  bitter  almond  will  become  sweet,  if, 
after  spading  round  the  trunk  and  cleaning  it,  the  lowermost 
part  of  it  is  pierced  all  round,  so  that  the  humours  may  have 
a  passage  for  escape  and  ensure  being  removed.  In  the  elm, 
too,  the  superfluous  juices  are  drawn  off,  by  piercing  the  tree 
above  ground  to  the  pith  when  it  is  old,  or  when  it  is  found 
to  suffer  from  an  excess  of  nutriment.  So,  too,  when  the  bark 
of  the  fig  is  turgid  and  swollen,  the  confined  juices  are  dis- 
charged by  means  of  light  incisions  made  in  a  slanting  direc- 
tion ;  bj  the  adoption  of  which  method  the  fruit  is  prevented 
from  falling  off.  When  fruit-trees  bud  but  bear  no  fruit,  a 
fissure  is  made  in  the  root,  and  a  stone  inserted  ;  the  result  of 
which  is,  that  they  become  productive.44  The  same  is  done 
also  with  the  almond,  a  wedge  of  robur  being  employed  for 
the  purpose.  Foi  the  pear  and  the  service  tree  a  wedge  of 
torch- wood  is  used,  and  then  covered  over  with  ashes  and  earth. 
It  is  even  found  of  use,  too,  to  make  circular  incisions  around 
the  roots  of  the  vine  and  fig,  when  the  vegetation  is  too  luxu- 
riant, and  then  to  throw  ashes  over  the  roots.  A  late  crop  of 
figs  is  ensured,  if  the  first  fruit  is  taken  off  when  green  and 
little  larger  than  a  bean ;  for  it  is  immediately  succeeded  by 
fresh,  which  ripens  at  a  later  period  than  usual.  If  the  tops  of 
each  branch  are  removed  from  the  fig,  just  as  it  is  beginning 
to  put  forth  leaves,  its  strength  and  productiveness  are  great  iy 
increased.  As  to  caprification,  the  effect  of  that  is  to  ripen  the 
fruit. 

CHAP.    44. CAPRIFICATION,    AND    PARTICULARS    CONNECTED    WITH 

THE    FIG. 

It  is  beyond  all  doubt  that  in  caprification  the  green  fruit 
gives  birth  to  a  kind  of  gnat  ;45  for  when  they  have  taken 

43  He  alludes  to  the  medical  operation  for  the  removal  of  carious  bones, 
described  by  Celsus,  B.  viii.  c.  3. 

44  This  is  still  done  by  some  persons ;  but  it  can  be  productive  of  no 
beneficial  result. 

45  See  B.  xv.  c.  21 :  the  Cynips  psencs  of  Linn.     It  penetrates  the  fig 


Chap.  46.]  PEOPER   MODE    OE    MANUEING   TKEES.  531 

flight,  there  are  no  seeds  to  be  found  within  the  fruit :  from 
this  it  would  appear  that  the  seeds  have  been  transformed 
into  these  gnats.  Indeed,  these  insects  are  so  eager  to  take 
their  flight,  that  they  mostly  leave  behind  them  either  a  leg 
or  a  part  of  a  wing  on  their  departure.  There  is  another 
species  of  gnat,46  too,  that  grows  in  the  fig,  which  in  its  indo- 
lence and  malignity  strongly  resembles  the  drone  of  the  bee- 
hive, and  shows  itself  a  deadly  enemy  to  the  one  that  is  of 
real  utility ;  it  is  called  centrina,  and  in  killing  the  others 
it  meets  its  own  death. 

Moths,  too,  attack  the  seeds  of  the  fig:  the  best  plan  of  getting 
rid  of  them,  is  to  bury  a  slip  of  mastich,47  turned  upside  down,  in 
the  same  trench.  The  fig,  too,  is  rendered  extremely  productive48 
by  soaking  red  earth  in  amurca,  and  laying  it,  with  some  ma- 
nure, upon  the  roots  of  the  tree,  just  as  it  is  beginning  to 
throw  out  leaves.  Among  the  wild  figs,  the  black  ones,  and 
those  which  grow  in  rocky  places,  are  the  most  esteemed,  from 
the  fact  of  the  fruit  containing  the  most  seed.  Caprification 
takes  place  most  advantageously  just  after  rain. 

CHAP.     45. EEEOES    THAT    MAY    BE    COMMITTED    IN    PRUNING. 

But,  before  everything,  especial  care  should  be  taken  that 
intended  remedies  are  not  productive  of  ill  results ;  as  these 
may  arise  from  either  remedial  measures  being  applied  in  ex- 
cess or  at  unseasonable  times.  Clearing  away  the  branches  is 
of  the  greatest  benefit  to  trees,  but  to  slaughter49  them  this 
way  every  year,  is  productive  of  the  very  worst  results.  The 
vine  is  the  only  tree  that  requires  lopping  every  year,  the 
myrtle,  the  pomegranate,  and  olive  every  other ;  the  reason 
being  that  these  trees  shoot  with  great  rapidity.  The  other 
trees  are  lopped  less  frequently,  and  none  of  them  in  autumn  ; 
the  trunk  even  is  never  scraped,50  except  in  spring.  In  prun- 
ing a  tree,  all  that  is  removed  beyond  what  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, is  so  much  withdrawn  from  its  vitality. 

CHAP.    46. THE  PEOPEE  MODE  OF  MANIJEING  TEEES. 

The  same  precautions,  too,  are  to  be  regarded  in  manuring, 
at  the  base,  and  deposits  an  egg  in  each  seed,  which  is  ultimately  eaten  by 
the  larva ;  hence  the  supposed  transformation. 

46  A  kind  of  wasp,  probably. 

47  A  puerility  borrowed  from  Columella,  B.  v.  c.  10. 

48  From  Columella,  B.  v.  c.  10.  49  Trucidatio. 

50  For  the  removal  of  moss  and  lichens,  which  obstruct  evaporation,  and 
collect  .moisture  to  an  inconvenient  degree,  besides  harbouring  insects. 


552  flint's  natural  histoey.  [Book  XVII. 

Though  manure  is  grateful  to  the  tree,  still  it  is  necessary  to 
be  careful  not  to  apply  it  while  the  sun  is  hot,  or  while  it 
is  too  new,  or  more  stimulating  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 
The  dung  of  swine  will  burn51  up  the  vine,  if  used  at  shorter 
intervals  than  those  of  five  years  ;  unless,  indeed,  it  is  mixed 
with  water.  The  same  is  the  case,  too,  with  the  refuse  of  the  cur- 
rier's workshop,  unless  it  is  well  diluted  with  water  :  manure 
will  scorch  also,  if  laid  on  land  too  plentifully.  It  is  generally 
considered  the  proper  proportion,  to  use  three  modii  to  every  ten 
feet  square  ;  this,  however,  the  nature  of  the  soil  must  decide. 

CHAP.  47. MEDICAMENTS    FOE    TEEES. 

Wounds  and  incisions  of  trees  are  treated  also  with,  pigeon 
dung  and  swine  manure.  If  pomegranates  are  acid,  the  roots 
of  the  tree  are  cleared,  and  swine's  dung  is  applied  to  them  : 
the  result  is,  that  in  the  first  year  the  fruit  will  have  a  vinous 
flavour,  but  in  the  succeeding  one  it  will  be  sweet.  Some 
persons  are  of  opinion  that  the  pomegranate  should  be  watered 
four  times  a  year  with  a  mixture  of  human  urine  and  water, 
at  the  rate  of  an  amphora  to  each  tree  ;  or  else  that  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  branches  should  be  sprinkled  with  silphium52 
steeped  in  wine.  The  stalk  of  the  pomegranate  should  be 
twisted,  if  it  is  found  to  split  while  on  the  tree.  The  fig,  too, 
should  be  drenched  with  the  amurca  of  olives,  and  other  trees 
when  they  are  ailing,  with  lees  of  wine  ;  or  else  lupines  may 
he  sown  about  the  roots.  The  water,  too,  of  a  decoction  of 
lupines  is  beneficial  to  the  fruit,  if  poured  upon  the  roots  of 
the  tree.  When  it  thunders  at  the  time  of  the  Yulcanalia,53 
the  figs  fall  off ;  the  only  remedy  for  which  is  to  have  the  area 
beneath  ready  covered  with  barley-straw.  Lime  applied  to 
the  roots  of  the  tree  makes  cherries  come  sooner  to  maturity, 
and  ripen  more  rapidly.  The  best  plan,  too,  with  the  cherry, 
as  with  all  other  kinds,  is  to  thin  the  fruit,  so  that  that  which 
is  left  behind  may  grow  all  the  larger. 

(28.)  There  are  some  trees,  again,  which  thrive  all  the  better 
for  being  maltreated,54  or  else  are  stimulated  by  pungent  sub- 
stances ;  the  palm  and  the  mastich  for  instance,  which  derive 
nutriment  from  salt  water.55     Ashes  have  the  same  virtues  as 
51  Agriculturists,  Fee  says,  are  not  agreed  upon  this  question. 

53  Or  laser.     See  B.  xix.  c.  15.  ™  See  B.  xviii.  c.  35. 

54  Poena  emendantur. 

55  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  this  is  not  likely  to  prove  very  injurious 
to  them.     This  passage  is  from  Theophrastus,  De  Causis,  B.  iii.  c.  23. 


Chap.  47.]  MEDICAMENTS   FOE   TEEES.  533 

salt,  only  in  a  more  modified  degree ;  for  which  reason  it  is, 
that  fig-trees  are  sprinkled  with  them  ;  as  also  with  rue,56  to 
keep  away  worms,  and  to  prevent  the  roots  from  rotting. 
What  is  still  more  even,  it  is  recommended  to  throw  salt57 
water  on  the  roots  of  vines,  if  they  are  too  full  of  humours ; 
and  if  the  fruit  falls  off,  to  sprinkle  them  with  ashes  and 
vinegar,  or  with  sandarach  if  the  grapes  are  rotting.58  If, 
again,  a  vine  is  not  productive,  it  should  be  sprinkled  and 
rubbed  with  strong  vinegar  and  ashes  ;  and  if  the  grapes,  in- 
stead of  ripening,  dry  and  shrivel  up,  the  vine  should  be  lopped 
near  the  roots,59  and  the  wound  and  fibres  drenched  with  strong 
vinegar  and  stale  urine;  after  which,  the  roots  should  be 
covered  up  with  mud  annealed  with  these  liquids,  and  the 
ground  spaded  repeatedly. 

As  to  the  olive,  if  it  gives  promise  of  but  little  fruit,  the 
roots  should  be  bared,  and  left  exposed  to  the  winter  cold,60  a 
mode  of  treatment  for  which  it  is  all  the  better. 

All  these  operations  depend  each  year  upon  the  state  of  the 
weather,  and  require  to  be  sometimes  retarded,  and  at  other 
times  precipitated.  The  very  element  of  fire  even  has  its  own 
utility,  in  the  case  of  the  reed  for  instance  ;  which,  after  the 
reed-bed  has  been  burnt,  will  spring  up  all  the  thicker  and 
more  pliable.61 

Clato,62  too,  gives  receipts  for  certain  medicaments,  speci- 
fying the  proportions  as  well ;  for  the  roots  of  the  large  trees 
he  prescribes  an  amphora,  and  for  those  of  the  smaller  ones, 
an  urna,  of  amurca  of  olives,  mixed  with  water  in  equal  pro- 
portions, recommending  the  roots  to  be  cleared,  and  the 
mixture  to  be  gradually  poured  upon  them.  In  addition  to 
this,  in  the  case  of  the  olive  and  the  fig,  he  recommends  that 
a  layer  of  straw  should  be  first  placed  around  them.  In  the 
fig,  too,  more  particularly,  he  says  that  in^  spring  the  roots 
should  be  well  moulded  up  ;  the  result  of  which  is,  that  the 
fruit  will  not  fall  off  while  green,  and  the  tree  will  be  all  the 
more  productive,  and  not  affected  with  roughness  of  the  bark. 

56  Without  any  efficacy,  beyond  a  doubt. 

57  The  action  of  salt  upon  vegetation  is,  at  the  best,  very  uncertain. 
,s  These  recipes  are  Avorthless,  and  almost  impracticable. 

59  This  method  is  still  adopted,  but  with  none  of  the  accessories  here 
mentioned  by  Pliny. 

60  A  dangerous  practice,  Fee  remarks,  and  certainlv  not  to  be  adopted. 

61  Mlt)or-  9z  De  fte  Rust.  93. 


,534  PLINT' 3   NATUILAL    HISTORY.  [Book  XVII. 

In  the  same  way,  too,63  to  prevent  the  vine-fretter64  from  at- 
tacking the  tree,  he  recommends  that  two  congii  of  amnrca  of 
olives  should  be  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  after 
which  it  must  be  boiled  again  with  one-third  part  of  bitumen, 
and  one-fourth  of  sulphur :  and  this  should  be  done,  he  says,  in 
the  open  air,  for  fear  of  its  igniting  if  prepared  in- doors ;  with 
this  mixture,  the  vine  is  to  be  anointed  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  and  at  the  axils  ;  after  which,  no  more  fretters  will 
be  seen.  Some  persons  are  content  to  make  a  fumigation 
with  this  mixture  while  the  wind  is  blowing  towards  the  vine, 
for  three  days  in  succession. 

Many  persons,  again,  attribute  no  less  utility  and  nutritious 
virtue  to  urine  than  Cato  does  to  amurca ;  only  they  add  to 
it  an  equal  proportion  of  water,  it  being  injurious  if  employed 
by  itself.  Some  give  the  name  of  "  volucre"66  to  an  insect 
which  eats  away  the  young  grapes  :  to  prevent  this,  they  rub 
the  pruning-knife,  every  time  it  is  sharpened,  upon  a  beaver- 
skin,  and  then  prune  the  tree  with  it :  it  is  recommended  also, 
that  after  the  pruning,  the  knife  should  be  well  rubbed  with 
the  blood  of  a  bear.67  Ants,  too,  are  a  great  pest  to  trees ; 
they  are  kept  away,  however,  by  smearing  the  trunk  with  red 
earth  and  tar :  if  a  fish,  too,  is  hung  up  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
tree,  these  insects  will  collect  in  that  one  spot.  Another 
method,  again,  is  to  pound  lupines  in  oil,68  and  anoint  the 
roots  with  the  mixture.  Many  people  kill  both  ants  as  well 
as  moles 69  with  amurca,  and  preserve  apples  from  caterpillars 
as  well  as  from  rotting,  by  touching  the  top  of  the  tree  with 
the  gall  of  a  green  lizard. 

Another  method,  too,  of  preventing  caterpillars,  is  to  make 
a  woman,70  with  her  monthly  courses  on  her,  go  round  each 
tree,  barefooted  and  ungirt.     Again,   for  the  purpose  of  pre- 

63  At  the  present  day,  fumigations  are  preferred  to  any  such  mixtures 
as  those  here  described.  Caterpillars  are  killed  by  the  fumes  of  sulphur, 
bitumen,  or  damp  straw. 

64  "  Convolvulus."  He  alludes  to  the  vine  Pyralis,  one  of  the  Lepidoptera, 
the  caterpillar  of  which  rolls  itself  up  in  the  leaves  of  the  tree,  after  eating 
away  the  foot-stalk. 

66  The  "fly,"  or  "winged"  insect.  The  grey  weevil,  Fee  thinks,  that 
eats  the  buds  and  the  young  grapes.  G7  An  absurd  superstition. 

r,s  This  may  possibly  be  efficacious,  but  the  other  precepts  here  given  are 
full  of  absurdity. 

69  It  might  possibly  drive  them  to  a  distance,  but  would  do  no  more. 

70  An  absurd  notion,  very  similar  to  some  connected  with  the  same  sub- 
ject, which  have  prevailed  even  in  recent  times. 


Chap.  47.]  MEDICAMENTS   FOB   THEES.  535 

venting  animals  from  doing  mischief  by  browsing  upon  the 
leaves,  they  should  be  sprinkled  with  cow-dung  each  time  after 
rain,  the  showers  having  the  effect  of  washing  away  the 
virtues  of  this  application. 

The  industry  of  man  has  really  made  some  very  wonderful 
discoveries,  and,  indeed,  has  gone  so  far  as  to  lead  many 
persons  to  believe,  that  hail-storms  may  be  averted  by  means  of 
a  certain  charm,  the  words  of  which  I  really  could  not  venture 
seriously  to  transcribe  ;  although  we  find  that  Cato71  has  given 
those  which  are  employed  as  a  charm  for  sprained  limbs,  em- 
ploj'ing  splints  of  reed  in  conjunction  with  it.  The  same 
author,72  too,  has  allowed  of  consecrated  trees  and  groves  being 
cut  down,  after  a  sacrifice  has  first  been  offered  :  the  form  of 
prayer,  and  the  rest  of  the  proceedings,  will  be  found  fully  set 
forth  in  the  same  work  of  his. 

Sumsiakt. — Remarkable  facts,  narratives,  and  observations, 
eight  hundred  and  eighty. 

Eoitan"  authors  QUOTED. — Cornelius  Nepos,73  Cato 71  the 
Censor,  M.  Varro,75  Celsus,76  Virgil,77  Hyginus,73  Saserna79  father 
and  son,  Scrofa,80  Calpurnius  Bassus,81  Trogns,83  JEmilius 
Macer,83  GraBcinus,84  Columella,85  Atticus  Julius,86  Tabianus,87 
Mamilius  Sura,88  Dossenus  Mundus,89  C.  Epidius,90  L.  Piso.91 

71  De  Re  Rust.  160.  The  words  of  this  charm  over  the  split  reed  while 
held  near  the  injured  limb,  were  as  follow: — "  Sanitas  fracto — motas 
danata  daries  dardaries  astataries" — mere  gibberish. 

73  De  Re  Rust.  139.  This  prayer  was  offered  to  the  deity  of  the  sacred 
grove,  after  a  pig  had  been  first  offered — "  If  thou  art  a  god,  or  if  thou 
art  a  goddess,  to  whom  this  grove  is  sacred,  may  it  be  allowed  me,  through 
the  expiation  made  by  this  pig,  and  for  the  purpose  of  restraining  the 
overgrowth  of  this  grove,  &c."  It  must  be  remembered  that  it  was  con- 
sidered a  most  heinous  offence  to  cut  down  or  lop  a  consecrated  grove. 
See  Ovid,  Met.  B.  viii.  c   743. 

73  See  end  of  B.  ii.  74  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

75  See  end  of  B.  ii.  76  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

77  See  end  of  B.  vii.  ?3  See  end  of  B.  iii. 

79  See  end  of  B.  x.  60  See  end  of  B.  xi. 

81  See  end  of  B.  xvi.  82  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

83  See  end  of  B.  ix.  8i  See  end  of  B.  xiv. 

65  See  end  of  B.  viii.  86  See  end  of  B.  xiv. 

87  Fabianus  Papirius ;  see  end  of  B.  ii. 

88  See  end  of  B.  x.  s3  See  end  of  B.  xiv. 

90  A  Roman  rhetorician,  preceptor  of  Antony  and  Augustus.  He  is 
gaid  to  have  claimed  descent  from  Epidius,  a  deity  worshipped  on  the 
banks  of  the  Sarnus.  91  See  end  of  B.  ii. 


536 


PLINY  S    NATURAL   HISTOEY. 


[Book  xvir. 


Eoeeign  authors  quoted. — Hesiod,92  Theophrastus,93  Aris- 
totle,.94 Democritus,95  Theopompus,96  King  Hiero,97  King  Atta- 
lus98  Philometor,  King  Archelaus,99  Archytas,1  Xenophon,2 
Amphilochus 3  of  Athens,  Anaxipolis4  of  Thasos,  Apollodorus5 
of  Lemnos,  Aristophanes6  of  Miletus,  Antigonus7  of  Cymae, 
Agathocles8  of  Chios,  Apollonius9  of  Pergamus,  Bacchius10  of 
Miletus,  Bion11  of  Soli,  Chsereas12  of  Athens,  Clueristus13  of 
Athens,  Diodorus14  of  Priene,  Dion15  of  Colophon,  Epigenes16 
of  Rhodes,  Euagon17  of  Thasos,  Euphronius18  of  Athens,  An- 
drotion 19  who  wrote  on  Agriculture,  iEschrion20  who  wrote  on 
Agriculture,  Lysimachus 21  who  wrote  on  Agriculture,  Diony- 
sius22  who  translated  Mago,  Diophanes23  who  made  an  Epi- 
tome of  Dionysius,  Aristander24  who  wrote  on  Portents. 


92  See  end  of  B.  vii. 

93  See  end  of  B.  iii. 
95  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
97  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
99  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

2  For  Xenophon   of  Athens, 
Larapsacus,  see  end  of  B.  iii. 

3  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
5  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
7  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
9  See  end  of  B.  viii. 

11  See  end  of  B.  vi. 
13  See  end  of  B.  xiv. 
15  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
17  See  end  of  B.  x. 
19  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
21  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
23  See  end  of  B.  viii. 


see 


94  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
96  See  end  of  B.  ii. 
98  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
]  See  end  of  B.  viii. 
end  of  B.  iv.    For  Xenophon  of 


4 

See  end  of  B 

viii. 

6 

See  end  of  B 

viii. 

8 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

10 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

la 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

14 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

16 

See  end  of  B. 

ii. 

18 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

20 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

22 

See  end  of  B. 

xii. 

24 

See  end  of  B. 

viii. 

END    OF    VOL.    III. 


J.  BILLING,  PRINTER  AND  STEREOTYPER,  WOKING,  SURREY. 


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NOTICE. 

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purchased  of  Mr.  H.  G.  Bohn,  who  is  preparing  to  retire 
from  business,  after  forty  years  of  successful  enterprise,  the 
entire  stock  of  his  various  Libraries,  consisting  of  more 
than  600  different  works,  and  comprising  nearly  half  a 
million  of  volumes. 

These  Libraries  have  been  created  by  Mr.  Bohn  during 
the  past  twenty  years  by  an  amount  of  energy  and  industry, 
bibliographical  knowledge  and  literary  skill  never  before 
united  with  the  requisite  amount  of  capital ;  and  they  repre- 
sent an  accumulation  of  valuable  works  unexampled  in  the 
history  of  literary  undertakings. 

Though  Mr.  Bohn  was  not  the  first  to  recognize  the 
power  of  cheapness  as  applied  to  the  production  of  books, 
he  was  the  first  to  address  his  efforts  exclusively  to  works 
of  a  standard  character  and  enduring  interest.     He  threw 
himself  into  the  movement  with  characteristic  energy  ;  and 
in  developing  his  aim  he  is   known  by  those  who  have 
watched  the  progress  of  cheap  literature,  to  have  distanced 
all  competitors.     During  the  time  that  his  Libraries  have 
been  before  the  public,  he  has  earned  into  all  classes  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  where  the  English  language  is  under- 
stood an  unexampled  choice  of  books,  not  only  for  students 
and  scholars,  but  for  readers  who  merely  seek  amusement. 
Such  a  choice,  so  varied,  and  at  so  low  a  price,  does  not 
exist  in  this  country  or  elsewhere  ;  and  Mr.  Bohn  is  entitled 
to  the  gratitude  of  all  who  value  the  humanizing  effects  of 

literature.     Since  the  commencement  of  these  Libraries  at 

b  2 


IV  NOTICE. 


least  three  million  volumes  have  been  issued,  and  these 
may  fairly  be  taken  to  represent  thirty  million  readers. 

In  accepting  the  responsibility  of  so  large  an  under- 
taking, Messrs.  Bell  and  Daldy  desire  to  carry  on  the  pro- 
jects of  Mr.  Bohn  with  the  same  spirit  and  energy  which 
have  influenced  him,  and  they  are  happy  to  announce  they 
will  have  the  advantage  of  his  bibliographical  knowledge 
and  large  experience. 

In  addition  to  the  Libraries  of  Mr.  Bohn,  this  Catalogue 
comprises  the  various  Collections  published  by  Messrs. 
Bell  and  Daldy  during  the  last  nine  years,  and  now  in 
progress. 

These  Libraries  and  Collections  together  afford  a  choice 
from  about  800  volumes  on  general  literature  and  educa- 
tion. 

To  assist  purchasers  in  making  their  selections  a  classi- 
fied index  is  attached,  by  which  they  will  be  guided  to  the 
subjects  of  the  books. 

Messrs.  Bell  and  Daldy  venture  to  add,  that  the  Aldine 
Poets,  Aldine  Series,  British  Worthies,  Elzevir  Series,  and 
Pocket  Volumes,  are  specially  prepared  for  the  lovers  of 
choice  books,  and  are  specimens  of  careful  editing  combined 
with  the  most  finished  workmanship  in  all  external  features. 
They  believe  that  they  are  not  surpassed  in  these  respects 
by  any  similar  productions  of  the  present  day. 

Many  of  the  above  works  are  adapted  for  prizes  and 
presents ;  and  they  may  be  had  through  any  bookseller, 
bound  in  a  suitable  st}de,  by  giving  a  short  notice. 


CLASSIFIED  INDEX. 


Amusement?. 

Angler,  Walton  .  .  ."" 
Angler's  Manual,  Holland 
Chess  Congress 

Games  of,  Morphy 

■ Player's  Companion 

Handbook  . 

Praxis,  Staunton     . 

Tournament 

Games,  Handbook  of 
Manly  Exercises,  Walker 
Shooting,  Recreations  in 

Art. 

Didron's  Iconography 
Holbein's  Bible  Cuts 

Dance  of  Death 

Lanzi's  Painting  . 
Lectures  on  Painting 
Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael 
Reynolds'  (Sir  J.)  Works 
Schlegel's  ^Esthetic  Works 
Stanley's  Synopsis  of  Painters 
Vasari's  Lives  of  the  Painters 

Atlases. 

Classical  Geography  . 

Long 

Grammar  School  Atlas    . 
Marlborough's  Campaigns     . 


31, 


PAGE 

41,  42 

17 

3s 
■]() 
4  0 
40 
40 
40 
38 
31 
30 

27 
27 
27 
12 
39 
28 
13 
14 
40 
15 

3G 
46 

-17 
II) 


Biography. 

Burke's  Life 19 

Cellini,  Memoirs  of 9 

Foster's  Life,  &c 10 

Franklin's  Autobiography  ...  23 
Irving's  Life  and  Letters      .     .    17,  24 

Johnson's  Life,  &c 23 

Locke's  Life  and  Letters  .  .  .12 
Luther's  Life,  Michelet  .  .  .  .  12 
Nelson's  Life,  Southey  ...  30,  41 
Pope's  Life,  Carruthers    ....     30 

Walton's  Lives 41,  42 

Washington's  Life  .  .  .  .  17, 24 
Wellington,  Life  of 31 

British  Classics. 

Addison's  Works 19 

Burke's  Works 19 

Speeches 19 

Milton's  Prose  Works      ....  12 

Divinity. 

Butler's  Analogy  .     .     . '    .     .    42,  44 

■  and  Sermons      .     .  9 

Sermons 44 

Works 44 

Chillingworth's   Religion    of    Pro- 
testants    16 

Gregory's  Evidences 11 

Henry  on  the  Psalms  ....  17 
Kitto's  Scripture  Lands  ....  27 
Krummacher's  Parables  ....  27 
Neander's  Christian  Dogmas  .  .  13 
Christian  Life      ...  1 3 


PAGE 

Divinity — con  tinued. 

Neander's  Life  of  Christ  '  ".     .     .  13 

■    Light  in  Dark  Places      .  13 

New  Testament— Greek       .    16,  47,  47 

Lexicon  to .     .     .  16 

Sturm's  Communings      ....  14 
Taylor's  I  living  and  Dying       14,  43,  45 

Wheatley  on  the  Common  Prayer  .  15 

Dramatic  Literature. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher  ....  9 

Lamb's  Dramatic  Poets  ....  22 

Tales  from  Shakespeare      .  41 

Schlegel's  Dramatic  Literature       .  14 
Shakespeare's  Plays  .     .     .     .    IS,  42 

Works      ....  17 

Sheridan's  Dramatic  Works.     .     .  14 

Fiction. 

Andersen's  Tales 26 

Berber,  The 23 

Bremer's  Works 9 

Cattermole's  Haddon  Hall    ...  26 

Cinq-Mars 23 

Classic  Tales 16 

Defoe"s  Works 20 

Gil  Bias .  27 

Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield      .  41 

Hawthorne's  Tales 24 

Howitt's  English  Life     ....  27 

Hunt's  Book  for  a  Corner     ...  27 

Irving's  Works 17,  24 

Keightley's  Fairy  Mythology     .     .  22 

Lamarthie's  Genevieve  ....  25 

Stonemason,  &c.     .     .  25 

Longfellow's  Prose  Works  ...  28 

Marryat's  Works 28 

Mayhew's  Image  of  his  Father      .  25 

Mitford's  Our  Village      ....  13 

Modern  Novelists  of  France      .     .  25 

Munchausen's  Life 25 

Robinson  Crusoe 30 

Sandford  and!  Merton       ....  25 

Tales  of  the  Genii 31 

Taylor's  El  Dorado 25 

Uncle  TomVCabin     .     .     .     .     18,  25 

White  Slave" 25 

Wide,  Wide  World 18 

Willis's  Tales 25 

Yule  Tide  Stories 23 

French  Authors. 

Fenelon's  Telemaque       ....  48 

La  Fontaine's  Fables       ....  48 

Picciola 48 

Voltaire's  Charles  XII 48 

German  Authors. 

German  Ballads 45 

Schiller's  Wallenstein      ....  48 

German  (the).  Translations  from. 

Goethe's  Works u 

Heine's  Poems \\ 

Schiller's  Works 13 


VI 


CLASSIFIED   INDEX. 


PAGE 

Greek  Authors. 

iEschylus    ...'....     45, 47 

Demosthenes 45 

Euripides 45,  47 

Herodotus  ........    45,  47 

Hesiod 45 

Homer 45 

Plato 46 

Sophocles 46 

Thucydides 47 

Xenophon's  Anabasis      ...     47,  47 
Cyropsedia    .     .     .     .47 

Greek  (the)  Translations  from. 

Achilles  Tatius 34 

iEschines 16 

iEschylus 32 

Anthology,  Greek 34 

Aristophanes 32 

Aristotle's  Ethics 32 

History  of  Animals  .     .  32 

■ Metaphysics  ....  32 

Organon 32 

Politics  and  Economics  32 

■ Rhetoric  and  Poetics      .  32 

Athenseus 33 

Bion 36 

Callimachus 34 

Demosthenes'  Orations    .     .     .    16,  33 

Diogenes  Laertius 34 

Euripides 34 

Heliodorus 34 

Herodotus 34 

Analysis  of    ....  18 

Notes 18 

Hesiod 34 

Homer's  Iliad !     .  34 

Pope 30 

Odyssey 34 

Pope     ....  30 

Longus 34 

Moschus 36 

Philo-Judffius  , 20 

Pindar 35 

Plato 35 

Sophocles 36 

Theocritus 36 

Theognis 34 

Thucydides 36 

Analysis  of  .     .     .     .19 

Tyrtams 36 

Xenophon         36 

Historical  Memoirs. 

Carafas  of  Maddaloni 9 

Coxe's  Life  of  Marlborough       .      .  10 

Memoirs  of   the  House  of 

Austria 10 

Guizot's  Life  of  Monk     ....  24 

Monk's  Contemporaries     .  24 

Irving's  Life  of  Washington       .     17,  24 

James's  Louis  XIV 11 

■  Richard  Coeur  de  Leon      .  11 

Kossuth,  Memoirs  of      ....  11 
Lodge's  Portraits  of  Illustrious  Per- 
sonages      28 

Memoir  of  Colonel  Hutchinson       .  11 
Duke  of  Sully      ...  16 


Historical  Memoirs— continued. 

Memoir  of  Hampden,  by  Lord  Nu- 
gent      .     .      .     .     .     15 

Philip  de  Commines       .     15 

Naval     and    Military    Heroes     of 

Britain 29 

Pauli's  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great      .     22 

Roscoe's  Life  of  Leo  X 13 

Lorenzo  de  Medici     13 

History  and  Travels. 

Anglo-Saxons,  Miller  ....  28 
Antiquities,  Popular,  Brand  .  .  21 
Arabs  in  Spain,  Cond^  ....  9 
Christianity,     First     Planting     of, 

Neander 13 

Chronicles. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  Bede 
Florence  of  Worcester's 
Geoffrey  de  Vinsauf 
Henry  of  Huntingdon's 
Ingulph's  Chronicle 
Matthew  of  Paris 

Westminster 


Richard  of  Devizes 
Roger  de  Hovenden 
Six  Old  English  Chronicles 
William  of  Malmesbury 
Chronological  Tables,  Blair  . 
Church  History,  Neander 
Civilization,  Guizot    .     . 
Conquest  of  England,  Thierry 

Diary,  Evelyn 

Pepys 

Ecclesiastical  History,  Bede 

r Eusebius 

Ordericus  Vi- 

talis     . 
Socrates 


21 
21 
21 
21 
22 
22 
L2 
21 
22 
23 
23 
37 
13 
11 
14 
15 
15 
21 
20 

22 
20 
20 


— Sozomen 

Theodoret  & 

Evagrius  .     20 

Egypt,  Lepsius 22 

England,  History  of,  Hughes     .     .48 

Hume  ...     48 

Smollett    .      .     48 

English  Constitution,  Delolme   .     .     10 

Revolution  of  1640,  Guizot      11 

Florence,  Machiavelli      ....     12 
French  Revolution  of  1848,  Lamar 

tine 

French  Revolution,  Michelet     . 

— '■ . Mignet  . 

Smyth  .     . 


Germany,  Menzel 

Giraldus      Cambrensis,     Historical 

Works 21 

Girondists,  Lamartine     ....     12 
History  Philosophically  Considered, 

Miller 17 

Hungary,  History  of  ...      .  11 

Index  of  Dates 37 

India,  Conquest  of,  Hall  .     , 
Jesuits,  History  of,  Nicoliui 
Modern  History,  Schlegel 
Smyth 


Naples  under  Spanish  Dominion 


41 
29 
14 
14 
9 


CLASSIFIED    INDEX. 


VI 1 


History  and  Travels — continued. 

Naval  Battles,  Allen       ....  26 
Nineteenth  Century,  Gervinus  .     .24 

Northern  Antiquities,  Mallet     .     .  22 

Philosophy,  Tenneman    ....  19 

of  History,  Hegel  .     .  18 

Schlegel      .  14 

Popes,  Ranke 13 

Pretenders,  Jesse 15 

Representative  Government,  Guizot  11 
Restoration  of  the  Monarchy,  La- 

martine 12 

Revolution,  Counter,    in   England, 

Carrel 9 

Roman  Empire,  Gibbon  ....  20 

Republic,  Michelet  ...  12 

Russia,  History  of 13 

Saracens,  Ockley 13 

Servia,  Ranke 13 

Stuarts,  Jesse 15 

Three  Months  in  Power,  Lamartine  25 

Tiers  Etat,  Thierry 15 

Travels,  Early,  in  Palestine       .     .  21 

in  America,  Humboldt      .  39 

of  Marco  Polo     .....  22 

Wellington,  Victories  of      ...  28 

Italian  (the)  Translations  from. 

Ariosto's  Orlando  Furiosa      .         .26 

Dante,  Caiy 16 

Wright 26 

Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered     .     .     31 

Latin  Authors. 

Csesar,  De  Bello  Gallico  ...     46,  4? 

Bks.  1-3       ...     46 

Cicero's  Cato  Major    .     .     .     .    46, 47 

Orations 45 

Horace 45,  46,  47 

Juvenal,  Satires,  1-16      ....     46 

and  Persius       .     .     .     .45 

Lucretius 47 

Ovid's  Fasti 46 

Sallust 46,  47 

Tacitus,  Germania,  &c 46 

Terence 46 

Virgil    . 46,  47 

Latin  (the),  Translations  feom. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus  ....  32 

Antoninus's  Thoughts     ....  44 

Apuleius,  the  Golden  Ass     ...  32 

Boethius 21 

Cassar 33 

Catullus 33 

Cicero's  Academics,  &c 33 

Nature  of  the  Gods,  &c      .  33 

Offices,  &c.    .    \     .     .     .  33 

On  Oratory 33 

Orations 33 


Cornelius  Nepos 34 

Eutropius 34 

Florus 36 

Horace 17,  34 

Johannes  Secundus 35 

Justin 34 

Juvenal 34 

Livy 34 


PAGE 

Latin    (the)    Translations  from — 
continued. 

Lucan 35 

Lucilius      .  * 34 

Lucretius 35 

Martial's  Epigrams 35 

Ovid 35 

Persius •  .     34 

Petronius 35 

Pha5drus      ........     36 

Plautus 35 

Pliny's  Natural  History  ....     35 

Propertius 35 

Quintilian's  Institutes     ....     36 

Sallust 36 

Suetonius 36 

Sulpicia 34 

Tacitus 36 

Terence 36 

Tibullus 33 

Velleius  Paterculus 36 

Virgil 36 

Literary  History,  &c. 

Lowndes's  Bibliographer's  Manual  18 
Schlegel's  History  of  Literature  .  14 
Sismondi's  Literature  of  South  of 

Europe 14 

Miscellaneous. 

Ascham's  Schole  Master  ...  45 
Bacon's  Essavs  ....      9, 44 

Browne's  (Sir  T.)  Works      ;     .     .     21 

Cape  and  the  Kaffirs 23 

Coin     Collector's    Manual,    Hum- 
phreys      39 

Cotton  Manufactures,  Ure  ...  40 
Cruikshank's  Three  Courses,  &c.  .  26 
Dictionary  of  Obsolete  Words  .  .  19 
Emerson's  Orations  and  Lectures   .     23 

Representative  Men      .     23 

Epitaphs 21 

Foster's  Essays,  &c 10 

Lectures,  &c 10 

Miscellaneous  Works  .     10 

Fosteriana 10 

Fuller's  Works 10 

Gray's  Works 44 

Hall's  (Basil)  Lieutenant     ...     41 

Midshipman  ...     41 

(Robert)  Works  ....     11 

Herbert's  Works 41,42 

Jesse's  Dogs,  &c 27 

Junius's  Letters 11 

Lion  Hunting 25 

Locke's  Conduct,  &c 4  5 

Luther's  Table  Talk 12 

Magic  (Ennemoser's) 38 

Manufactures  (Philosophy  of),  Ure  40 
Moral  Sentiments,  Smith      ...     14 

Political  Cyclopaedia 18 

Pottery  and  Porcelain  ....  30 
Preachers  and  Preaching  ...  25. 
Prout's  (Father)  Reliques  ...  30 
Starling's  Noble  Deeds  of  Women.  30 
Taylor's  Logic  in  Theology  .     .     .45 

Physical  Theory      .      .      .43 

Ultimate  Civilization    .     .     45 


Vlll 


CLASSIFIED    INDEX. 


Miscellaneous— continued. 

Temperance,  Carpenter  .     .      .     .23 

Wines,  Redding  on     .  ..."     30 

Young  Lady's  Book  .  .'     [t     \     \     31 

Natural  History. 

British  Birds,  Mudie  ....  29 

Cage  Birds,  Bechstein      .     .     .  \     26 

Poultry,  Dickson  and  Mowbray'  !     ]  6 

Seasons,  Howitt    ....  27 

Selborne,  White    .     .      "           '  31  41 

Warblers,  Sweet  .     .     .     '.     \  .  '  26 

POETRY. 

Akenside's  Poems 43 

British    Poets  — Milton    to'  Kirke 

White 11 

Burns's  Poems .*    41  42 

Songs '.     "     ,  '  41 

Butler's  Hudibras 26 

Coleridge's  Poems       ..."     41,  42 

Collins's  Poems '  43 

Cowper's  Poems     ...'.','.     43 

Works !l0 

Dibdin's  Sea  Songs  ....'.'  23 
Dryden's  Poetical  Works  .'  .'  ',  43 
Ellis's  Metrical  Romances  ...  21 
Goldsmith's  Poems  .  .  .  .  '  41 
Gower's  Confessio  Amantis  .     .     '.     43 

Gray's  Poems 41, 44 

Herbert's  Poems  .  .  .  .  '  41)  43 
Kirke  White's  Poems  .  .  '.  .  '  44 
Longfellow's  Poems  .  .  .  \  28,41 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost     .     .     23, 41,' 42 

Regained.      .     28,41 

Petrarch's  Sonnets 29 

Pope's  Poetical  Works  .  .'  [  [  30 
Robin  Hood  Ballads  .....'  41 
Sea  Songs  and  Ballads  .  .  .  [41 
Shakespeare's  Poems       ...     18,  43 

Spenser's  Works '43 

Thomson's  Poems       ...     1     !     44 

■ Seasons 44 

Vaughan's  Poems 41,  45 

Young's  Poems '44 

Proverbs  and  Quotations. 

Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Latin  Quo- 
tations      34 

Handbook  of  Proverbs  .  .  .  .21 
Polyglot  of  Foreign  Proverbs    .     .     22 

Science  and  Philosophy. 

Anatomy,  Comparative,  Lawrence  .  17 
Animal  Physiology,  Carpenter  .  .  38 
Arts  and  Sciences,  Joyce       .     .     .17 

Astrology,  Lilly 17 

Astronomy,  Carpenter    ....     38 

Hind 39 

Bacon's  Advancement  of  Learning  37, 44 

Novum  Organum    .     .     37,  44 

Botany,  Carpenter 38 


Science  and  Philosophy—  Continued. 

Botany,  De  Jussieu 39 

Bridgewater  Treatises. 

Chalmers  on  Moral  Man     .     .  37 

Kidd  on  Man 37 

Kirby  on  Animals    ....  37 

Prout  on  Chemistry       ...  37 
Whewell's      Astronomy    and 

General  Physics     ....  37 

Cheshstry. 

Agricultural,  Stockhardt     .     .40 

Elementary,  Parkes  ....  18 

Principles  of,  Stockhardt     .      .  40 

Chevreul  on  Colour 3$ 

Comparative  Physiology,  Agassiz   .  37 

Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences  38 

Cosmos,  Humboldt's 39 

Geology. 

General,  Richardson       .      .     .  40 

Medals  of  Creation,  Mantell     .  39 

Of  Isle  of  Wight,  Man  tell   .     .  39 

Of  Scripture,  Pye  Smith     .     .  40 

Petrifactions,  Sec,  Mantell  .     .  39 

Wonders  of  Geology,  Mantell  39 

Horology,  Carpenter 33 

Inventions,  Beckmann's  History  of .  9 

Joyce's  Scientific  Dialogues  ...  39 

Kant's  Pure  Reason 13 

Life,  Philosophy  of,  Schlegel      .     .  14 

Locke's  Philosophical  Works      .     .  12 

Logic,  Devey     .         ig 

Mechanical'  Philosophy,  Carpenter  .  33 

Medicine,  Domestic 38 

Mineralogy,  Richardson       .      .     .  40 

Natural  Philosophy,  Hogg    ...  38 

Oersted's  Soul  in  Nature       ...  40 

Palaeontology,  Richardson     ...  40 

Physics,  Hunt 39 

Races  of  Man,  Pickering.      ...  29 

Schouw's  Earth,  Plants,  Man     .     .  40 

Science,  Poetry  of,  Hunt.     ...  39 

Technical  Analysis,  Bolley  ...  37 

Vegetable  Physiology,  Carpenter     .  38 

Views  of  Nature,  Humholdt      .     .  39 

Zoology,  Carpenter 33 

Topography. 

Athens,  Stuart  and  Revett    ...  3] 

China 26 

Egypt,  Lord  Lindsay's  Letters  .     .  27 

Geography,  Modern 29 

►-  Strabo 35 

India 27 

London,  Pictorial  Handbook  of .     '.  29 

Redding 25 

Nineveh,  Bonomi 26 

Norway 29 

Paris 29 

Rome 30 


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Cellini  (Benvenuto),  Memoirs  of.  Written  by  himself. 
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Conde's  History  of  the  Dominion  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain. 
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10  bohn's  standard  library. 

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designs  by  Harvey.     In  8  vols.  '  3s.  Qd.  each. 

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to  same. 
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Steel. 
Vol.  7.  Translation  of  Homer's  Iliad.     Plates. 
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***  An  Atlas  to  the  above,  containing  26  fine  large  Maps  and  Plans  of  Marl- 
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121.  12s.  may  now  be  had,  in  one  volume,  4to.  for  105.  Qd. 

History  of  the  House  of  Austria,  from  the  Founda- 


tion of  the  Monarchy  by  Khodolph  of  Hapsburgh,  to  the  death  of 
Leopold  II,  1218 — 1792.  With  continuation  to  the  present  time.  New 
and  Kevised  Edition,  including  the  celebrated  work  Genesis,  and  the 
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of   the  late   John   Foster,   selected   from  periodical   papers,   and 
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Miscellaneous  Works.       Including    his    Essay  on 


Doddridge.     Preparing. 

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bohn's  standard  library.  11 

Goethe's  Works.     In  5  vols.     3s.  Gd.  each. 

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and  a  Nouvelette. 

Vol.  5.  Wilhelin  Meister's  Apprenticeship,  a  Novel,  translated 
by  R.  D.  Boylan. 

Gregory's  (Dr.)  Letters  on  the  Evidences,  Doctrines,  and 
Duties  of  the  Christian  Eeligion.     3s.  Gd. 

Guizot's  History  of  Representative  Government,  trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  A.  B.  Scoble,  with  Index.     3s.  Gd. 

• History  of  the  English  Revolution  of  1640,  from 

the  Accession,  to  the  Death  of  Charles  I.  With  a  Preliminary 
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Portrait  of  Charles  I.     3s.  Gd. 

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Hall's  (Eev.  Robert)  Miscellaneous  Works  and  Eemains, 
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Heine's  Poems,  complete,  translated  from  the  German  in 
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Bowring.     3s.  6c?. 

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James's  (G.  P.  E.)  History  of  the  Life  of  Richard  Cceur  de 
Leon,  King  of  England.  Portraits  of  Richard  and  Philip  Augustus. 
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12 


BOHN  S  STANDARD  LIBRARY. 


Lamartine's  History  of  the  Girondists,  or  Personal  Memoirs 
of  the  Patriots  of  the  French  Revolution,  from  unpublished  sources. 
Portraits  of  Robespierre,  Madame  Roland,  and  Charlotte  Corday. 
In  3  vols.     3s.  6d.  each. 

■ History  of  the  Eestoration   of  the  Monarchy  in 

France  (a  Sequel  to  his  History  of  the  Girondists),  with  Index. 
Portraits  of  Lamartine,  Tallyrand,  Lafayette,  Ney,  and  Louis  XVIL 
In  4  vols.     3s.  Qd.  each. 

History  ^  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1848,   with 


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Lanzi's  History  of  Painting :  a  revised  translation  by  Thos. 
Roscoe,  "with  complete  Index.  Portraits  of  Raphael,  Titian,  and 
Correggio.     In  3  vols.     3s.  Qd.  each. 

Locke's  Philosophical  Works,  containing  an  Essay  on  the 
Human  Understanding:,  an  Essay  on  the  Conduct  of  the  Understand- 
ing, &c,  with  Preliminary  Discourse,  Notes  and  Index  by  J.  A. 
St.  John,  Esq.     Portrait.     In  2  vols.     3s.  Qd.  each. 


Life  and  Letters,  with  Extracts  from  his  Com- 
mon-Place Books,  by  Lord  King,  New  Edition,  with  a  General 
Index.     3s.  Qd. 

Luther's  Table  Talk,  translated  and  Edited  by  William 
Hazlitt.  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added  the  Life  of  Luther,  by 
Alexander  Chalmers,  with  additions  from  Michelet  and  Audin. 
Portrait,  after  Lucas  Kranach.     3s.  Qd. 

Machiavelli's  History  of  Florence,  Prince,  and  other  Works. 
Portrait.     3s.  Qd. 

Menzel's  History  of  Germany.  Portraits  of  Charlemagne, 
Charles  V.,  and  Prince  Mettemich.     In  3  vols.     3s.  Qd.  each. 

Michelet's  Life  of  Luther,  translated  by  W.  Hazlitt.  3s.  6d. 

History   of    the   Roman   Republic,  translated  by 


William  Hazlitt.     3s.  Qd, 


History  of  the  French  Revolution,  from  its  ear- 
liest indications  to  the  flight  of  the  King  in  1791.  With  General 
Index.     Frontispiece.     (646  pages.)     3s.  Qd. 

Mignet's  History  of  the  French  Revolution  from  1789  to 
1814.     Portrait  of  Napoleon  as  First  Consul,     3s.  Qd. 

Milton's  Prose  Works,  including  the  Christian  Doctrine, 
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BOHN  S  STANDARD  LIBRARY.  13 

Mitford's  (Miss)  Our  Village.    Sketches  of  Eural  Character, 

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Keander's   Church   History,  translated  from  the  German  • 
complete,  with  General  Index.    In  10  vols.     3s.  6d.  each. 

Life  of  Christ,  translated  from  the  German.    3s.  6d. 

—  First  planting  of  Christianity,  and  Antignostikus. 

Translated  by  J.  E.  Eyland.    In  2  vols.     3s.  6d.  each. 

—  History  of  Christian  Dogmas,  translated  from  the 

German,  by  J.  E.  Eyland.     In  2  vols.    3s.  6d.  each. 

Memorials   of    Christian   Life  in   the    Early   and 


Middle  Ages  (including  his  Light  in  Dark  Places),  translated  by 
J.  E.  Eyland.     3s.  6d.  J 

Ockley's  History  of  the  Saracens,  revised  and  enlarged 
with  a  Life  of  Mohammed,  and  Memoir  of  the  Author,  bv  H  G 
Bohn.     Portrait  of  Mohammed.     3s.  6d,  Y 

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'  ^L33*8*?7  °f  Servia  and  ihe  Servian  Revolution. 
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Mrs.  Kerr  To  which  is  added,  The  Slavonic  Provinces  of  Turkey, 
from  the  French  of  Cyprien  Eobert,  and  other  sources.     3s.  6d 

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Eoscoe's  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Leo.  X.,  with  the  Copyright 
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~7  ^ife  °f  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  called  the  Magnificent, 
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Russia,  History  of,  from  the  earliest  Period,  compiled  from 
bv'W^rl16^  u8°T^'  includillS'  Karamsin,  Tooke,  and  Segur, 
sll2  of  1^9  fJ-  o°r*aits  °f  Catherine,  Nicholas,  and  Ment- 
schihojf.    In  2  vols.     3s.  6d.  each. 

Schiller's  Works.     In  4  vols.     3s.  6d.  each. 

nf  &T  *"?*  ~?MV  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War»  a*d  ^volt 
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Vol.  2.  Continuation  of  the  Kevolt  of  the  Netherlands;  Wallen- 

lTw^mpfr^he  £iccolom^;   The  Death  of  Wallenstein; 
and  William  Tell.     Portrait  of  WaUenstem. 

Vol  3.  Don  Carlos,  Mary  Stuart,  Maid  of  Orleans,  and  Bride  of 
Messina.     Portrait  of  the  Maid  of  Orleans. 
%.t  f       p^ivs  Fiesco,  Love  and  Intrigue,  and  the  Ghost- 
beer,  translated  by  Henry  G.  Bohn. 


14  bohn's  standard  library. 

Schlegel's   Lectures   on   the  Philosophy  of  Life   and   the 
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Lectures    on   Dramatic   Literature,    translated   by 

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the  last  German  Edition,  by  A.  J.  W.  Morrison.    Portrait,    3s.  Qd. 

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last  German  Edition.     3s.  6d 


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Indians.     3s.  Qd. 

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the  last  French  Edition.  The  Specimens  of  early  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  Poetry  are  translated  into  English  Verse 
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Smith's  (Adam)  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments ;  with  his 
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bohn's  historical  library.  15 

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Vasari's  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects. 
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"Wheatley  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Frontispiece. 
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16  bohn's  school  and  college  series. 

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21 


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26 


XL 

Bohn's  Illustrated  Library. 

Uniform  with  the  Standaed  Libeaey,  5s.  per  volume  {excepting  those 

marked  otherwise). 

Allen's  Battles  of  the  British  Navy.  New  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged  by  the  Author.  Numerous  fine  Portraits  engraved  on 
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Andersen's  Danish  Legends  and  Fairy  Tales,  containing 
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ings, chiefly  by  Foreign  Artists.    5s. 

Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,   in   English  Verse,  by  W.   S. 

Eose.     Twelve  fine  Engravings,  including  an  unpublished  Portrait 
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or,  with  the  plates  coloured.     7  s.  6d. 

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or,  further  illustrated  with  62  Outline  Portraits.      In 


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Dante,  translated  into  English  Verse  by  I.  C.  Wright,  M.A. 
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bohn's  illustkated  libraby.  27 

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6s. 

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or,  with  the  addition  of  34   highly-finished  Steel    Engravings 

after  Cooper,  Landseer,  &c.     Is.  Qd. 

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Dalziel.     5s. 

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Land.  New  Edition,  enlarged.  Thirty-six  beautiful  Wood  Engrav 
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"8  bohn's  illustrated  library. 

Lodge's  Portraits  of  Illustrious  Personages  of  Great  Britain, 
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• or,  without  the  illustrations.     35.  6d. 

Prose    Works,    complete.     Sixteen  full-page    Wood 

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Marryat's  Masterman  Ready ;  or,  the  Wreck  of  the  Pacific. 
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■ Mission;    or,    Scenes    in    Africa.      (Written    for 

Young  People).     Illustrated  by  Gilbert  and  Dalziel.     5s. 

• ■ —  Pirate  and  Three  Cutters.     New  Edition,  to  which 

is  prefixed  a  Memoir  of  the  Author.     Illustrated  with  20  beautiful 
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Maxwell's  Victories  of  Wellington  and  the  British  Armies. 
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d7T  °.n  }l)t  bfk  of  Sliaron  Tumer»  wit*1  a  General  Index. 
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tngs  on  Steel,  after  Designs  by  W.  Harvey.  ,  5s. 

Milton's  Poetical  Works,  with  a  Memoir  and  Critical  Re- 
marks by  James  Montgomery,  an  Index  to  Paradise  Lost,  Todd's 
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Vol.  2.  Paradise  Regained,  and  other  Poems,  with  Verbal  Index 
to  all  the  Poems. 


bohn's  illustrated  library. 


29 


Mudie's  British ^ Birds;  or, History  of  the  Feathered  Tribes 
of   the  British  Islands.     New  Edition.     Revised   by  W    C    L 

Sfr?  m*e t&r of  Blrds  and  7  additiolai  pte  * 

■ or,  with  the  Plates  coloured.    Is.  6d.  per  vol. 

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and  Land,  on  every  day  in  the  year,  from  the  time  of  William  the 
Conqueror  to  the  battle  of  Inkermann.  By  Major  Johns  R  M 
and  Lieutenant  PH.  Nicolas,  R.M.,  with  fdono^^^t 
betical  Indexes.     Illustrated  with  24  Portraits  engraved  on  Steel  6s 

Nicolim's  History  of  the  Jesuits :  their  Origin  Progress 
Doctrines,  and  Designs.  Fine  Portraits  of  Loyola  Laines  XavZ' 
Borgta,  Acguaviva,  Pere  la  Chaise,  Bicci,  Ld  Pope  Ga^ItZ 

JSorway  and  its  Scenery,  comprising  Price's  Journal   with 
large  Additions,  and  a  Road-Book.     Edited  by  Thomas  Forester 
Esq.    Twenty-two  Illustrations  on  Steel  by  Lucas.     5s.  *°reSter' 

Paris  and  its  Environs,  including  Versailles,  St.  Cloud  and 
Excursions  into  the  Champagne  Districts     An  ilhiefmwi  tt     j 
book  for  Travellers.     EdfrS  oy  Th<^a^*Sffi  ?*£ 
way  and  its  Scenery."     Twenty-eight  beautiful  Engravings     5s 

Petrarch's  Sonnets    Triumphs,    and    other  Poems,  trans- 
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hand.    With  a  Life  of  the  Lt,  ly  ThomS  CampbTli.    7ll2™Z 
with  16  Engravings  on  Steel.    5s.  ^ustrated 

Pickering's  History  of  the  Paces  of  Man,  with  an  Ana 
lyical  Synopsis  of  the  Natural  History  of  Man.  By  Dr  Hall 
Illustrated  by  numerous  Portraits.    5s. 

or,  with  the  Plates  coloured.    Is.  6d 

^meri^^Temmtr  °f  *  Wfl*  -^'published  at  «  3,  by  the 

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*-^  £«*  by 

Th6hmitvoW  et^oXeT  *****  iS  ^ubtedlyL  cheapest  five 

Pictorial  Handbook  of  Modern  Geography  on  a  Popular 
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TitZ^naL^T'  ^X  ,Wlth  --erts^MeTafd 

or,  with  the  Maps  coloured.    7s  6d 


30  bohn's  illustrated  library. 

Pope's  Poetical  Works,  edited  by  Eobert  Carruthers.     New 
Edition,  revised.     Numerous  Engravings.   In  2  volumes.     5s.  each. 

Homer's  Iliad,  with  Introduction  and  Notes  by  the 

Rev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A.  Illustrated  by  the  entire  Series  of  Flax- 
man's  Designs,  beautifully  engraved  by  Moses  (in  the  full  Svo.  size).  5s. 

'. .  Homer's  Odyssey,  with  the  Battle  of  Frogs  and 

Mice,  Hymns,  &c,  by  other  translators,  including  Chapman,  and 
Introduction  and  Notes  by  the  Kev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A.  Flax- 
mans  Designs,  beautifully  engraved  by  Moses.     5s. 

Life,   including  many  of  his  Letters.     By  Eobert 


Carruthers.     New  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     Illustrations.    5s. 

The  preceding  5  vols,  make  a  complete  and  elegant  edition  of  Pope's 
Poetical  Works  and  Translations  for  25s. 

Pottery  and  Porcelain,  and  other  Objects  of  Vertu  (a  Guide 
to  the  Knowledge  of).  Comprising  an  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the 
Bernal  Collection  of  Works  of  Art,  with  the  prices  at  which  they 
were  sold  by  auction,  and  names  of  the  possessors.  To  which  are 
added,  an  Introductory  Lecture  on  Pottery  and  Porcelain,  and  an 
Engraved  List  of  all  the  known  Marks  and  Monograms.  By 
Henry  G.  Bohn.    Numerous  Wood  Engravings.    5s. 

i . —  or,  coloured,  10s.  6d. 

Prout's  (Father)  Eeliques.  New  Edition,  revised  and 
largely  augmented.  Twenty-one  spirited  Etchings,  by  D.  Maclise,  B.A. 
Two  volumes  in  one  (nearly  600  pages).    7s.  6d 

Recreations  in  Shooting.     By  Craven.     Sixty-two  Engravings 

on  Wood,  after  Harvey,  and  9  Engravings  on  Steel,   chiefly  after 

A.  Cooper,  B.A.     5s. 
Eedding's  History  and  Descriptions  of  Wines,  Ancient  and 

Modern.     New  and  revised  Edition.     Twenty  beautiful  Woodcuts, 

and  fine  Frontispiece.    5s. 

Robinson  Crusoe.  With  Illustrations  by  Stothard  and 
Harvey.     Twelve  beautiful  Engravings  on  Steel,  and  74  on  Wood.    5s. 

- or,  without  the  illustrations.     3s.  6d. 

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Rome  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  New  Edition.  Revised 
by  the  Author.  With  Complete  Index.  Illustrated  by  34  fine  Steel 
Engravings.     In  2  Vols.     5s.  each. 

Southey's  Life  of  Nelson.  With  Additional  Notes,  and  a 
General  Index.  Dlustrated  with  64  Engravings  on  Steel  and  Wood, 
from  Designs  by  Duncan,  Birket  Foster,  and  others.     5s. 

Starling's  (Miss)  Noble  Deeds  of  Woman ;  or,  Examples 
of  Ftrntile  Courage,  Fortitude  and  Virtue.  Fourteen  beautiful  Ilhu~ 
tratious  on  Steel.    5s. 


BOHNS    ILLUSTRATED    LIBRARY.  31 

Stuart  and  Revett's  Antiquities  of  Athens,  and  other 
Monuments  of  Greece :  to  which  is  added  a  Glossary  of  Terms 
used  in  Grecian  Architecture.  Illustrated  in  71  Plates  engraved  on 
Steel,  and  numerous  Woodcut  Capitals.     5s. 

Tales  of  the  Genii ;  or,  the  Delightful  Lessons  of  Horam. 
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collated  and  edited  by  Philo-juvenis  (H.  G.  Bohn.)  Numerous 
Woodcuts,  and  8  Steel  Engravings,  after  Stothard.     5s. 

lasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered.  Translated  into  English 
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New  Edition.  Eight  Engravings  on  Steel,  and  2i  on  Wood,  by 
TJiurston.     5s. 

Walker's  Manly  Exercises ;  containing  Skating,  Biding, 
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Tenth  Edition,  carefully  revised  by  "  Craven."  Forty-four  Plates, 
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Walton's  Complete  Angler.  Edited  by  Edward  Jesse,  Esq. 
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G.  Bohn.     Upwards  of  203  Engravings  on  Wood.     5s. 

■ ■   or,    with   the  further   addition   of  26    Enqravinqs   on 

Steel.     Is.  6d  '.        * 

Wellington,  Life  of.  By  "An  Old  Soldier,"  from  the 
materials  of  Maxwell.  Eighteen  highly-finished  Engravings  on  Steel 
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White's  Natural  History  of  Selborne.  With  Notes  by  Sir 
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finished  Wood  Engravings.     5s. 


or,  with  the  Plates  Coloured.     7  s.  6d.  - 

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guished Professors.  Twelve  Hundred  Woodcut  Illustrations,  and 
several  fine  Engravings  on  Steel.     7s.  6d. 

or,  cloth  gilt,  gilt  edges.     9s. 

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XII. 

Bohn's  Classical  Library. 

Uniform  with  the  Standard  Library,  5s.  per  volume  (excepting  those 

marked  otherwise). 

iEschylus.  Literally  Translated  into  English  Prose  by  an 
Oxonian.     3s.  Qd. 

, Appendix  to.^   Containing  the  New  Headings  given 

in  Hermann's   posthumous  Edition    of    iEschylus.      By    George 
Burges,  M.A.     3s.  Qd. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus.  History  of  Home  during  the 
Keigns  of  Constantius,  Julian,  Jovianus,  Valentinian,  and  Valens. 
Translated  by  C.  D.  Yonge,  B.A.    With  a  complete  Index.    Double 

volume,  7s.  Qd. 

*,*  This  is  a  very  circumstantial  and  amusing  history,  to  which  Gibbon  ex- 
presses himself  largely  indebted. 

Apnleins,  the  Golden  Ass ;  Death  of  Socrates ;  Florida ; 
and  Discourse  on  Magic.  To  which  is  added  a  Metrical  Version  of 
Cupid  and  Psyche ;  and  Mrs.  Tighe's  Psyche.    Frontispiece.     5s. 

Aristophanes'  Comedies.  Literally  Translated,  with  Notes 
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Hickie.     In  2  vols.    5s.  each. 

Vol.  1.  Acharnians,  Knights,  Clouds,  Wasps,  Peace,  and  Birds. 
Vol.  2.    Lysistrata,    Thesmophoriazusse,    Frogs,     Ecclesiazusae, 
and  Plutus. 

Aristotle's  Ethics.  Literally  Translated  by  the  Venerable 
Archdeacon  Browne,  late  Classical  Professor  of  King's  College.     5s. 

. Politics  and  Economics.     Translated  by  E.  Wal- 

ford,  M.A.  With  Notes,  Analyses,  Life,  Introduction,  and  Index.  5s. 

Metaphysics.     Literally   Translated,    with  Notes, 

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H.  M'Mahon,  M.A.,  and  Gold  Medallist  in  Metaphysics,  T.C.D.   5*. 

History  of  Animals.     In  Ten  Books.     Translated, 

with  Notes  and  Index,  by  Kichard  Cresswell,  M.A.,  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford.     5s. 

Organon;  or,  Logical  Treatises,  and  the  Intro- 
duction of  Porphyry.  With  Notes,  Analysis,  Introduction,  and 
Index,  by  the  Eev.  0.  F.  Owen,  M.A.    In  2  vols.,  3s.  Qd.  each. 

Khetoric  and  Poetics,  literally  Translated,  with  Exa- 


mination Questions  and  Notes,  by  an  Oxonian.    5s. 


bohn's  classical  library.  33 

Athenseus.  The  Deipnosophists ;  or,  the  Banquet  of  the 
Learned.  Translated  by  C.  D.  Yonge,  B.A.  With  an  Appendix  of 
Poetical  Fragments  rendered  into  English  Verse  by  various  Authors, 
and  General  Index.     In  3  vols.     5s.  each. 

Csesar.  Complete,  with  the  Alexandrian,  African,  and 
Spanish  Wars.  Literally  Translated,  and  accompanied  by  Notes, 
and  a  very  copious  Index.     5s. 

Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  the  Vigil  of  Venus.  A  Literal 
Prose  Translation.  To  which  are  added  Metrical  Versions  by 
Lamb,  Grainger,  and  others.     Frontispiece.     5s. 

Cicero's  Orations.  Literally  Translated  by  C.  D.  Yonge, 
B.A.     4  vols.     5s.  eacli. 

Vol.  1.  containing  the  Orations  against  Verres,  &c.     Portrait. 
Vol.  2.    Catiline,   Archias,    Agrarian   Law,   Rabirius,   Murena, 

Sylla,  &c. 
Vol.  3.  Orations  for  his  House,  Plancius,  Sextius,  Ccelius,  Milo, 

Ligarius,  &c. 
Vol.  4.   Miscellaneous    Orations,    and   Ehetorical  Works;    with 
General  Index  to  the  four  volumes. 

on  Oratory  and  Orators.     By  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Watson, 

M.A.    With  General  Index.     5s. 

on  the  Nature  of  the  Gods,  Divination,  Fate,  Laws, 

A  Eepublic,   &c.     Translated  by  C.  D.  Yonge,  B.A.,  and  Francis 
Barham,  Esq.     5s. 

Academics,  De  Finibus,  and  Tusculan   Questions. 

By  C.  D.  Yonge,  B.A.    With  Sketch  of  the  Greek  Philosophy.     5s. 

Offices,  Old  Age,  Friendship,  Scipio's  Dream,  Para- 
doxes, &c.  Literally  Translated,  on  the  basis  of  Cockman,  by  Cyrus 
R.  Edmonds.     3s.  6d. 

Demosthenes'  Orations.  Translated,  with  Kotes,  by  C. 
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■  Vol.  2.  On  the  Crown  and  on  the  Embassy. 

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nippus,  and  for  Phormio. 

Vol.  5.  Miscellaneous  Orations.  Containing  Marcartatus,  Leo- 
cbares,  Stephanus  I,  Stephanus  II.,  Euergus,  and  Mnesibulus, 
Olympiodorus,  Timotheus,  Polycles,  Callippus,  Nicostratus, 
Conon,  Callicles,  Dionysodorus,  Eubulides,  Theocrines,  Neaera, 
and  for  the  Naval  Crown;  the  Funeral  Oration;  the  Erotic 
Oration,  or  the  Panegyric  upon  Epicrates ;  Exordia ;  the 
Epistles.    With  a  Geneial  Index  to  the  Eive  Volumes. 

D 


34 


BOHN  S    CLASSICAL    LIBRARY. 


Dictionary  of  Latin  Quotations  ;  including  Proverbs, 
Maxims,  Mottoes,  Law  Terms  and  Phrases ;  and  a  Collection  of 
above  500  Greek  Quotations.  With  all  the  quantities  marked,  and 
English  Translations.     5s. 

■,  with  Index  Verborum  (622  pages).     6s. 

Index  Verborum  to  the  above,  with  the  Quantities 


and  Accents  marked  (56  pages),  limp  cloth.     Is. 

Diogenes  Laertius.  Lives  and  Opinions  of  the  Ancient 
Philosophers.     Translated,  with  Notes,  by  0.  D.  Yonge,  B.A.     5s. 

Euripides.  Literally  Translated  from  the  Text  of  Dindorf. 
In  2  vols.     5s.  each. 

Vol.  1.  Hecuba,  Orestes,  Medea,  Hippolytus,  Alcestis,  Bacchse, 

Heraclida?,  Iphigenia  in  Aulide,  and  Iphigenia  in  Tauris. 
Vol.  2.  Hercules  Furens,  Troades,  Ion,  Andromache,  Suppliants, 
Helen,  Electra,  Cyclops,  Rhesus. 

Greek  Anthology.     Translated  into  Literal  English  Prose 

by  a  Westminster  Scholar,  and  others.     With  Metrical  Versions  by 
various  Authors.    5s. 

Greek  Romances  of  Heliodorus,  Longus,  and  Achilles 
Tatius,  viz.,  The  Adventures  of  Theagenes  and  Chariclea ;  Amours 
of  Daphnis  and  Chloe ;  and  Loves  of  Clitopho  and  Leucippe.     5s. 

Herodotus.  A  New  and  Literal  Translation  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Gary,  M.A.,  of  Worcester  College,  Oxford.    With  Index.     5s. 

Hesiod,  Callimachus,  and  Theognis.  Literally  Translated 
into  Prose,  with  Notes,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Banks,  M.A.  To  which 
are  appended  the  Metrical  Versions  of  Hesiod,  bv  Elton ;  Calli- 
machus, by  Tytler  ;  and  Theognis,  by  Erere.    5s. 

Homer's  Iliad ;  literally  translated  into  English  Prose,  by 
an  Oxonian,    5s. 

Odyssey,    Hymns,    and  Battle    of  the   Erogs  and 


Mice ;  literally  translated  into  English  Prose,  by  an  Oxonian.    5s. 

Horace  ;  literally  translated  by  Smart.    New  Edition,  care- 
fully revised  by  an  Oxonian.    3s.  Gd, 

Justin,  Cornelius  Nepos,  and  Eutropius.     LiteTally  trans- 
lated, with  Notes,  and  Index,  by  the  Eev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A.     5s. 

Juvenal,  Persius,   Sulpicia,  and  Lucilius.      By  L.  Evans, 
M.A.     With  the  Metrical  Version  by  Gifford.     Frontispiece.     5s. 

Livy.     A  new  and  literal  Translation,  by  Dr.  Spillan  and 
others.     In  4  volumes.     5s.  each. 
Vol.  1.  containing  Books  1 — 8. 
Vol,  2.  Books  9—26. 
Vol.  3.  Books  27—36. 
Vol.  4.  Book  37  to  the  end ;  and  Index  to  the  four  volumes. 


bohn's  classical  library.  35 

Lucan's  Pharsalia.  Translated,  with  Notes,  by  H.  T.  Riley.  55. 

Lucretius.  Literally  translated  into  English  Prose  ;  with 
Notes,  by  the  Bev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A.  To  which  is  adjoined  the 
Metrical  Version  by  John  Mason  Good.     5s. 

Martial's  Epigrams,  complete.  Literally  translated  into 
English  Prose  ;  each  accompanied  by  one  or  more  Verse  translations 
selected  from  the  Works  of  English  Poets,  and  other  sources.  With 
a  copious  Index.     Double  volume  (660  pages).    7s.  6d. 

Ovid's  Works,  complete.  Literally  translated  into  English 
Prose.     In  3  volumes.    5s.  each. 

Vol.  1.  containing  Fasti,  Tristia,  Epistles,  &c. 

Vol.  2.  Metamorphoses. 

Vol.  3.  Heroides,  Amours,  Art  of  Love,  &c.     Frontispiece. 

Pindar.  Literally  translated  into  Prose,  by  Dawson  W. 
Turner.  To  which  is  added  the  Metrical  Version,  by  Abraham 
Moore.    Portrait.    5s. 

Plato's  Works.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  H.  Cary,  M.A.  and 
others.     In  6  volumes.     5s.  each. 

Vol.  1.  containing  The  Apology  of  Socrates,  Crito,  Phgedo,  Gor- 
gias,  Protagoras,  Phsedrus,  Thesetetus,  Euthyphron,  Lysis. 
Translated  by  the  Bev.  H.  Cary. 

Vol.  2.  The  Eepublic,  Tiniaeus,  and  Critias ;  with  Introductions. 
Translated  by  Henry  Davis. 

Vol.  3.  Meno,  Euthydemus,  The  Sophist,  Statesman,  Cratylus, 
Parmenides,  and  the  Banquet.     Translated  by  G.  Burges. 

Vol.  4.  Philebus,  Charmides,  Laches,  The  Two  Alcibiades,  and 
Ten  other  Dialogues.     Translated  by  G.  Burges. 

Vol.  5.  The  Laws.     Translated  by  G.  Burges. 

Vol.  6.  The  Doubtful  Works  :  viz.  Epinomis,  Axiochus,  Eryxias, 
on  Virtue,  on  Justice,  Sisyphus,  Demodocus  and  Definitions  ; 
the  Treatise  of  Timseus  Locrus  on  the  Soul  of  the  World  and 
Nature;  Lives  of  Plato,  by  Diogenes  Laertius,  Hesychius,  and 
Olympiodorus ;  and  Introductions  to  his  Doctrines  by  Alcinous 
and  Albinus  ;  Apuleius  on  the  Doctrines  of  Plato ;  and  Eemarks 
on  Plato's  Writings,  by  the  Poet  Gray.  Edited  by  G.  Burges 
.     and  H.  G.  Bohn.     With  General  Index  to  the  six  volumes. 

Plautus's  Comedies.  Literally  translated  into  English 
Prose,  with  copious  Notes,  by  H.  T.  Biley,  B.A.     In  2  vols.  5s.  each. 

Pliny's  Natural  History.  Translated,  with  copious  Notes, 
by  the  late  John  Bostock,  M.D.,  F.B.S.,  and  H.  T.  Eiley,  B.A. 
With  General  Index.    In  6  vols.    5s.  each. 

Properties,  Petronius,  and  Johannes  Secundns.  Literally 
translated,  and  accompanied  by  Poetical  Versions,  from  various 
sources.  To  which  are  added,  the  Love  Epistles  of  Aristametus  ; 
translated  by  E.  Brinsley  Sheridan  and  H.  Halhed.  Edited  by 
Walter  K.  Kelly.    5s. 

D    2 


35  BOHN'S    CLASSICAL   LIBRAPwY. 

Quintilian's  Institutes  of  Oratory;  or  Education  of  an 
Orator.  Literally  translated,  with  Notes,  &c.,  by  the  Rev.  J.  S. 
Watson,  M.A.     5s. 

Sallust,  Florus,  and  Velleius  Paterculus.  With  copious 
Notes,  Biographical  Notices  and  Index,  by  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A.     5s. 

Sophocles.     The  Oxford  translation  revised.     5s. 

Standard  Library  Atlas  of  Classical  Geography,  22  large 
coloured  Maps  according  to  the  latest  authorities.  With  a  complete 
Index  (accentuated) ,  giving  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  every 
place  named  in  the  Maps.  Imperial  8vo.  chiefly  engraved  by  the 
Messrs.  Walker.    7s.  6d. 

Strabo's  Geography.  Translated,  with  copious  Notes,  by 
W.  Falconer,  M.A.,  and  H.  C.  Hamilton,  Esq.  With  a  very  copious 
Index,  giving  Ancient  and  Modern  Names.     In  3  vols.     5s.  each. 

Suetonius'  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars,  and  other  Works. 
The  translation  of  Thomson,  revised,  with  Notes,  by  T.  Forester, 
Esq.     5s. 

Tacitus.  Literally  translated,  with  Notes.  In  2  vols. 
5s.  each. 

Vol.  1.  The  Annals. 

Vol.  2.  The  History,  Germania,  Agricola,  &c.     With  Index. 

Terence  and  Phaedrus.  By  LL  T.  Kiley,  B.A.  To  which 
is  added,  Smart's  Metrical  Version  of  Phaedrus.     Frontispiece.     5s. 

Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus,  and  Tyrtaeus.     By  the  Eev.  J. 

Banks,  M.A.     With  the  Metrical  Versions  of  Chapman.     Frontis- 
piece.    5s. 

Thucydides.     Literally  translated  by  the  Bev.  H.  Dale. 

In  2  vols.     3s.  6d.  each. 

Virgil.  Literally  translated  by  Davidson.  New  Edition, 
carefully  revised,  3s.  6d. 

Xenophon's  Works.     In  3  volumes.     55.  each. 

Vol.  1.  containing  the  Anabasis,  or  Expedition  of  Cyrus,  and 
Memorabilia,  or  Memoirs  of  Socrates.  Translated,  with  Notes, 
by  the  Eev.  J.  S.  Watson,  MA.  And  a  Geographical  Com- 
mentary, by  W.  F.  Ainsworfch,  F.S.A.,  F.E.G.S.,  &c.  Frontis- 
piece. 

Vol.  2.  Cyropcedia  and  Hellenics.  By  the  Eev.  J.  S.  Watson, 
M.A.,  and  the  Eev.  H.  Dale. 

Vol.  3.  The  Minor  Works.    By  the  Eev.  J.  S.  Watson,  M.A. 


37 


XIII. 

Bolin's  Scientific  Library. 

Uniform  with  the  Standard  Library,  5s.  per  volume  {excepting  those 

marked  otherwise). 

Agassiz  and  Gould's  Comparative  Physiology.  Enlarged 
by  Dr.  Wright.     Upwards  of  400  Engravings.     5s. 

Bacon's  Novum  Organum  and  Advancement  of  Learning. 
Complete,  with  Notes,  by  J.  Devey,  M.A.     5s. 

Blair's  Chronological  Tables,  Bevised  and  Enlarged.  Com- 
prehending the  Chronology  and  History  of  the  World,  from  the  ear- 
liest times.  By  J.  Willoughby  Rosse.  Double  volume  (upwards  of 
800  pages).    10s. 

or,  half  bound  morocco.    12s.  6d. 

Index  of  Dates.  Comprehending  the  principal  Facts  in  the 
Chronology  and  History  of  the  World,  from  the  earliest  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  alphabetically  arranged;  being  a  complete  Index  to 
Bolm's  enlarged  Edition  of  Blair's  Chronological  Tables.  By  J.  W. 
Bosse.     Double  volume.    10s. 


or,  half  bound  morocco.     12s.  6d. 

Bolley's  Manual  of  Technical  Analysis :  a  Guide  for  the 
Testing  of  Natural  and  Artificial  Substances.  By  B.  H.  Paul. 
100  Wood  Engravings.     5s. 

Bridgewater  Treatises.' — Kirby,  on  the  History,  Habits,  and 
Instincts  of  Animals.  Edited,  with  Notes,  by  T.  Rymer  Jones. 
Numerous  Engravings,  many  of  which  are  additional.  (In  2  vols.) 
5s.  each. 

Kidd  on    the   Adaptation   of   External  Nature  to 


the  Physical  Condition  of  Man.     3s.  6d, 

Whewell's  Astronomy  and  General  Bhysics,  con- 
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Chalmers   on  the  Adaptation  of  External  Nature 

to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man.     With  Memoir 
of  the  Author.     By  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cumming.     5s. 

Prout's  Treatise  on  Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and 

the  Function  of  Digestion.     Fourth  Edition.     Edited  by  Dr,  J. 
W.  Griffith.    5s. 


38  bohn's  scientific  library. 

Carpenter's  (Dr.  W.  B.)  Zoology ;  a  Systematic  View  of 
the  Structure,  Habits,  Instincts,  and  Uses,  of  the  principal  Fami- 
lies of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  and  of  the  chief  forms  of  Fossil  Ee- 
mains.  New  edition,  revised  and  completed  to  the  present  time 
(under  arrangement  with  the  Author),  by  W.  S.  Dallas,  F.L.S. 
With  a  General  Index.  Illustrated  with  many  hundred  fine  Wood 
Engravings.     In  2  vols,  (nearly  600  pages  each).    6s.  each. 

Mechanical  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  and  Horology. 

A  Popular  Exposition.    One  hundred  and  eighty-one  Illustrations.    5s. 

• Vegetable    Physiology    and    Systematic    Botany. 

A  complete  introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of  Plants.  New  edition, 
revised  (under  arrangement  with  the  Author),  by  E.  Lankester, 
M.D.,  &c.    Several  hundred  Illustrations  on  Wood.  '  6s. 


Animal    Physiology.      New   Edition,     thoroughly 

revised,  and  in  part  re-written,  by  the  Author.     Upwards  of  300 
capital  Illustrations.     6s. 

Chess  Congress  of  1862.  A  Collection  of  the  Games  played, 
and  a  Selection  of  the  Problems  sent  in  for  the  Competition.  Edited 
by  J.  Lowenthal,  Manager  and  Foreign  Correspondent.  To  which 
is  prefixed  an  Account  of  the  Proceedings,  and  a  Memoir  of  the 
British  Chess  Association.    By.  J.  W.  Medley,  Hon.  Secretary.    7s. 

Chevreul  on  Colour.  Containing  the  Principles  of  Har- 
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Translated  from  the  French,  by  Charles  Mar  lei.  Third  and  only 
complete  Edition,  with  Introduction  by  the  Translator.  Several 
Plates.     5s. 

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Comte's  Philosophy  of  the  Sciences.  Edited,  from  the 
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Ennemoser's  History  of  Magic.  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man, by  William  Howitt.  With  an  Appendix  of  the  most  remark- 
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Table-Turning,  and  Spirit-Kapping,  &c.     In  2  vols.    5s.  each. 

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Hogg's  (Jabez)  Elements  of  Experimental  and  Natural 
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Magnetism.  New  Edition,  corrected  and  enlarged.  Upivards  of 
400  Woodcuts.    5s.  J 


bohn's  scientific  libraky.  39 

Hind's  Introduction  to  Astronomy.  With  a  Vocabulary, 
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Edition,  revised,  and  enlarged.     Numerous  Engravings.     3s.  6d. 

Humboldt's  Cosmos  ;  or,  Sketch  of  a  Physical  Description 
of  the  Universe.  Translated  by  E.  C.  Otte  and  W.  S.  Dallas,  F.L.S. 
Fine  Portrait.    In  5  vols.     3s.  6d.  each,  excepting  vol.  V.  5s. 

%.*  In  this  edition  the  notes  are  placed  beneath  the  text,  Humboldt's  analytical 
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comprehensive  Indices  are  added. 

■ —  Personal   Narrative    of  his    Travels   in   America, 

In  3  vols.     5s.  each. 

Views  of  Nature ;  or,  Contemplations  of  the  Sub- 


lime Phenomena  of  Creation.  Translated  by  E.  C.  Otte  and  H.  G. 
Bohn.  With  a  fine  coloured  view  of  Chimborazo  ;  a  fac-simile  Letter 
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Humphrey's  Coin  Collector's  Manual ;  a  popular  Introduc- 
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Hunt's  (Eobert)  Poetiy  of  Science  ;  or,  Studies  of  the 
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Elementary  Physics.     5s. 

Index  of  Dates.    See  Blair's  Chronological  Tables. 

Joyce's  Scientific  Dialogues.  Completed  to  the  present 
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Jussieu's  (De)  Elements  of  Botany.     6s. 

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Mantell's  (Dr.)  Geological  Excursions  through  the  Isle  of 
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Medals  of  Creation ;   or,  First  Lessons  in  Geology 

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40  bohn's  scientific  library. 

Morphy's  Games  of  Chess,  being  the  Matches  and  best 
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Schouw's  Earth,  Plants,  and  Man;  and  Kobell's  Sketches 
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Stanley's  Classified  Synopsis  of  the  Principal  Painters  of 
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41 
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Goldsmith's  Poems. 

YTicar  of  Wakefield. 

Gray's  Poems. 

The  Conquest  of  India.     By  Capt.  Basil  Hall,  E.N. 
Henry  Vaughan's  Poems. 
And  others. 


42 
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THE   ALDINE   EDITION    OF    THE    BRITISH    POETS.  43 

Gower's  Confessio  Amantis,  with  Life  by  Dr.  Pauli,  and  a 
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English  Poetry. 

Herbert's  Poems  and  Eemains;  with  S.  T.  Coleridge's 
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by  Mr.  J.  Yeowell.  2  vols.  1/.  Is.  Morocco,  antique  calf  or 
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Antique  calf,  61.  6s. 

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[In  the  Press. 

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Shakespeare's  Poems,  with  Memoir  by  the  Eev.  A.  Dyce. 

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44     BOOKS  UNIFORM  WITH  THE  ALDINE  EDITION  OP  THE  POETS. 

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BIBLIOTHECA   CLASSICA.  45 

Locke  on  the  Conduct  of  the  Human  Understanding- 
edited  by  Bolton  Corney,  Esq.,  M.E.S.L.  3*.  Qd.  Antique  calf, 
8s.  Qd. 

"  I  cannot  think  any  parent  or  instructor  justified  in  neglecting  to  put  this 
little  treatise  into  the  hands  of  a  boy  about  the  time  when  the  reasoning 
faculties  become  developed."— Hallam. 

The  Schole  Master.  By  Eoger  Ascham.  Edited,  with 
copious  Notes,  and  a  Glossary,  by  the  Rev.  J.  E.  B,  Mayor, 
M.A.     Qs. 

Logic  in  Theology,  and  other  Essays.  By  Isaac  Taylor, 
Esq.     Qs. 

Ultimate  Civilization.     By  Isaac  Taylor,  Esq.     6s. 

Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor's  Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Living 
and  Holy  Dying.  2  vols.,  2s.  Qd.  each.  Morocco,  antique  calf  or 
morocco,  7s.  Qd.  each.  In  one  volume,  5s.  Morocco,  antique 
calf  or  morocco,  10s.  Qd. 

Yaughan's  Sacred  Poems  and  Pious  Ejaculations,  with 
Memoir  by  the  Rev.  H.  F.  Lyte.  New  Edition.  5s.  Antique  calf 
or  morocco,  10s.  Qd.  Large  Paper,  Is.  Qd.  Antique  calf,  14s. 
Antique  morocco,  15s. 

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fantastic  turns,  with  a  much  larger  infusion  of  poetic  feeling  and  expression."— 

XVIII. 

Bibliotheca  Classica. 

A  Series  of  Greek  and  Latin  Authors.  With  English  Notes.  8vo. 
Edited  by  various  Scholars,  under  the  direction°of  G.  Long,  Esq.] 
MA.,  Classical  Lecturer  of  Brighton  College  :  and  the  late  Rev! 
A.  J.  Macleane,  M. A.,  Head  Master  of  King  Edward's  School,  Bath! 

Aeschylus.     By  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.     18s. 

Cicero's  Orations.  Edited  hy  G.  Long,  M.A.  4  vols  3/  4<? 
Vol.  I.  16s.;  Vol.  II.  14s.;  Vol.  III.  16*.;  Vol.  IV.  18s. 

Demosthenes.      By  R.  Whiston,   M.A.,    Head   Master   of 

Rochester  Grammar  School.    Vol.  I.  16s.     Vol.  IL  preparing. 
Euripides.     By  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.     3  vols.     16s.  each. 

Herodotus.     By  J.  W.  Blakesley,  B.D.,  late  Fellow  and 

Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    2  vols.    32s. 
Hesiod.     By  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.     10s.  6d. 
Homer.     By  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.     Vol.  I.     Preparing. 
Horace.     By  A.  J.  Macleane,  M.A.     18s. 
Juvenal  and  Persius.     By  A.  J.  Macleane,  M.A.     14s. 


46  GEAMMAR-SCHOOL    CLASSICS. 

Plato.     By  W.  H.  Thomson,  M.A.     Vol.  I.     Preparing. 

Sophocles.  By  F.  H.  Blaydes,  M.A.  Vol.  I.  18s.  Vol.  II. 
preparing. 

Terence.  By  E.  St.  J.  Parry,  M.A.,  Balliol  College,  Ox- 
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Oxford.  Vol.  I.  containing  the  Bucolics  and  Georgics.  12s. 
Vol.  II.  containing  the  iEneid,  Books  I.  to  VL  14s.  VoL  III. 
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Taciti  Germania  et  Agricola.     By  P.  Frost,  M.A.     3s.  6d. 


CAMBRIDGE    GREEK    AND    LATIN    TEXTS.  47 

Xenophontis  Anabasis,  with  Introduction;  Geographical 
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surveys.    By  J.  F.  Macmichael,  B.A.    New  Edition.    5s. 

Cyropaedia.     By  G.  M.  Gorham,  M.A.,  late  Fellow 

of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.     6s. 

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The  New  Testament  in  Greek.  With  English  Notes  and 
Prefaces.     By  J.  F.  Macmichael,  B.A.     730  pages.    7s.  6d. 

A  Grammar  School  Atlas  of  Classical  Geography.  The 
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Herodotus,  recensuit  J.  W.  Blakesley,  S.T.B.     2  vols.     75. 
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48 
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